History of India

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This article is about the pre-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent. For post-1947
history, see History of the Republic of India, History of Pakistan, and History of
Bangladesh.

Part of a series on the

History of India

Ancient[show]

Classical[show]

Early medieval[show]

Late medieval[show]

Early modern[show]

Modern[show]

Related articles[show]
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Outline of South Asian history

Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)[show]

Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC)[show]

Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)[show]

Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)[show]

Iron Age (1500–200 BC)[show]

Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – AD 1206)[show]

Late medieval period (1206–1526)[show]

Early modern period (1526–1858)[show]

Colonial states (1510–1961)[show]

Periods of Sri Lanka[show]

National histories[show]

Regional histories[show]

Specialised histories[show]

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According to consensus in modern genetics anatomically modern humans first arrived

on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.
[1]
 However, the earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago.
Settled life, which involves the transition from foraging to farming and pastoralism,
began in South Asia around 7,000 BCE. At the site of Mehrgarh, Balochistan, Pakistan,
presence can be documented of the domestication of wheat and barley, rapidly followed
by that of goats, sheep, and cattle.[2] By 4,500 BCE, settled life had spread more widely,
[2]
 and began to gradually evolve into the Indus Valley Civilization, an early civilization of
the Old world, which was contemporaneous with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. This
civilisation flourished between 2,500 BCE and 1900 BCE in what today is Pakistan and
north-western India, and was noted for its urban planning, baked brick houses,
elaborate drainage, and water supply. [3]
In early second millennium BCE persistent drought caused the population of the Indus
Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Around the same time, Indo-Aryan
tribes moved into the Punjab from regions further northwest in several waves of
migration. The resulting Vedic period was marked by the composition of the Vedas,
large collections of hymns of these tribes whose postulated religious culture, through
synthesis with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, gave rise
to Hinduism. The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free
peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure,
arose later during this period. Towards the end of the period, around 600 BCE, after the
pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain, large
swaths of which they deforested to pave way for agriculture, a second urbanisation took
place. The small Indo-Aryan chieftaincies, or janapadas, were consolidated into larger
states, or mahajanapadas. This urbanisation was accompanied by the rise of
new ascetic movements, including Jainism and Buddhism, which challenged the
primacy of rituals, presided by Brahmin priests, that had come to be associated with
Vedic religion,[4] and gave rise to new religious concepts. [5]
Most of the Indian subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th
and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in
the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to flourish.[6][7] Wootz
steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign
countries.[8][9][10] During the Classical period, various parts of India were ruled by
numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands
out. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as
the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation,
administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia,
while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Middle East and
the Mediterranean. Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia,
which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia (Greater
India).[11][12]
The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the Tripartite
struggle centred on Kannauj that lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala
Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara-Pratihara Empire. Southern India saw the rise
of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notably
the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western Chalukya Empires.
The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of
Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Bengal[13] in the 11th century.[14][15] In the
early medieval period Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the
development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world.[16]
Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as
the 8th century,[17] followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni.[18] The Delhi
Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE by Central Asian Turks who ruled a major part of the
northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th
century,[19] and saw the advent of the Deccan Sultanates.[20] The wealthy Bengal
Sultanate also emerged as a world major global power, lasting over three centuries.
[21]
 This period also saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states,
notably Vijayanagara, Gajapati, and Ahom, as well as Rajput states, such as Mewar.
The 15th century saw the advent of Sikhism. The early modern period began in the 16th
century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent,
[22]
 becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power, [23] with a nominal
GDP that valued a quarter of world GDP, superior than the combination of Europe's
GDP.[24][25] The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which
provided opportunities for the Marathas, Sikhs, Mysoreans and Nawabs of Bengal to
exercise control over large regions of the Indian subcontinent. [26][27]
From the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, large regions of India were gradually
annexed by the East India Company, a chartered company acting as a sovereign power
on behalf of the British government. Dissatisfaction with Company rule in India led to
the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which rocked parts of north and central India, and led to
the dissolution of the Company. India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown,
in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was
launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, and noted
for nonviolence. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate
Muslim-majority nation state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947
into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.

Contents

 1Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)

o 1.1Paleolithic
o 1.2Neolithic
 2Bronze Age – first urbanisation (c. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE)
o 2.1Indus Valley Civilisation
 3Iron Age – Vedic period (c. 1500–600 BCE)
o 3.1Vedic society
 4Second urbanisation
o 4.1Buddhism and Jainism
o 4.2Mahajanapadas
 o 4.3Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign
o 4.4Maurya Empire
o 4.5Sangam period
 5Classical and early medieval periods (c. 200 BCE – c. 1200 CE)
o 5.1Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 320 CE)
o 5.2Classical period: Gupta Empire (c. 320–650 CE)
o 5.3Early medieval period (c. 650–1200 CE)
 6Late medieval period (c. 1200–1526 CE)
o 6.1Delhi Sultanate
o 6.2Vijayanagara Empire
o 6.3Regional powers
 7Early modern period (c. 1526–1858 CE)
o 7.1Mughal Empire
o 7.2Marathas and Sikhs
o 7.3European exploration
o 7.4East India Company rule in India
 8Modern period and independence (after c. 1850 CE)
o 8.1Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences
o 8.2British Raj (1858–1947)
o 8.3Indian independence movement (1885–1947)
 9Historiography
 10See also
 11References
o 11.1Notes
o 11.2Citations
o 11.3Sources
 12Further reading
o 12.1General
o 12.2Historiography
o 12.3Primary
o 12.4Online resources

Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)[edit]

Paleolithic[edit]
Main article: South Asian Stone Age
Mesolithic rock art at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, Madhya Pradesh, showing a wild animal, perhaps a mythical
one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated, [28] it has been argued on
circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE, [29][30] and some slightly earlier.[31]

A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur, Kerala, India.

Stone age (6,000 BCE) writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Hominins expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the Indian

subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million
years before the present.[32][33][34] This dating is based on the known presence of Homo
erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years before the present, and in East Asia by 1.36
million years before present, as well as the discovery of stone tools made by proto-
humans in the Soan River valley, at Riwat, and in the Pabbi Hills, all in present-
day Pakistan.[33][35] Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested
dates, based on the dating of fluvial sediments, has not been independently verified. [36][34]
The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo
erectus or Homo heidelbergensis, from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are
dated to approximately half a million years ago. [33][36] Older fossil finds have been claimed,
but are considered unreliable.[36] Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested
that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately
700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000
years before the present, from which point onward archaeological evidence of proto-
human presence is widely mentioned.[36][34]
According to the consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans arrived
on the Indian subcontinent from Africa by approximately 55,000 years ago; however, the
earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. [37] According to
the historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:
"Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently,
sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter
the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially, they came by way
of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent
55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to
only about 30,000 years before the present." [37]
According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:[38] "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA
data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ...
Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55
ka."[38] And, according to the environmental historian of South Asia, Michael Fisher: [39]
"Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range
beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years
ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful
emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each
generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel
was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern
Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and
35,000 years ago."[39]
Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically
modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago, [40] although this
interpretation is disputed.[41][42] The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, over a
long period of time, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned
it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity. [43] According
to Tim Dyson:
"Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent’s
people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is
extremely high. Indeed, only Africa’s population is genetically more diverse. Related to
this, there is strong evidence of ‘founder’ events in the subcontinent. By this is meant
circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of
‘original’ individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent’s
people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of
endogamy."[43]

Neolithic[edit]
Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus
river alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus valley
civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[2][44] According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago
agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan. And, over the next 2,000 years, the
practice of farming slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." And according to
Michael Fisher:[45]
"The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at
Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan)
(see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing
increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting
particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep,
goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]).
Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated
draft-animals as well."[45]
Bronze Age – first urbanisation (c. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE)
[edit]
Indus Valley Civilisation[edit]
Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation
See also: List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites

Dholavira, a city of Indus Valley Civilisation, with stepwell steps to reach the water level in artificially
constructed reservoirs.[46]

Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at Lothal.

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. Along with Ancient
Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus valley region was one of three early cradles of
civilisation of the Old World.[47] Of the three, the Indus Valley Civilisation was the most
expansive,[47] and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million. [48]
The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin,
and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra river basin in eastern Pakistan and northwestern
India. The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking
the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. The civilisation included
cities such as Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan,
and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India.
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques
in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper,
bronze, lead, and tin. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside
drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses and is thought to have had some kind of
municipal organisation.[49]

Iron Age – Vedic period (c. 1500–600 BCE)[edit]

Main articles: Indo-Aryan peoples, Indigenous Aryans, Vedic period, and Historical
Vedic religion
The Vedic period is named after the Indo-Aryan culture of north-west India, although
other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture is
described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed
in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. [50] The Vedic
period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE,[51][52] contributed the foundations of several
cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the
Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.[53]
Vedic society[edit]

An early 19th century manuscript in the Devanagari script of the Rigveda, originally transmitted orally with
fidelity[54]

Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and
the upper Gangetic Plain.[53] Most historians also consider this period to have
encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent from
the north-west.[55][56] The peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva
Veda.[57] Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma, trace
their roots to Vedic antecedents.[58]
Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have
been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE,[59][60] in the northwestern region of the Indian
subcontinent.[61] At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral
groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned. [62] The
early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery
culture in archaeological contexts.[63][64]
At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the
northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western Ganges plain. It
became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the
four varnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by
syncretising with the native cultures of northern India, [65] but also eventually by the
excluding of some indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure. [66] During
this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce
into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).[67]
Janapadas[edit]
Main article: Janapada

Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries of Āryāvarta with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron
Age kingdoms in India – Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha.

The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is
defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and kingdoms—notably
the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha.[68][69]
The Kuru kingdom was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to
the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200–800 BCE,[70] as well as
with the composition of the Atharvaveda (the first Indian text to mention iron, as śyāma
ayas, literally "black metal").[71] The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into
collections, and developed the orthodox srauta ritual to uphold the social order.[71] Two
key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya,
transforming this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern
Iron Age India.[71] When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to
their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom. [71] The archaeological Painted Grey
Ware culture, which flourished in the Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions of
northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE,[63] is believed to correspond to the Kuru and
Panchala kingdoms.[71][72]
During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic
culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state in
India);[64] reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court provided
patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Aruni, and Gargi
Vachaknavi.[73] The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of
increasingly large states and kingdoms, called mahajanapadas, all across Northern
India.

Second urbanisation[edit]
City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern
Gate.

During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Śramaṇa movement formed, from which
originated Jainism and Buddhism. In the same period, the first Upanishads were written.
After 500 BCE, the so-called "Second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements
arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain. [74] The foundations for
the Second Urbanisation were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture
of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small
farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large
settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by
ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit
smaller and simpler than the elaborately fortified large cities which grew after 600 BCE
in the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.[75]
The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of
the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct cultural area,[76] with new states arising after
500 BCE[web 1] during the so-called "Second urbanisation". [77][note 1] It was influenced by the
Vedic culture,[78] but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. [76] It "was the area
of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location
of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".
[79]
 In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism
originated.[74]
Buddhism and Jainism[edit]
Main articles: Upanishads and Śramaṇa
Further information: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, History of
Jainism, Indian religions, and Indian philosophy
Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements

A page of Isha Upanishad manuscript.

Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism.

Gautama Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar (Kushinara).

Around 800 BCE to 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads.[4][80]
[81]
 Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known
as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).[82]
Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new
ascetic or Śramaṇa movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. [4] Mahavira (c.
549–477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483 BCE), founder
of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to
the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of
liberation.[83] Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found
in the Śramaṇa religions.[84]
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a
theology that was to later become Jainism.[85] However, Jain orthodoxy believes the
teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars
believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara,
was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a
few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the Śramaṇa movement.[86]
Sanskrit epics[edit]
Main articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana

Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra.

The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed during this period.

[87]
 The Mahabharata remains, today, the longest single poem in the world. [88] Historians
formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now
recognise that the texts (which are both familiar with each other) went through multiple
stages of development over centuries. For instance, the Mahabharata may have been
based on a small-scale conflict (possibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually
"transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets". There is no conclusive proof
from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharata have any
historical basis.[89] The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-
Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.[89][90]
Mahajanapadas[edit]
Main article: Mahajanapadas
The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of the era, located
mainly across the Indo-Gangetic plains.

The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE witnessed the rise of the Mahajanapadas,
sixteen powerful and vast kingdoms and oligarchic republics. These Mahajanapadas
evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Bengal in
the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans-
Vindhyan region.[91] Ancient Buddhist texts, like the Anguttara Nikaya,[92] make frequent
reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—
Anga, Assaka, Avanti, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha, Mall
a, Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala, Surasena, Vriji, and Vatsa. This period saw the
second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.[93]
Early "republics" or Gaṇa sangha,[94] such as Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallas,
and Licchavis had republican governments. Gaṇa sanghas, [94] such as Mallas, centered
in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajjian Confederacy (Vajji), centered in the city
of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until
the 4th century CE.[95] The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the
Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.[96]
This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished
Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across
vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterized
by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population
growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of
public architecture and water channels, specialized craft industries (e.g., ivory and
carnelian carving), a system of weights, punch-marked coins, and the introduction of
writing in the form of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts.[97][98] The language of the gentry at that
time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are
referred to as Prakrits.
Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced into four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by
the time of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.
The life of Gautama Buddha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms. [93]
Early Magadha dynasties[edit]
Main article: Magadha
See also: Hiranyaka dynasty and Shishunaga dynasty
The Magadha state c. 600 BCE, before it expanded from its capital Rajagriha – under the Haryanka
dynasty and the successor Shishunaga dynasty.

Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahā-Janapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Realms")

or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of
the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir)
then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and
Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively,[99] followed by much of
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily
mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in
the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.[100] The earliest reference to the Magadha
people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with
the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the
development of Jainism and Buddhism. The Magadha kingdom included republican
communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies
under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into
executive, judicial, and military functions.
Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas,
mention Magadha being ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 600–
413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy,
conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal. King Bimbisara was
overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru, who continued the expansionist
policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived
much of his life in Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave
his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha.[101] The
Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last Shishunaga
ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the
so-called Nine Nandas, which were Mahapadma and his eight sons.
Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign[edit]
See also: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
The Nanda Empire, at its greatest extent, extended from Bengal in the east, to
the Punjab region in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range.[102] The Nanda
dynasty was famed for their great wealth. The Nanda dynasty built on the foundations
laid by their Haryanka and Shishunaga predecessors to create the first great empire
of north India.[103] To achieve this objective they built a vast army, consisting of
200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the
lowest estimates).[104][105][106] According to the Greek historian Plutarch, the size of the
Nanda army was even larger, numbering 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 war
chariots, and 6,000 war elephants.[105][107] However, the Nanda Empire did not have the
opportunity to see their army face Alexander the Great, who invaded north-western
India at the time of Dhana Nanda, since Alexander was forced to confine his
campaign to the plains of Punjab and Sindh, for his forces mutinied at the river
Beas and refused to go any further upon encountering Nanda and Gangaridai forces. [105]
Maurya Empire[edit]
Main article: Maurya Empire
Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great.

Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE.

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one
state, and was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.[108] At its
greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries
of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached
beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The
empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya (Kautilya)
in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda dynasty.[109]
Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India,
and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India. The Mauryan
Empire then defeated Seleucus I, a diadochus and founder of the Seleucid Empire,
during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus gained additional territory west of the Indus
River. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the
time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan
suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained
outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with the south. [110]
The Mauryan carved door of Lomas Rishi, one of the Barabar Caves, c. 250 BCE.

Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted for around 37 years until his
death in about 232 BCE.[111] His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE,
though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This filled Ashoka with
remorse and led him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. [110] The
empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was
assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.[111]
Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade,
agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the
creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The
Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads
connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia. [112] After the Kalinga War, the
Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan
India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of
the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased
social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of
Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political
peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of
Buddhist missionaries into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, North Africa,
and Mediterranean Europe.[113]
The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the
Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black
Polished Ware. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy
and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the
government.[114] Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was
customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a
prevalence thereof.[115] During this period, a high quality steel called Wootz steel was
developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia. [8]
Sangam period[edit]
Main articles: Sangam period, Sources of ancient Tamil history, Sangam literature,
and Five Great Epics
See also: Three Crowned Kings and Tamilakam
 Tamilakam, located in the tip of South India during the Sangam period, ruled by Chera dynasty, Chola
dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty.

Ilango Adigal is the author of Silappatikaram, one of the five great epics of Tamil literature.[116]

During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the
4th century CE. During this period, three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as
the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and
the Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of southern India.[117]
The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil
people of this period.[118] The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the
common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings, but who mainly wrote
about the common people and their concerns.[119] Unlike Sanskrit writers who were
mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds
and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to different faiths and professions like
farmers, artisans, merchants, monks, priests and even princes and quite a few of them
were even women.[119]
Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE., Pathupattu, an anthology of ten mid-length books
collection, which is considered part of Sangam Literature, were composed; the
composition of eight anthologies of poetic works Ettuthogai as well as the composition
of eighteen minor poetic works Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku; while Tolkāppiyam, the earliest
grammarian work in the Tamil language was developed.[120] Also, during Sangam period,
two of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were composed. Ilango
Adigal composed Silappatikaram, which is a non-religious work, that revolves
around Kannagi, who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of
the Pandyan dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom, [121] and Manimekalai,
composed by Sīthalai Sāttanār, is a sequel to Silappatikaram, and tells the story of the
daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who became a Buddhist Bikkuni.[122][123]

Classical and early medieval periods (c. 200 BCE – c. 1200

CE)[edit]
Main articles: Classical India and Medieval India

Ancient India during the rise of the Shungas from the

North, Satavahanas from the Deccan, and Pandyas and Cholas from
the southern tip of India.
 

The Great Chaitya in the Karla Caves. The shrines were developed

over the period from 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.
 
 

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves is home to the Hathigumpha

inscription, which was inscribed under Kharavela, the then Emperor
of Kalinga of the Mahameghavahana dynasty.
 

Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, Ghantasala Stupa.[124]

[125]

The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta
Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India. [126] It can be
divided in various sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. Classical period
begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of
the Shunga dynasty and Satavahana dynasty. The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is
regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over
India in these centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century
BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.[7] During this period, India's economy is
estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-
quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE. [127][128]
Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 320 CE)[edit]
Shunga Empire[edit]
Main article: Shunga Empire
Shunga Empire
 

East Gateway and Railings, Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BCE.

 

Shunga royal family, 1st century BCE.

The Shungas originated from Magadha, and controlled areas of the central and eastern
Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established
by Pushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the last Maurya emperor. Its capital
was Pataliputra, but later emperors, such as Bhagabhadra, also held court at Vidisha,
modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa.[129]
Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There
were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly
disintegrated;[130] inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India
consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga
hegemony.[131] The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and
indigenous powers. They fought battles with the Mahameghavahana
dynasty of Kalinga, Satavahana dynasty of Deccan, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly
the Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period
including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments
such as the Stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga
rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The
script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit
language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising Indian culture at
a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking
place. This helped the empire flourish and gain power.
Satavahana Empire[edit]
Main article: Satavahana Empire
Satavahana Empire
 

Sanchi Stupa Two and Southern Gateway, 1st century CE (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
 

Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities
of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.

The Śātavāhanas were based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well

as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire
covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started
out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline.
The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which
resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site)
to Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their
rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well
as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern
tip of India.
They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva
dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect
large part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In
particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The
notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna
Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to
stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.
Trade and travels to India[edit]
Further information: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India with the Old World; carried goods and ideas
between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are red, and the water routes are
blue.

 The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the

Old World to India. Early writings and Stone Age carvings
of Neolithic age obtained indicates that India's Southwest
coastal port Muziris, in Kerala, had established itself as a
major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE,
according to Sumerian records. Jewish traders
from Judea arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India as early as 562
BCE.[132]
 Thomas the Apostle sailed to India around the 1st century
CE. He landed in Muziris in Kerala, India and
established Yezh (Seven) ara (half) palligal
(churches) or Seven and a Half Churches.
 Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road
transmission of Buddhism in the 1st or 2nd century CE.
The interaction of cultures resulted in several Chinese
travellers and monks to enter India. Most notable
were Faxian, Yijing, Song Yun and Xuanzang. These
travellers wrote detailed accounts of the Indian
subcontinent, which includes the political and social
aspects of the region.[133]
 Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast
Asia came to be associated with the economic activity and
commerce as patrons entrust large funds which would later
be used to benefit the local economy by estate
management, craftsmanship, promotion of trading
activities. Buddhism in particular, travelled alongside the
maritime trade, promoting coinage, art, and literacy.
[134]
 Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian
cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures
and curries became popular with the native inhabitants.[135]
 The Greco-Roman world followed by trading along
the incense route and the Roman-India routes.[136] During
the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade
 at Arabian ports such as Aden.[137] During the first
millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the
Indians and Ethiopians that became the maritime trading
power of the Red Sea.
Kushan Empire[edit]
Main article: Kushan Empire
Kushan Empire

Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according
to the Rabatak inscription.
 

Depiction of the Buddha in Kanishka's coinage, Mathura art, 2nd century CE.

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the
Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about
the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly
of Tocharian speaking tribe;[138] one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation.[139][140] By
the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much
of Afghanistan,[141] and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent at least as far
as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Banaras).[142]
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded
southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority.[143]
[144]
 They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its
spread to Central Asia and China.
Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:
He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism. [145]
The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk
Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between
China and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and
blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan rule.
[146]

H.G. Rowlinson commented:

The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas. [147]
By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great
emperor was Vasudeva I.[148][149]
Classical period: Gupta Empire (c. 320–650 CE)[edit]
Main article: Gupta Empire
Further
information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala, Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryab
hatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra
Gupta Empire

Gupta Empire expansion from 320 CE to 550 CE.

 

The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location
where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.

The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture,
sculpture, and painting.[150] The Gupta period produced scholars such
as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made
great advancements in many academic fields. The Gupta period marked a watershed of
Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they
also patronised Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical
orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta
I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much of India under their leadership.
[151]
 Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.
Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as
a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Maritime
Southeast Asia, and Indochina.
The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of
the Alchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th
century, with their capital at Bamiyan.[152] However, much of the Deccan and southern
India were largely unaffected by these events in the north. [153][154]
Vakataka Empire[edit]
Main article: Vakataka Empire
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their
state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the
north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the
western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important
successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in
northern India and succeeded by the Vishnukundina dynasty.
The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature.
They led public works and their monuments are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist
viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under
the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.[155][156]

The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built under

the Vakatakas.
 

Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of

the Ajanta Caves.
  

Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26

of the Ajanta Caves.
 

Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included

as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa
Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.
Kamarupa Kingdom[edit]
Main article: Kamarupa Kingdom

Copper Plate Seal of Kamarupa Kings at Madan Kamdev ruins.

Samudragupta's 4th-century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western

Assam)[157] and Davaka (Central Assam)[158] as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire.
Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that
spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire
Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts
of West Bengal.[159]
Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–
900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-
day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya)
respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura, an immigrant
from Aryavarta.[160] In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 CE),
the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after
weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was
somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c.
1155–1255 CE) dynasties.[161] The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of
the 13th century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North
Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim
Turks, and established the Kamata kingdom.[162]
Pallava Empire[edit]
Main article: Pallava Empire

The Shore Temple (a UNESCO World Heritage site) at Mahabalipuram built by Narasimhavarman II.

The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the North,
great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian subcontinent. The
Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called Grantha.[163] Early
Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian countries. The Pallavas used
Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies
in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets.
The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine
artistic temple architecture and sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.[164]
Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630
CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern
parts of the Tamil region for about six hundred years until the end of the 9th century. [165]
Kadamba Empire[edit]
Main article: Kadamba Empire
Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top, Doddagaddavalli.

Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE which

at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication
to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. King
Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some
native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a
notable ruler with whom even the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated
marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga
Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with
absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger
Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred
years during which time they branched into minor dynasties known as the Kadambas of
Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal.
Empire of Harsha[edit]
Main articles: Harsha and Vardhana dynasty
Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son
of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, who were members
of the Vardhana dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-day Haryana.

Coin of Emperor Harsha, c. 606–647 CE.[166]

After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North
India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted
in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and
monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and
brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor at an assembly in April
606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja when he was merely 16 years old. [167] At the
height of his power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India,
extended East until Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually
made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh state) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE. [168]
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism,
attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. [168] During this time,
Harsha converted to Buddhism from Surya worship.[169] The Chinese
traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of
him, praising his justice and generosity. [168] His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of
Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar,
besides mentioning the defence wall, a moat and the palace with a two-
storied Dhavalagriha (White Mansion).[170][171]
Early medieval period (c. 650–1200 CE)[edit]
Main articles: Medieval India, Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent,
and Tripartite struggle
Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE.
[126]
 This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, [172] which began after the
end of the Gupta Empire,[172] and the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century
CE;[172] the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and ended in
the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India[173] and the end of
the Later Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India;
however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of
the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century.
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory
traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or more
commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts.[174] This
period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical
development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems
which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
In the 7th century CE, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy
and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note
Bhaṭṭa's contribution to the decline of Buddhism in India.[175] In the 8th century, Adi
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the doctrine
of Advaita Vedanta, which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying the main
characteristics of the current thoughts in Hinduism.[176][177][178] He was a critic of both
Buddhism and Minamsa school of Hinduism;[179][180][181][182] and
founded mathas (monasteries), in the four corners of the Indian subcontinent for the
spread and development of Advaita Vedanta. [183] While, Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion
of Sindh (modern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism.
The Chach Nama records many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as
at Nerun.[184]
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India:
the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the
Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara
Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the Paramaras of Malwa,
the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of Haryana,
and the Chauhans of Rajputana, these states were some of the earliest Rajput
kingdoms;[185] while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the Western Chalukyas.[186] During
this period, the Chaulukya dynasty emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the Dilwara
Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki vav[187] and their capital Anhilwara
(modern Patan, Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with
the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.
The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola
I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri
Lanka in the 11th century.[188] Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760 CE) was an emperor of
the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from
625 CE until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in
his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in
Northern India and Central Asia.[189][190][191]
The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and
Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha,
the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu
architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as
being patrons of art and literature.

Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya, and

built by the third ruler of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in
the 8th century CE.
 

Konark Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by Narasimhadeva

I (1238–1264 CE) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
 


 Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in the Khajuraho complex was built by
the Chandelas.
 

Jagannath Temple at Puri, built by Anantavarman Chodaganga

Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
Chalukya Empire[edit]
Main article: Chalukya Empire
The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th
and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual
dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi
(modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to
assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and
rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas
marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the
history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller
kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern
India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between
the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient
administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of
architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of
southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then
again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.


 Galaganatha Temple at Pattadakal complex (UNESCO World Heritage)
is an example of Badami Chalukya architecture.
 

Bhutanatha temple complex at Badami, next to a waterfall, during the

monsoon.
 

Vishnu image inside the Badami Cave Temple Complex. The complex

is an example of Indian rock-cut architecture.
 

8th century Durga temple exterior view at Aihole complex. Aihole

complex includes Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples and monuments.
Rashtrakuta Empire[edit]
Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire
Founded by Dantidurga around 753,[192] the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital
at Manyakheta for almost two centuries.[193] At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the
Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a
fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary
contributions.[194][195]
The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced
by Jainism.[196] Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of
able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha, who ruled for 64 years,
was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on
poetics.[193][197] Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example
of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are
the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great
Empires of the world.[198] The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age
of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra lived
in the Rashtrakuta Empire and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian
mathematicians who lived after him.[199] The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of
letters, who wrote in a variety of languages from Sanskrit to the Apabhraṃśas.[193]

Kailasa temple, is one of the largest rock-cut ancient Hindu

temples located in Ellora.
 

Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves.

 
 

Statue of the Buddha seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist

Cave 10).
 

Jain Tirthankara Mahavira with Yaksha Matanga and Yakshi Siddhaiki
at Ellora Caves.
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire[edit]
Main article: Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of
the Indus River.[200] Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during
the Caliphate campaigns in India. Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became
the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his
son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja.
Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak
of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled
that of the Gupta Empire stretching from the border of Sindh in the west to Bengal in the
east and from the Himalayas in the north to areas past the Narmada in the south.[201]
[202]
 The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with
the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent. During this
period, Imperial Pratihara took the title of Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta (Great King of
Kings of India).
By the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary
weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably
the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand,
the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of Haryana, and
the Chauhans of Rajputana.
 

One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir. This Hindu temple was
built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.[203]
 

Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort.

 

Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face
inside Siddhachal Caves, Gwalior Fort.
 
 

Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at Baroli Temples complex. The

complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, is situated
within a walled enclosure.
Pala Empire[edit]

Excavated ruins of Nalanda, a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193 CE.

Main article: Pala Empire

The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I.[204][205][206] It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty
from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The Palas reunified
Bengal after the fall of Shashanka's Gauda Kingdom.[207]
The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism,[208] they
also patronised Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[209] The morpheme Pala, meaning
"protector", was used as an ending for the names of all the Pala monarchs. The empire
reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have
conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the
northwest.[209]
The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal in many ways.
[210]
 Dharmapala founded the Vikramashila and revived Nalanda,[209] considered one of the
first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the
patronage of the Pala Empire.[210][211] The Palas also built many viharas. They maintained
close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade
added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire. The Arab merchant Suleiman notes
the enormity of the Pala army in his memoirs.[209]
Cholas[edit]
Main article: Chola dynasty
Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola, c. 1030 CE.

Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century CE and
established the greatest empire South India had seen. [212] They successfully united the
South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in
the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya. [188] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his
successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga
Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and
South-East Asia.[213][214] Rajendra Chola I's navies went even further, occupying the sea
coasts from Burma to Vietnam,[215] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast
Asia and the Pegu islands. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern
world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the
occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by
the repeated embassies to China.[216]
They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated
invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the
west and with the Chinese empire in the east. [217] Rajaraja Chola I and his equally
distinguished son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India
and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power. [218] Under the Cholas, the
South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of
these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun
in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic
temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in
India.[219]


 The granite gopuram (tower) of Brihadeeswarar Temple, 1010 CE.
 

Chariot detail at Airavatesvara Temple built by Rajaraja Chola II in the

12th century CE.
 

The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at Brihadisvara Temple.

 

Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at Thanjavur.

Western Chalukya Empire[edit]
Main article: Western Chalukya Empire
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between
the 10th and 12th centuries.[220] Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north
and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control. [220] During this period the
other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri,
the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western
Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned
during the latter half of the 12th century. [221]
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional
style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of
the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the
Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara
Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at
Bagali, Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.[222] This was
an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in
literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language
of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great
mathematician Bhāskara II.[223][224]
 Shrine outer wall and Dravida style superstructure (shikhara)
at Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri.
 

Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at Kalleshvara

Temple at Bagali.
 

Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower

in Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti.
 
 

Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.

Late medieval period (c. 1200–1526 CE)[edit]

Main article: Medieval India
The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central Asian
nomadic clans,[225][226] the rule of the Delhi sultanate, and by the growth of other dynasties
and empires, built upon military technology of the Sultanate. [227].
Delhi Sultanate[edit]
Main article: Delhi Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate reached its zenith under the Turko-Indian Tughlaq dynasty.[228]

 Qutub Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, whose construction was begun by Qutb-ud-din Aybak, the first
Sultan of Delhi.

The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim sultanate based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties

of Turkic, Turko-Indian[229] and Pathan origins.[230] It ruled large parts of the Indian
subcontinent from the 13th century to the early 16th century. [231] In the 12th and 13th
centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi
Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.[232] The subsequent Slave
dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the Khalji
dynasty conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of
South India to become vassal states.[231] However, they were ultimately unsuccessful in
conquering and uniting the Indian subcontinent.
The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-
Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music,
literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born
during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of
Sanskritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the
Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of
the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240).
During the Delhi Sultanate, there was a synthesis between Indian civilization
and Islamic civilization. The latter was a cosmopolitan civilization, with
a multicultural and pluralistic society, and wide-ranging international networks, including
social and economic networks, spanning large parts of Afro-Eurasia, leading to
escalating circulation of goods, peoples, technologies and ideas. While initially
disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites,
the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a
growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a
significant impact on Indian culture and society.[233] However, the Delhi Sultanate also
caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent. [234]
The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate. A
major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly
skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols, as a result of
having similar nomadic Central Asian roots. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may
have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.
[235]
 By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders, the sultanate saved India from the
devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries
of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from
that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the
north.[236][235]
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning
Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.
[237]
 The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the
city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered
for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for
the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put
to death in one day.[238] The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi
revived briefly under the Lodi Dynasty, but it was a shadow of the former.

Dargahs of Sufi-saint Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet and musician Amir

Khusro in Delhi.
 

The grave of Razia, the Sultana of Delhi, from 1236 CE to 1240 CE, the
only female ruler of a major realm on the Indian subcontinent until
modern times.
 
 

Mausoleum of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq in Tughluqabad.

 

Lodhi Gardens in Delhi.

Bhakti movement and Sikhism[edit]
Main articles: Bhakti movement, Buddhism in India, and Sikhism
See also: History of Sikhism

The Dasam Granth (above) was composed by Sikh Guru Gobind Singh.

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval

Hinduism[239] and later revolutionised in Sikhism.[240] It originated in the seventh-century
south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. [239] It swept
over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between
the 15th and 17th century CE.[241]

 The Bhakti movement regionally developed around

different gods and goddesses, such
as Vaishnavism (Vishnu),
1Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses),
and Smartism.[242][243][244] The movement was inspired by many
 poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical
positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to
absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[245][246]
 Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak,
the first Guru,[247] and the ten successive Sikh gurus. After
the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikh
scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, became the literal
embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the
scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs. [248][249]
[250]

 Buddhism in India flourished in the Himalayan kingdoms

of Namgyal Kingdom in Ladakh, Sikkim Kingdom in Sikkim,
and Chutiya Kingdom in Arunachal Pradesh of the Late
medieval period.
Vijayanagara Empire[edit]
Main article: Vijayanagara Empire
Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire in 1525

The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka
Raya I of Sangama Dynasty,[251] which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala
Empire, Kakatiya Empire,[252] and the Pandyan Empire.[253] The empire rose to prominence
as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by
the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a
major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The
empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present
day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[254]
In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over
most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of Purvapaschima
Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I,
successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu,
and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa in the west and the
Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab in the north.[255][256]
With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, Harihara II, the second son of
Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and brought
the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella. [257] The next ruler, Deva Raya
I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works
of fortification and irrigation.[258] Italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most
powerful ruler of India.[259] Deva Raya II (called Gajabetekara)[260] succeeded to the throne
in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers.[261] He
quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south.
He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings
of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.[262][263][264]
The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by
foreign visitors show.[265] The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana
Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins")
and Hindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of
protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court
ceremonials and dress.[266] The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were
devout Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order
of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and designated Varaha (the boar,
an Avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.[267] Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found
an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's
Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were
Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as
well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati
Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha
Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").[268] The kings patronised the saints of
the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.[269]

An 1868 photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi,

now a UNESCO World Heritage Site[270]
 
 

Gajashaala or elephant's stable, built by the Vijayanagar rulers for

their war elephants.[271]
 

Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located

on the side of Krishna temple.
 

Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi.

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best
known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South
India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and
vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the
Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian
mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The
south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala
School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great
south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha
Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India.[272] Efficient administration and
vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems
for irrigation.[273] The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new
heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its
current form.[274]
Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After the
death of Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started
the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the
destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.
[275]
 Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons,
and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors
ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646,
from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others. [276][277][278] During this period,
more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara.
These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of
Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared
independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in
the coming centuries.[279]
Regional powers[edit]
For two and a half centuries from the mid 13th century, politics in Northern India was
dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire.
However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala empire,
the Chero dynasty ruled much of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand from 12th
CE to 18th CE.[280][281][282] The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate;
and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the south, eventually
being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire. [283]
In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central
India. The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and captured Muhammad
Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and
relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not
attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence,
and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab.
The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar reconstructed
the Gwalior Fort which still stands there.[284] During this period, Mewar emerged as the
leading Rajput state; and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of
the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.[284][285] The next great Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of
Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in scope – he
planned to conquer the much sought after prize of the Muslim rulers of the time, Delhi.
But, his defeat in the Battle of Khanwa, consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.
[284]
 The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal
emperor Akbar, with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II
founded Udaipur, which became the new capital of the Mewar kingdom. His
son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions
against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor
Fort.[286]
In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate, which was established either by a Brahman
convert or patronised by a Brahman and from that source it was given the
name Bahmani,[287] was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara, and frequently created
difficulties for the Vijayanagara.[288] In the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of the
Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power. After which,
the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed,[289] resulting it being split into five small Deccan
sultanates.[290] In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed
by Bijapur and Berar in the same year; Golkonda became independent in 1518
and Bidar in 1528.[291] Although generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara
Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.
In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with,
associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture.
Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in
the north to the Kaveri in the south.[292] In Northeast India, the Ahom Kingdom was a
major power for six centuries;[293][294] led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively
defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts.
[295]
 Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from
their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya
Vaishnavite culture.[296][297][298]

Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Singha in Ahom Kingdom's

capital Rongpur, is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the
Indian subcontinent.
 

Chittor Fort is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the
six Hill Forts of Rajasthan.
 
 

Ranakpur Jain temple was built in the 15th century with the support of
the Rajput state of Mewar.
 

Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate, has the second largest pre-

modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia.

Early modern period (c. 1526–1858 CE)[edit]

The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 CE to 1858 CE,
corresponding to the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire, during which India's economy
expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronized. This period
witnessed the further development of Indo-Islamic architecture;[299][300] the growth
of Maratha and Sikhs were able to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of
the Mughal empire, which formally came to an end when the British Raj was founded.[22]
Mughal Empire[edit]
Main article: Mughal Empire
See also: Mughal Bengal, Muslin trade in Bengal, Mughal architecture, Mughal
clothing, and Mughal painting
Mughal Empire
 A map of the Mughal Empire at its greatest geographical extent, c. 1700 CE

"The Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the
world's heritage." UNESCO World Heritage Site declaration, 1983.[301]

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana

Valley (modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established
the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.[302] However, his
son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, and
Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah
Suri and his Hindu general Hemu Vikramaditya had established secular rule in North
India from Delhi until 1556. After winning Battle of Delhi, Akbar's forces defeated Hemu
in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.
The famous emperor Akbar the Great, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to
establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of
animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The
Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and
attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a
unique Indo-Persian culture and Indo-Saracenic architecture. Akbar married
a Rajput princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a son, Jahangir, who was part-
Mughal and part-Rajput, as were future Mughal emperors. [303] Jahangir more or less
followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent
by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He
erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra,
as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore
Fort.
It was the second largest empire to have existed in the Indian subcontinent,[304] and
surpassed China to be become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4%
of the world economy,[305] and the world leader in manufacturing,[306] producing 25% of
global industrial output.[307] The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by
Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production, [308] a proto-
industrializing economy that began moving towards industrial manufacturing,[309] and a
relatively high degree of urbanization for its time.[310]
Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites

The Agra Fort showing the river Yamuna and the Taj Mahal in the

background
 

Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, showing Buland Darwaza, the complex built

by Akbar, the third Mughal emperor.
 

Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, built in 1570 CE.

 
 

The Red Fort, Delhi, its construction begun in 1639 CE, and ended in
1648 CE.
The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign
of Aurangzeb and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military
resurgence under Shivaji. Historian Sir. J.N. Sarkar wrote "All seemed to have been
gained by Aurangzeb now, but in reality all was lost." [311] He was less tolerant than his
predecessors, reintroducing the jizya tax and destroying several historical temples,
while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed, [312] employing
significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and
opposing Sunni Muslim bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.[313] However, he is
often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as
well as increasing brutality and centralisation, which may have played a large part in the
dynasty's downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively
less pluralistic policies on the general population, which may have inflamed the majority
Hindu population.
The empire went into decline thereafter. The Mughals suffered several blows due to
invasions from Marathas, Jats and Afghans. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of the
Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al
Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry
soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice Mughal general and the rest of the
imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the
commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the
Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. While Bharatpur
State under Jat ruler Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the
city taking with them the two great silver doors of the entrance of the famous Taj Mahal;
which were then melted down by Suraj Mal in 1763. [314] In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of
Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal.[315] After this victory, Nader
captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock
Throne.[316] Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian
resistance; Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikh Khalsa against Mughal religious
oppression; Hindu Rajas of Bengal, Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray revolted;
and Maharaja Chhatrasal, of Bundela Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established
the Panna State.[317] The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. Sikh
holocaust of 1762 took place under the Muslim provincial government based
at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had
begun with the Mughals, with the Sikh holocaust of 1746,[318] and lasted several decades
under its Muslim successor states.[319]
Marathas and Sikhs[edit]
Maratha Empire[edit]
Main article: Maratha Empire
Further information: Maratha Army, Maratha Navy, and Battles involving the Maratha
Empire
Maratha Empire

Maratha Empire at its zenith in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching
from South India to present-day Pakistan.
 

Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818.

In the early 18th century the Maratha Empire extended suzerainty over the Indian
subcontinent. Under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of
South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending Mughal rule in India.
[320][321][322]

The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji,

a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle clan.[323] However, the credit for making the Marathas
formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that
Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire". [324]
By the early 18th century, the Maratha Kingdom had transformed itself into the Maratha
Empire under the rule of the Peshwas (prime ministers). In 1737, the Marathas defeated
a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued their
military campaigns against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani
Empire to further extend their boundaries. By 1760, the domain of the Marathas
stretched across most of the Indian subcontinent. The Marathas even discussed
abolishing the Mughal throne and placing Vishwasrao Peshwa on the Mughal imperial
throne in Delhi.[325]
The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu[326] in the south, to Peshawar (modern-
day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan[327] [note 2]) in the north, and Bengal in the east. The
Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of
Panipat (1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a
decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.[329]
Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a
confederacy of Maratha states under the Gaekwads of Baroda,
the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain,
the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India
Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to
the First Anglo-Maratha War, resulting in a Maratha victory.[330] The Marathas remained a
major power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha
Wars (1805–1818), which resulted in the East India Company controlling most of India.
Sikh Empire[edit]
Main article: Sikh Empire
Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh

The Sikh empire at its greatest geographical extent, ca. 1839

The Harmandir Sahib is the preeminent pilgrimage site of Sikhism. Ranjit Singh rebuilt it in marble and copper
in 1809, overlaid the sanctum with gold foil in 1830. [331]

The Sikh Empire, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that
governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The empire, based
around the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations
of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839) from an array
of autonomous Punjabi Misls of the Sikh Confederacy.[332]
Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated many parts of northern India into an empire. He
primarily used his Sikh Khalsa Army that he trained in European military techniques and
equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master
strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He continuously defeated
the Afghan armies and successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh Wars. In stages, he added
central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his
empire.[333][334]
At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west,
to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in
the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with
the British East India Company. The hard-fought first Anglo-Sikh war and second Anglo-
Sikh war marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the
Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.
Other kingdoms[edit]
The Kingdom of Mysore in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under Hyder
Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore
fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces.
The Maratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787, following the finalizing of treaty of
Gajendragad, in which, Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas.
Concurrently, the Anglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the Mysoreans used
the Mysorean rockets. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799) saw the death of
Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India
Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and
the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at
the Siege of Seringapatam (1799).
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a
brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared
himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and
paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as
the Battle of Palkhed.[335] However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724
until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassels of the
British. Hyderabad State became princely state in British India 1798.
The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline
of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out six
expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary
state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of
Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar. He lost to the British, who
took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad (throne) and
established itself to a political power in Bengal. [336] In 1765 the system of Dual
Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and
were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was
brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (governorship)
of the Nawab was also taken away from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of
the British East India Company.[337][338]
In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas.
The Second Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but
afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war
with the Pindaris, raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly became
the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the
Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties
had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The
Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the British,
and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end. [339] Most of the Rajput princes
remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in
Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The Rajputana Agency contained more
than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur State, Jaipur State, Bikaner
State and Jodhpur State.
After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many Maratha dynasties and states became
vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British, to form the largest bloc of princely states
in the British Raj, in terms of territory and population. [340] With the decline of the Sikh
Empire, after the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of
Amritsar, the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the
princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India,
was created by the Dogra dynasty.[341][342] While in Eastern and Northeastern India, the
Hindu and Buddhist states of Cooch Behar Kingdom, Twipra Kingdom and Kingdom of
Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.
After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and
managed to weather invasions and flourished until the Polygar Wars, where they were
defeated by the British East India Company forces. [343] Around the 18th century,
the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.[344]
European exploration[edit]
Main article: Colonial India

The route followed in Vasco da Gama's first voyage (1497–1499).

In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new sea

route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.
The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. After their
conquest in Goa, the Portuguese instituted the Goa Inquisition, where new Indian
converts and non-Christians were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity
and were condemned to be burnt.[345] Goa became the main Portuguese base until it
was annexed by India in 1961.[346]
The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon. They established
ports in Malabar. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in
the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War.
The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat
to India.[347][348]
The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European
traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the
Dutch, the British—who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French
both established trading outposts in India. Although these continental European powers
controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing
century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception
of the French outposts of Pondichéry and Chandernagore,[349][350] and the Portuguese
colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.[351]
East India Company rule in India[edit]
Main articles: East India Company and Company rule in India
India under East India Company rule

India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink.

India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories

The English East India Company ("the Company") was founded in 1600, as The

Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies. It gained a foothold in
India with the establishment of a factory in Masulipatnam on the Eastern coast of India
in 1611 and the grant of the rights to establish a factory in Surat in 1612 by the Mughal
emperor Jahangir. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the Vijayanagara
ruler farther south, a second factory was established in Madras on the southeastern
coast. Bombay island, not far from Surat, a former Portuguese outpost gifted
to England as dowry in the marriage of Catherine of Braganza to Charles II, was leased
by the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the Company established a presence on
the eastern coast as well; far up that coast, in the Ganges River delta, a factory was set
up in Calcutta. Since, during this time other companies—established by
the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish—were similarly expanding in the region, the
English Company's unremarkable beginnings on coastal India offered no clues to what
would become a lengthy presence on the Indian subcontinent.
The Company's victory under Robert Clive in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another
victory in the 1764 Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), consolidated the Company's power, and
forced emperor Shah Alam II to appoint it the diwan, or revenue collector, of Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa. The Company thus became the de facto ruler of large areas of
the lower Gangetic plain by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions
around Bombay and Madras. The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–99) and the Anglo-
Maratha Wars (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the Sutlej
River. With the defeat of the Marathas, no native power represented a threat for the
Company any longer.[352]
The expansion of the Company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was
the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the
underlying regions, which collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed
regions included the North-Western Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and
the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828),
and Sindh (1843). Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir, were annexed
after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie
Governor General); however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of
Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu, and thereby became a princely state.
In 1854 Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh two years later.[353]

Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of Fort William

(Bengal) who oversaw the Company's territories in India.
 
 

Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of William IV,
king of United Kingdom from 21 August 1765 to 20 June 1837, and
reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do ashrafi in Urdu) issued
during Company rule in India
 

Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline

bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief
Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay.
 

Watercolor (1863) titled, "The Ganges Canal, Roorkee, Saharanpur

District (U.P.)." The canal was the brainchild of Sir Proby Cautley;
construction began in 1840, and the canal was opened by Governor-
General Lord Dalhousie in April 1854
The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers
acknowledged the Company's hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy. Since
the Company operated under financial constraints, it had to set
up political underpinnings for its rule.[354] The most important such support came from
the subsidiary alliances with Indian princes during the first 75 years of Company rule.
[354]
 In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of
India.[354] When an Indian ruler, who was able to secure his territory, wanted to enter such
an alliance, the Company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule, which
did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of
gaining the support of alien subjects.[355]
In return, the Company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated
them with traditional respect and marks of honor." [355] Subsidiary alliances created
the princely states, of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Prominent among
the princely states
were: Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (179
9), Cis-Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency (1819), Cutch and Gujarat
Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818), and Bahawalpur (1833).[353]
Indian indenture system[edit]
Main article: Indian indenture system
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt
bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various colonies of European
powers to provide labor for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of
slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of
large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion and Mauritius)
to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-
African population.

Modern period and independence (after c. 1850 CE)[edit]

Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences[edit]
Main article: Indian rebellion of 1857

Charles Canning, the Governor-General of India during the rebellion.

 


 Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who
devised the Doctrine of Lapse.
 

Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the

rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of
Lapse.
 

Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor, crowned Emperor of

India by the rebels, he was deposed by the British, and died in exile in
Burma
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the
British East India Company in northern and central India against the Company's rule.
The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for
the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition; key mutineer
being Mangal Pandey.[356] In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the
ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops, and land annexations
played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of
units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel
soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains
under the Doctrine of Lapse, and felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional
system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of
Jhansi belonged to this group.[357]
After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The
rebels had also captured large tracts of the North-Western
Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). Most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the
attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence. [358] However, the British East India
Company mobilised rapidly, with the assistance of friendly Princely states. But, it took
the British remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due
to the rebels being poorly equipped and no outside support or funding, they were
brutally subdued by the British.[359]
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to
the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces.
The Crown controlled the Company's lands directly and had considerable indirect
influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local
royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual
state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They
were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48. [360]
British Raj (1858–1947)[edit]
Main article: British Raj
British Raj

The British Indian Empire in 1909. British India is shown in pink; the princely states in yellow.

A 1903 stereographic image of Victoria Terminus a terminal train station, in Mumbai, completed in 1887, and
now a UNESCO World Heritage Site

After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via
the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The Indian Penal Code came into
being.[361] In education, Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for
the Raj in his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use
of English as the medium of instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.
[362]
 The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the
population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow
significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the
fourth largest in the world.[363] The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including
canals and irrigation systems in addition to railways, telegraphy, roads and ports.
[364]
 However, historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the
Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the
beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British. [365]
In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half
and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was
said to be for efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the
apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-
colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was
removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new
Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress leaders on political
reforms. The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of the
provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial
Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal
representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative
and responsible government.[366] Several socio-religious organisations came into being at
that time. Muslims set up the All India Muslim League in 1906. It was not a mass party
but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. It was internally
divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus.
[citation needed]
 The Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak
Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to
be a "cultural" organisation.[367] Sikhs founded the Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920.
[368]
 However, the largest and oldest political party Indian National Congress, founded in
1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity
politics.[369]

Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886
respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust of Victoria, Queen, the
second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria became Empress of India in
1876.
  

Ronald Ross, left, at Cunningham's laboratory of Presidency Hospital in

Calcutta, where the transmission of malaria by mosquitoes was
discovered, winning Ross the second Nobel Prize for Physiology or
Medicine in 1902.
 

A Darjeeling Himalayan Railway train shown in 1870. The railway

became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999.
 

A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to

commemorate the inauguration of New Delhi as the capital of the
British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911, Calcutta had been the
capital of the Raj
Indian Renaissance[edit]
Main articles: British Raj and Bengali Renaissance
 

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817–1898), the author of Causes of the Indian

Mutiny, was the founder of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, later
the Aligarh Muslim University.
 

Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922) was a social reformer, and a pioneer in

the education and emancipation of women in India.
 

Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was a Bengali language poet, short-

story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and
painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913.
 
 

Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who

made seminal contributions to Number Theory.
The Bengali Renaissance[370] refers to a social reform movement during the nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the
period of British rule dominated by Bengali Hindus. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes
the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan
Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath
Tagore (1861–1941).[371] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and
writers is described by historian David Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in
Indian history."[372]
During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way
similar to the Renaissance. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly
with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system, and religion.
One of the earliest social movements that emerged during this time was the Young
Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the common
denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus. [373] It played an
important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.
Famines[edit]
Main articles: Famine in India and Timeline of major famines in India during British rule
See also: Demographics of India

Map of famines in India 1800–1885

 
 

Engraving from The Graphic, October 1877, showing the plight of

animals as well as humans in Bellary district, Madras
Presidency, British India during the Great Famine of 1876–78.
 

Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the Indian famine

of 1899–1900.
 

A picture of orphans who survived the Bengal famine of 1943

During Company rule in India and the British Raj, famines in India were some of the
worst ever recorded. These famines, often resulting from crop failures due to El
Niño which were exacerbated by the destructive policies of the colonial government,
[374]
 included the Great Famine of 1876–78 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people
died,[375] the Great Bengal famine of 1770 where up to 10 million people died,
[376]
 the Indian famine of 1899–1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died,[374] and
the Bengal famine of 1943 where up to 3.8 million people died.[377] The Third Plague
Pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India.[378] Despite persistent
diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to
200 million in 1750,[379] had reached 389 million by 1941.[380]
World War I[edit]
Main article: Indian Army during World War I

Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914.

 

Indian cavalry from the Deccan Horse during the Battle of Bazentin

Ridge in 1916.
 

Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with 3.7 inch Mountain

Howitzers, Jerusalem 1917.
 

India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the British Indian

Army who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War.
During World War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000
volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of
about 15,000 men.[381] The Army saw action on the Western Front within a month of the
start of the war at the First Battle of Ypres. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and
casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn.
Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian
formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli. [382]
Indian Army and Imperial Service Troops fought during the Sinai and Palestine
Campaign's defence of the Suez Canal in 1915, at Romani in 1916 and to Jerusalem in
1917. India units occupied the Jordan Valley and after the Spring Offensive they
became the major force in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the Battle of
Megiddo and in the Desert Mounted Corps' advance to Damascus and on to Aleppo.
Other divisions remained in India guarding the North-West Frontier and fulfilling internal
security obligations.
One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died, [383] and
another 67,000 were wounded.[384] The roughly 90,000 soldiers who lost their lives
fighting in World War I and the Afghan Wars are commemorated by the India Gate.
World War II[edit]
Main article: India in World War II

General Claude Auchinleck (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian

Army, with the then Viceroy Wavell (centre) and General
Montgomery (left)
 

Sikh soldiers of the British Indian army being executed by the

Japanese. (Imperial War Museum, London)
 


 Indian infantrymen of the 7th Rajput Regiment about to go on patrol on
the Arakan front in Burma, 1944.
 

The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to

commemorate allied victory in World War II.
British India officially declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939.[385] The British
Raj, as part of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to
fight under British command against the Axis powers. Additionally, several Indian
Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign during the War.
India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the China
Burma India Theatre.
Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in the European theatre
against Germany, in North Africa against Germany and Italy, against the Italians in East
Africa, in the Middle East against the Vichy French, in the South Asian region defending
India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma. Indians also aided in
liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese
surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World
War II.
The Indian National Congress, denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or
anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the Quit India
Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until
independence was granted. The government was ready for this move. It immediately
arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The Muslim League rejected
the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.
Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with Congress and tried to form a
military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted
Bose in the formation of the Indian Legion;[386] however, it was Japan that helped him
revamp the Indian National Army (INA), after the First Indian National
Army under Mohan Singh was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction,
mostly in Burma.[387] Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free
India (or Azad Hind), a government-in-exile based in Singapore. [388][389] The government of
Azad Hind had its own currency, court, and civil code; and in the eyes of some Indians
its existence gave a greater legitimacy to the independence struggle against the British.
[citation needed]

By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already

captured the Indian territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal
control of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India on 21 October 1943,
and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into
India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the mainland of the
Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from
the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.
The region of Bengal in British India suffered a devastating famine during 1940–43. An
estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made",
[390]
 asserting that wartime colonial policies and Winston Churchill's animosity and racism
toward Indians exacerbated the crisis.[391][392]
Indian independence movement (1885–1947)[edit]
Main article: Indian independence movement
See also: Indian independence activists and Pakistan Movement

The first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. A. O. Hume,

the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The
Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the
British Empire in Asia and Africa.[393]
 

Surya Sen, leader of the Chittagong armoury raid, an raid on 18 April

1930 on the armoury of police and auxiliary forces in Chittagong,
Bengal, now Bangladesh
 
 

Front page of the Tribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution

of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British for the murder of
21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became
a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.
 

From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi (right), the Congress became the
principal leader of the Indian independence movement.[394] Gandhi is
shown here with Jawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of
India.
The numbers of British in India were small,[395] yet they were able to rule 52% of the
Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely
states that accounted for 48% of the area.[396]
One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,
[397]
 leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However,
historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of
interests of the Indian people with British interests", [397] "racial discriminations",[398] and "the
revelation of India's past".[399]
The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the
British viceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils
with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently
widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the
senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such
as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs.[400] The civil service was increasingly filled with natives
at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions. [401]
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj as the destiny of the
nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" [402] became the
source of inspiration for Indians. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin
Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view, notably they
advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of all imported items and the
use of Indian-made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal. Under
them, India's three big provinces – Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab shaped the
demand of the people and India's nationalism. In 1907, the Congress was split into two
factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to
overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates,
led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand,
wanted reform within the framework of British rule. [403]
The partition of Bengal in 1905 further increased the revolutionary movement for Indian
independence. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.
The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's
support during the First World War and in response to renewed nationalist demands.
The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government
of India Act 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or
diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.
[404]
 In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful
protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre; which led to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920–22. The massacre was
a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India. [405]
From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to
campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led
independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-
co-operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. However, revolutionary
activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and
some others adopted a militant approach like the Hindustan Republican Association,
founded by Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar and others, that
sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle. The Government of India Act
1935 was a major success in this regard.[403]
The All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its
support for an independent and united India.[406] Its members included several Islamic
organisations in India, as well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates. [407][408][409] The pro-
separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims
who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion". [408][409] The
murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro also
made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of
a Pakistan.[409]
After World War II (c. 1946–1947) [edit]
"A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends;
and when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance."
 — From, Tryst with destiny, a speech given by Jawaharlal Nehru to the Constituent Assembly of India on the eve of
independence, 14 August 1947.[410]
In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of
RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a
head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by
others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. Also in
early 1946, new elections were called and Congress candidates won in eight of the
eleven provinces.
Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early
1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and
participating in the formation of an interim government.
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also
been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the
Indian subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them
wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to
resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an
astonishing display of leadership.
Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 as Direct
Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim
homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that
would be later called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946". The communal
violence spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), to Noakhali in
Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), in Garhmukteshwar in the United
Provinces (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi in March
1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.
Independence and partition (c. 1947–present)[edit]
Main articles: Partition of India, History of the Republic of India, History of Pakistan,
and History of Bangladesh

A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on

district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and
published in the Imperial Gazetteer of India. The partition of
the Punjab and Bengal was based on such majorities.
 
 

Gandhi touring touring Bela, Bihar, a village struck by religious rioting in

March 1947. On the right is Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan.
 
 Jawaharlal Nehru being sworn in as the first prime minister of
independent India by viceroy Lord Louis Mountbatten at 8:30 AM 15
August 1947.
In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the Union of
India and Dominion of Pakistan. In particular, the partition of Punjab and Bengal led to
rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other
nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely
ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not
actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies. [411][412][413] Also, this period saw
one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million
Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and
Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively). [412] In
1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.[414]

Historiography[edit]
In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography in how historians
study India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common
"Orientalist" approach, with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual
India, has died out in serious scholarship.[415]
The "Cambridge School", led by Anil Seal,[416] Gordon Johnson,[417] Richard Gordon, and
David A. Washbrook,[418] downplays ideology.[419] However, this school of historiography is
criticised for western bias or Eurocentrism.[420]
The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics.
It highlighted the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun
in 1942, as defining historical events. This school of historiography has received
criticism for Elitism.[421]
The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and
class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period.
The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's movement as a device of the bourgeois elite to
harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends. Again, the Marxists
are accused of being "too much" ideologically influenced. [422]
The "subaltern school", was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash.
[423]
 It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below",
looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and
methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the colonial era before 1947 and
typically emphasises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist
school.[424]
More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history to support their
demands for "Hindutva" ("Hinduness") in Indian society. This school of thought is still in
the process of development.[425] In March 2012, Diana L. Eck, professor of Comparative
Religion and Indian Studies at Harvard University, authored in her book "India: A Sacred
Geography", that idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British or the
Mughals and it wasn't just a cluster of regional identities and it wasn't ethnic or racial. [426]
[427][428][429]

See also[edit]

 History portal

 India portal

 Early Indians
 Economic history of India
 History of the Republic of India
 Foreign relations of India
 Indian maritime history
 Linguistic history of India
 Military history of India
 Outline of ancient India
 The Cambridge History of India
 Timeline of Indian history

References[edit]
Notes[edit]
1. ^ The "First urbanization" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.[74]

2. ^ Many historians consider Attock to be the final frontier of the

Maratha Empire[328]

Citations[edit]
1. ^ Michael D. Petraglia; Bridget Allchin  (2007). The Evolution and
History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies
in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics.
Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4020-5562-
1. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization
 of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence
dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55
ka."
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Wright, Rita P.  (2009), The Ancient Indus: Urbanism,
Economy, and Society, Cambridge University Press, pp. 44,
51,  ISBN  978-0-521-57652-9
3. ^ Wright, Rita P. (2009),  The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and
Society, Cambridge University Press, pp. 115–125, ISBN 978-0-521-
57652-9
4. ^ Jump up to:a b c Flood, Gavin D. (1996),  An Introduction to Hinduism,
Cambridge University Press, p. 82,  ISBN  978-0-521-43878-0
5. ^ Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. The Blackwell Companion to
Hinduism. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274
6. ^ Researches Into the History and Civilization of the Kirātas by G. P.
Singh p. 33
7. ^ Jump up to:a b A Social History of Early India by Brajadulal
Chattopadhyaya p. 259
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Technology and Society by Menon, R.V.G. p. 15
9. ^ The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South
India, by Carla M. Sinopoli, p. 201
10. ^ Science in India by B.V. Subbarayappa
11. ^ The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From Early Times to c.
1800, Band 1 by Nicholas Tarling, p. 281
12. ^ Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. The Blackwell Companion to
Hinduism. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274.
13. ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p. 281
14. ^ Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume B: From 600 to 1750
by Craig Lockard p. 333
15. ^ Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the
Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p. 67
16. ^ Essays on Ancient India by Raj Kumar p. 199
17. ^ Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 p. 141 "Conquest of  Makran"
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include an unfinished one", UNESCO and Spink "about 30". The
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157. ^ Tej Ram Sharma, 1978, "Personal and geographical names in the
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159. ^ The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the
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Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over
 and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This
then united Hinduism; [...] Another of Adi Shankara's important
undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his
founding of a number of monastic centers."
177. ^ "Shankara", Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000),
Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, ISBN 978-0-
85229-760-5, p. 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and
theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of
philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian
thought are derived.";
David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p.
1353, Quote: "[Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita
Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main
currents of modern Hindu thought."
178. ^ Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in
India, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-10335-0, p. 2,
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became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical
structure was that of Shankara".
179. ^ Shyama Kumar Chattopadhyaya (2000)  The Philosophy of
Sankar's Advaita Vedanta, Sarup & Sons, New Delhi ISBN 81-7625-
222-0, 978-81-7625-222-5
180. ^ Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 3, at Google
Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pp. 3–4; Quote – "[...]
Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist.
There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas
who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation
and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual
existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4.
Vaibhashikas, who agree with later (Sautranticas) except that they
contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through
images or forms represented to the intellect."
181. ^ Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 3, at Google
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182. ^ KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of
Knowledge, ISBN 978-81-208-0619-1, pp. 246–249, from note 385
onwards;
Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank
Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-
7914-2217-5, p. 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the
doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed
doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly,
this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self,
no unchanging essence.";
Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction at Google Books
Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible
With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;
John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial
Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0158-5, p. 63,
Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have
already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction
between Hinduism and Buddhism".
183. ^ The Seven Spiritual Laws Of Yoga, Deepak Chopra, John Wiley &
Sons, 2006, ISBN 81-265-0696-2, 978-81-265-0696-5
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Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, 1980, ISBN 978-90-04-
06117-0, p. 4
185. ^ Avari, Burjor (2007).  India: The Ancient Past. A History of the
Indian-Subcontinent from 7000 BC to AD 1200. New York: Routledge.
pp.  204–205.  ISBN  978-0-203-08850-0. Madhyadesha became the
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known as Gurjara and Pratihara. They were both parts of a larger
federation of tribes, some of which later came to be known as the
Rajputs
186. ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 100–103
187. ^ Vinod Chandra Srivastava 2008, p. 857.
188. ^ Jump up to:    The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India by Balaji
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Sadasivan p. 129
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190. ^ Sunil Fotedar (June 1984). The Kashmir Series: Glimpses of
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191. ^ R.C. Mazumdar, Ancient India, p. 383
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193. ^ Jump up to:      Chandra, Satish (2009). History of Medieval India. New
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Delhi: Orient Blackswan Private Limited. pp.  19–20.  ISBN  978-81-

250-3226-7.
194. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 89
195. ^ "Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian
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196. ^ Sen 1999, p. 380.
197. ^ Sen 1999, pp. 380–381.
198. ^ Daniélou 2003, p. 170.
199. ^ The Britannica Guide to Algebra and Trigonometry by William L.
Hosch p. 105
200. ^ Wink, André (2002).  Al-Hind: Early Medieval India and the
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201. ^ Avari 2007, p. 303.
202. ^ Sircar 1971, p. 146.
203. ^ K.D. Bajpai (2006). History of Gopāchala. Bharatiya Jnanpith.
p. 31.  ISBN  978-81-263-1155-2.
204. ^ Epigraphia Indica, XXIV, p. 43, Dr N.G. Majumdar
205. ^ Nitish K. Sengupta (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of
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45.  ISBN  978-0-14-341678-4.
206. ^ Biplab Dasgupta (2005). European Trade and Colonial Conquest.
Anthem Press. pp. 341–.  ISBN  978-1-84331-029-7.
207. ^ Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund (1998),  A History of
India, ISBN 978-0-203-44345-3
208. ^ History of Buddhism in India, Translation by A Shiefner
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New Delhi: Orient Blackswan Private Limited. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-

81-250-3226-7.
210. ^ Jump up to:a b Sen 1999, p. 278.
211. ^ PN Chopra; BN Puri; MN Das; AC Pradhan, eds. (2003).  A
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212. ^ History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D. by Radhey
Shyam Chaurasia p. 237
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214. ^ Keay 2000, p. 215: The Cholas were in fact the most successful
dynasty since the Guptas ... The classic expansion of Chola power
began anew with the accession of Rajaraja I in 985.
215. ^ "The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty".
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216. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p. 158
217. ^ Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-
Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p. 229
218. ^ History of Asia by B.V. Rao p. 297
219. ^ Indian Civilization and Culture by Suhas Chatterjee p. 417
220. ^ Jump up to:    A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: by Farooqui
a b

Salma Ahmed, Salma Ahmed Farooqui p. 24

221. ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen pp.
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222. ^ World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Band 1
by ʻAlī Jāvīd pp. 132–134
223. ^ History of Kannada Literature by E.P. Rice p. 32
224. ^ Bilhana by Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar, p. 29
225. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47.
226. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6.
227. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 53.
228. ^ Jamal Malik (2008).  Islam in South Asia: A Short History.  Brill
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229. ^ William Hunter (1903), A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, p.
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230. ^ Ramananda Chatterjee (1961).  The Modern
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231. ^ Jump up to:a b Delhi Sultanate, Encyclopædia Britannica
232. ^ Bartel, Nick (1999).  "Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim
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233. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 50–52.
234. ^ Richard Eaton (2000), Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim
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236. ^ Ludden 2002, p. 67.

237. ^ "Timur – conquest of India".  Gardenvisit. Archived from  the
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238. ^ Elliot & Dawson. The History of India As told By Its Own
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239. ^ Jump up to:a b Schomer & McLeod (1987), p. 1.
240. ^ Johar, Surinder (1999).  Guru Gobind Singh: A Multi-faceted
Personality. MD Publications. p.  89. ISBN 978-81-7533-093-1.
241. ^ Schomer & McLeod (1987), pp. 1–2.
242. ^ Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and
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243. ^ SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti – the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag
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244. ^ Wendy Doniger (2009), Bhakti, Encyclopædia Britannica; The
Four Denomination of Hinduism Himalayan Academy (2013)
245. ^ Schomer & McLeod (1987), p. 2.
246. ^ Novetzke, Christian (2007). "Bhakti and Its Public". International
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247. ^ Singh, Patwant (2000). The Sikhs. Alfred A Knopf Publishing. p.
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248. ^ Louis Fenech and WH McLeod (2014), Historical Dictionary of
Sikhism, 3rd Edition, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-1-4422-3600-4,
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249. ^ William James (2011), God's Plenty: Religious Diversity in
Kingston, McGill Queens University Press, ISBN 978-0-7735-3889-4,
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250. ^ Mann, Gurinder Singh (2001).  The Making of Sikh Scripture.
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253. ^ Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from
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256. ^ Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 317
257. ^ The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of
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258. ^ From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a
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259. ^ Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture, John
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261. ^ Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 244
262. ^ From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz
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263. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 164
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268. ^ Fritz & Michell, p. 14
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270. ^ "The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the
last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes
built Dravidian temples and palaces which won the admiration of
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leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro. Allah Bakhsh belonged to a landed
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opposed to the Muslim League’s demand for the creation of Pakistan
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Printed sources[edit]

 Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2004), From Plassey to Partition: A History of

Modern India, Orient Longman,  ISBN  978-81-250-2596-2
 Bayly, Christopher Alan (2000) [First published 1996],  Empire and
Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India,
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Democracy (2nd ed.),  ISBN  978-0-19-873113-9
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L.; Leakey, Richard E. (eds.). Out of Africa I: The First Hominin
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164.  ISBN  978-90-481-9036-2.
 Daniélou, Alain  (2003), A Brief History of India, Rochester, VT: Inner
Traditions, ISBN 978-0-89281-923-2
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Chand Group,  ISBN  978-81-219-0298-4
 Fay, Peter Ward (1993),  The forgotten army : India's armed struggle for
independence, 1942–1945, University of Michigan Press,  ISBN  978-0-
472-10126-9
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Longman, OCLC  254043308
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Reality – Differing Views, Delhi: Agam prakashan
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87113-800-2
 Kenoyer, J. Mark  (1998). The Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley
Civilisation. Oxford University Press.  ISBN  978-0-19-577940-0.
 Ludden, D. (2002), India and South Asia: A Short History,  One
World, ISBN 978-1-85168-237-9
 Michaels, Axel (2004),  Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press
 Petraglia, Michael D.; Allchin, Bridget (2007). The Evolution and History of
Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in
Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics. Springer
Science & Business Media.  ISBN  978-1-4020-5562-1.
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90-481-9036-2.
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History of India, Volume 1: c. 1200 – c. 1750, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 978-0-521-22692-9
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 Samuel, Geoffrey (2010),  The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge
University Press
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MacMillan Press, ISBN 0-333-43805-1
 Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W.H., eds. (1987), The Sants: Studies in a
Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass,  ISBN  978-81-208-0277-
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Civilization. New Age International.  ISBN  978-81-224-1198-0.
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pp.  59–78
 Thapar, Romila (1977),  A History of India. Volume One, Penguin Books
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Interpretations  (PDF), Orient Blackswan, archived from the
original  (PDF)  on 14 February 2015
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Penguin Books India.  ISBN  978-0-14-302989-2.
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ed.),  Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51750-8
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BCE". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2015.

Further reading[edit]
General[edit]

 Basham, A.L., ed. The Illustrated Cultural History of

India (Oxford University Press, 2007)
 Buckland, C.E. Dictionary of Indian Biography (1906)
495pp full text
 Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history :
palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations
 Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. The Cambridge
Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751 – c.
1970 (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
 Fisher, Michael. An Environmental History of India: From
Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge UP,
2018)
 Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of
the World's Largest Democracy (2007), 890pp; since 1947
 James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of
British India (2000)
 Khan, Yasmin. The Raj At War: A People's History Of
India's Second World War (2015)
 Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of
India (4th ed.). New York: Routledge. Archived from the
original on 23 March 2008.
 Majumdar, R.C. : An Advanced History of India. London,
1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X
 Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) : The History and Culture of the
Indian People, Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).
 Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002) excerpt and text
search
 Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise
historical encyclopedia
 Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Concise
History of Modern India (2006)
 Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule: 1700–
1885 (2006), 192pp
 Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire (The New
Cambridge History of India) (1996)
 Riddick, John F. The History of British India: A
Chronology (2006) excerpt
 Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998);
5000 entries excerpt
 Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From
Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)
 Sharma, R.S., India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University
Press, 2005)
 Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India, 1885–1947 (2002)
 Senior, R.C. (2006). Indo-Scythian coins and history.
Volume IV. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. ISBN 978-0-
9709268-6-9.
 Singh, Upinder. A history of ancient and early medieval
India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century (2008)
 Singhal, D.P. A History of the Indian People (1983)
 Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (3rd ed. 1958),
old-fashioned
 Spear, Percival. A History of India. Volume 2. Penguin
Books. (1990) [First published 1965]
 Stein, Burton. A History of India (1998)
 Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD
1300 (2004) excerpt and text search
  Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfilment
of British Rule in India (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey,
1599–1933 excerpt and text search
 Tomlinson, B.R. The Economy of Modern India, 1860–
1970 (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
 Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India (6th ed. 1999)
Historiography[edit]

 Bannerjee, Gauranganath (1921). India as known to the

ancient world. London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford
University Press.
 Bayly, C.A. (November 1985). "State and Economy in India
over Seven Hundred Years". The Economic History
Review. 38 (4): 583–596. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
0289.1985.tb00391.x. JSTOR 2597191.
 Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose
Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a
Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", History
Today 57#9 (2007) pp. 34–. online
 Elliot, Henry Miers; John Dowson (1867–77). The History
of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan
Period. London: Trübner and Co.
 Kahn, Yasmin. "Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia
and the Second World War' in Martin Gegner and Bart
Ziino, eds., The Heritage of War (Routledge, 2011)
pp. 177–193.
 Jain, M. The India They Saw : Foreign Accounts (4
Volumes) Delhi: Ocean Books, 2011.
 Lal, Vinay, The History of History: Politics and Scholarship
in Modern India (2003).
 Palit, Chittabrata, Indian Historiography (2008).
 Arvind Sharma, Hinduism and Its Sense of History (Oxford
University Press, 2003) ISBN 978-0-19-566531-4
 E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to
A.D. 2000 (2004)
 Warder, A.K., An introduction to Indian
historiography (1972).
Primary[edit]

 The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 1908–31), highly

detailed description of all of India in 1901. online edition
 Wikiquote has quotations
related to: History of India

Online resources[edit]

 Live History India: https://www.livehistoryindia.com/

 History of India
Podcast: https://historyofindiapodcast.libsyn.com/
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