PREFACE

BSNL Regional Telecom Training Centre(RTTC), Mararimalai Nagar is one of the several
institutes of BSNL that offers students, who are at various stages of education, a chance to gain
hands on experience with the technology involved in making communication possible.

The BSNL Regional Telecom Training Centre offers several courses that will be conducted over
a period of 3 to 4 weeks. Over the duration of the course the staff at the RTTC will introduce the
students to various concepts involved in the process of communication along with a hands on
experience with the various instruments that make these concepts a reality to be used in the real
world.

Our INTERNSHIP at the RTTC was regarding NETWORKING that was conducted over a
duration of 3 weeks and we were introduced to the basic concepts involved in tele
communication that were further strengthened with demonstration of the working of the
equipment at the Optical Fibre Transmission Lab, Switching Lab, Telecom Evaluation Lab,
Internet & Broadband Lab.

There were several machines that aided the process of telecommunication that were on display at
the training centre like the C-DOT, Multiplexers of DSL based broad band internet, Digital
subscriber line access multiplexer(DSLAM 960 port), SDH equipment, FTTx, Broadband
Network Gateway(BNG), Resilient Packet Ring(RPR), etc.

The service provided by BSNL to its customers is:-

Basic local telephony

National and International call service

Mobile Communication

Internet Service
Contents
PREFACE...................................................................................................................................................1
Background of Company/Organization.......................................................................................................3
Training Schedule........................................................................................................................................6
Working Experience....................................................................................................................................6
Skills and Knowledge Gained..................................................................................................................6
UDP Services........................................................................................................................................6
Encapsulation and decapsulation........................................................................................................7
Network Address Translation (NAT)....................................................................................................8
Domain Name Server (DNS) in Application Layer..............................................................................11
Summary...............................................................................................................................................14
Background of Company/Organization
All industries operate in a specific environment which keeps changing and the firms in the
business need to understand it to dynamically adjust their actions for best results. Like minded
firms get together to form associations in order to protect their common interests. Other stake
holders also develop a system to take care of their issues. Governments also need to intervene for
ensuring fair competition and the best value for money for its citizens. This handout gives
exposure on the Telecom Environment in India and also dwells on the role of international
bodies in standardizing and promoting Telecom Growth in the world.
The Indian postal and telecom sectors saw a slow and uneasy start. In 1850, the first
experimental electric telegraph line was started between and . In 1851, it was opened for the use
of. The Posts and Telegraphs department occupied a small corner of the Public Works
Department, at that time.
Subsequently, the construction of 4,000 miles (6,400 km) of telegraph lines connecting Kolkata
(then Calcutta) and Peshawar in the north along with Agra, (then Bombay) through Sindwa
Ghats, and well as and was started in November 1853. , who pioneered the and in India,
belonged to the Public Works Department, and worked towards the development of telecom
throughout this period. A separate department was opened in 1854 when telegraph facilities were
opened to the public.
In 1880, two namely The Ltd. and The Anglo-Indian Telephone Company Ltd. approached to
establish the permission was refused on the grounds that the establishment of telephones was a
Government monopoly and that the Government itself would undertake the work. In 1881, the
Government later reversed its earlier decision and a licence was granted to the Limited of for
opening telephone exchanges at ,and and the first formal telephone service was established in the
country. On the 28th January 1882, Major E. Baring, Member of the 's Council declared open the
Telephone Exchanges in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The exchange in Calcutta named the
"Central Exchange", was opened at third floor of the building at 7, Council House Street, with a
total of 93 subscribers. Later that year, Bombay also witnessed the opening of a telephone
exchange.
Further milestones and developments
 1907 - First Central Battery of telephones introduced in 1913-1914 - First Automatic
Exchange installed in kanpur.
 1927 - Radio-telegraph system between the and India, with beam stations at khadki and
dhundh..
 1933 - system inaugurated between the UK and India.
 1953 - 12 channel carrier systemoduced.
 1960 - First route commissioned between delhi and kanpur
 1975 - First system commissioned between Mumbai city and andheri telephone exchanges.
 1979 - First optical fibre system for local junction commissioned at pune
 1980 - First satellite earth station for domestic communications established
at scikandarabad.
 1983 - First analog signal Stored Program Control exchange for trunk line commissioned at
Mumbai.
 1984 – c-dot exchange established for indigenous development and production
of digital exchanges.
 1995 - First mobile telephone service started on non-commercial basis on 15 August 1995
in delhi
 1995 - Internet Introduced in India starting with Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Chennai and Pune
on 15 August 1995
Modern policies
 All villages shall receive telecom facilities by the end of 2002.
 A Communication Convergence Bill introduced in the Parliament on August 31, 2001 is
presently before the Standing Committee of Parliament on Telecom and IT.
 National Long Distance Service (NLD) is opened for unrestricted entry.
 The International Long Distance Services (ILDS) have been opened to competition.
 The basic services are open to competition.
 In addition to the existing three, a fourth cellular operator, one each in four metros and
thirteen circles, has been permitted. Cellular operators have been permitted to provide all types
of mobile services including voice and non-voice messages, data services and public call office
utilizing any type of network equipment, including circuit and/or package switches that meet
certain required standards.
 Policies allowing private participation have been announced as per the New Telecom Policy
(NTP), 1999 in several new services, which include Global Mobile Personal Communication by
Satellite (GMPCS) Service, digital Public Mobile Radio Trunked Service (PMRTS) and Voice
Mail/ Audiotex/ Unified Messaging Services.
 Wireless Local Loop has been introduced to provide telephone connections in urban,
semiurban and rural areas promptly.
 Two telecom PSUs, VSNL and HTL have been disinvested.
 Steps are being taken to fulfill Universal Service Obligation (USO), funding, and
administration.
 A decision to permit Community Phone Service has been announced.
 Multiple Fixed Service Providers (FSPs) licensing guidelines were announced.
 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) have been allowed to set up International Internet
Gateways, both Satellite and Landing stations for submarine optical fiber cables.
 Two categories of infrastructure providers have been allowed to provide end-to-end
bandwidth and dark fiber, right of way, towers, duct space etc.
 Guidelines have been issued by the Government to open up Internet telephony (IP).

Training Schedule
The training schedule was divided into 15 days worth of course, where each day is again divided
into two parts one from 9:00am to 11:00am and after a break of half an hour there was another
session from 11:30am to 1:30pm. The first half was dedicated to theory and the second half was
dedicated to lab outing.

Working Experience

Skills and Knowledge Gained

UDP Services
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of Internet
Protocol suite, referred as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is unreliable and connectionless
protocol. So, there is no need to establish connection prior to data transfer.

Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant transport layer protocol used with
most of Internet services; provides assured delivery, reliability and much more but all these
services cost us with additional overhead and latency. Here, UDP comes into picture. For the
realtime services like computer gaming, voice or video communication, live conferences; we
need UDP. Since high performance is needed, UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of
processing delayed packets. There is no error checking in UDP, so it also save bandwidth.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is more efficient in terms of both latency and bandwidth.
 UDP header is 8-bytes fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary from 20 bytes to 60
bytes. First 8 Bytes contains all necessary header information and remaining part consist of data.
UDP port number fields are each 16 bits long, therefore range for port numbers defined from 0 to
65535; port number 0 is reserved. Port numbers help to distinguish different user requests or
process.

1. Source Port : Source Port is 2 Byte long field used to identify port number of source.

2. Destination Port : It is 2 Byte long field, used to identify the port of destined packet.

3. Length : Length is the length of UDP including header and the data. It is 16-bits field.

4. Checksum : Checksum is 2 Bytes long field. It is the 16-bit one’s complement of the
one’s complement sum of the UDP header, pseudo header of information from the IP header and
the data, padded with zero octets at the end (if necessary) to make a multiple of two octets.

Used for simple request response communication when size of data is less and hence there is
lesser concern about flow and error control.

It is suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.

UDP is used for some routing update protocols like RIP(Routing Information Protocol).

Normally used for real time applications which can not tolerate uneven delays between sections
of a received message.

Encapsulation and decapsulation

Data is important for every organization. Therefore, it is necessary to send the data to another
location easily with a minimum amount of time. The data can be sent to the destination using the
network. A network is a collection of interconnected devices such as computers, printers for
sharing resources. When there is a large number of hosts, the network becomes complex,
connecting different computers increases the incompatibility. Therefore, open standard network
models were improved. Two common network models are International Organization for
Standardization (OSI) and  Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP
is the new network model that is a replacement for OSI model. These models contain layers.

Encapsulation is the process of adding information to the application layer data as it is sent
through each model layer. Each time the data passes a layer, a new Protocol Data Unit (PDU)  is
created. The data sent from the application layer has added a header with information
on TCP/UDP in the transport layer. Now the data is known as a segment. When that segment
reaches the internet layer, the segment is added a header with IP addresses. Now it is called a
packet. When the packet reaches the network access layer, a header with MAC addresses is
added. Now it is known as a frame. Likewise, in each layer, a corresponding Protocol Data Unit
(PDU) is created. Adding this information in each layer is known as Encapsulation. When the
encapsulation process is completed, the frame is sent to the network.

As explained in the encapsulation process, the frame goes out of the host computer to the
network. Then it reaches the destination host. In the destination host, the frame is decapsulated in
the reverse order till the application layer. The frame which reaches the network access layer
contains the data, TCP/UDP header, header with IP addresses and header with MAC addresses.

When it is sent to the network layer, it is a packet and has data, TCP/UDP header and header
with IP address. Then the packet reaches the transport layer. Now it is segmented and contains
data and TCP/UDP  header. Finally, the segment reaches the application layer. In the application
layer, the host can see the data sent from the source computer. This process is known as
Decapsulation.

Network Address Translation (NAT)

To access the Internet, one public IP address is needed, but we can use a private IP address in our
private network. The idea of NAT is to allow multiple devices to access the Internet through a
single public address. To achieve this, the translation of private IP address to a public IP address
is required. Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or more local IP
address is translated into one or more Global IP address and vice versa in order to provide
Internet access to the local hosts. Also, it does the translation of port numbers i.e. masks the port
number of the host with another port number, in the packet that will be routed to the destination.
It then makes the corresponding entries of IP address and port number in the NAT table. NAT
generally operates on router or firewall.

Network Address Translation (NAT) working –

Generally, the border router is configured for NAT i.e the router which has one interface in local
(inside) network and one interface in the global (outside) network. When a packet traverse
outside the local (inside) network, then NAT converts that local (private) IP address to a global
(public) IP address. When a packet enters the local network, the global (public) IP address is
converted to a local (private) IP address.

If NAT run out of addresses, i.e., no address is left in the pool configured then the packets will
be dropped and an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) host unreachable packet to the
destination is sent.

Why mask port numbers?

Suppose, in a network, two hosts A and B are connected. Now, both of them request for the same
destination, on the same port number, say 1000, on the host side, at the same time. If NAT does
an only translation of IP addresses, then when their packets will arrive at the NAT, both of their
IP addresses would be masked by the public IP address of the network and sent to the
destination. Destination will send replies on the public IP address of the router. Thus, on
receiving a reply, it will be unclear to NAT as to which reply belongs to which host (because
source port numbers for both A and B are same). Hence, to avoid such a problem, NAT masks
the source port number as well and makes an entry in the NAT table.

NAT inside and outside addresses –

Inside refers to the addresses which must be translated. Outside refers to the addresses which are
not in control of an organisation. These are the network Addresses in which the translation of the
addresses will be done.
 Inside local address – An IP address that is assigned to a host on the Inside (local)
network. The address is probably not a IP address assigned by the service provider i.e., these are
private IP address. This is the inside host seen from the inside network.

 Inside global address – IP address that represents one or more inside local IP addresses
to the outside world. This is the inside host as seen from the outside network.

 Outside local address – This is the actual IP address of the destination host in the local
network after translation.

 Outside global address – This is the outside host as seen form the outside network. It is
the IP address of the outside destination host before translation.

Network Address Translation (NAT) Types –

There are 3 ways to configure NAT:

1. Static NAT – In this, a single unregistered (Private) IP address is mapped with a legally
registered (Public) IP address i.e one-to-one mapping between local and global address. This is
generally used for Web hosting. These are not used in organisations as there are many devices
who will need Internet access and to provide Internet access, the public IP address is needed.

2. Dynamic NAT – In this type of NAT, an unregistered IP address is translated into a
registered (Public) IP address from a pool of public IP address. If the IP address of pool is not
free, then the packet will be dropped as an only a fixed number of private IP address can be
translated to public addresses.
3. Port Address Translation (PAT) – This is also known as NAT overload. In this, many
local (private) IP addresses can be translated to a single registered IP address. Port numbers are
used to distinguish the traffic i.e., which traffic belongs to which IP address. This is most
frequently used as it is cost-effective as thousands of users can be connected to the Internet by
using only one real global (public) IP address.

Domain Name Server (DNS) in Application Layer

DNS is a host name to IP address translation service. DNS is a distributed database implemented
in a hierarchy of name servers. It is an application layer protocol for message exchange between
clients and servers.

Requirement

Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very difficult for the
people and also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to change the
domain name to IP address. So DNS is used to convert the domain name of the websites to their
numerical IP address.

Domain :
There are various kinds of DOMAIN :

1. Generic domain : .com(commercial) .edu(educational) .mil(military) .org(non profit

organization) .net(similar to commercial) all these are generic domain.

2. Country domain .in (india) .us .uk

3. Inverse domain if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip to domain
name mapping.So DNS can provide both the mapping for example to find the ip addresses of
geeksforgeeks.org then we have to type nslookup www.geeksforgeeks.org.
Organization of Domain

It is Very difficult to find out the ip address associated to a website because there are millions of
websites and with all those websites we should be able to generate the ip address immediately,
there should not be a lot of delay for that to happen organization of database is very important.
DNS record – Domain name, ip address what is the validity?? what is the time to live ?? and all
the information related to that domain name. These records are stored in tree like structure.

Namespace – Set of possible names, flat or hierarchical . Naming system maintains a collection
of bindings of names to values – given a name, a resolution mechanism returns the
corresponding value –

Name server – It is an implementation of the resolution mechanism.. DNS (Domain Name

System) = Name service in Internet – Zone is an administrative unit, domain is a subtree.
Name to Address Resolution

The host request the DNS name server to resolve the domain name. And the name server returns
the IP address corresponding to that domain name to the host so that the host can future connect
to that IP address.

Hierarchy of Name Servers

Root name servers – It is contacted by name servers that can not resolve the name. It contacts
authoritative name server if name mapping is not known. It then gets the mapping and return the
IP address to the host.

Top level server – It is responsible for com, org, edu etc and all top level country domains like
uk, fr, ca, in etc. They have info about authoritative domain servers and know names and IP
addresses of each authoritative name server for the second level domains.

Authoritative name servers This is organization’s DNS server, providing authoritative

hostName to IP mapping for organization servers. It can be maintained by organization or
service provider. In order to reach cse.dtu.in we have to ask the root DNS server, then it will
point out to the top level domain server and then to authoritative domain name server which
actually contains the IP address. So the authoritative domain server will return the associative ip
address.

Domain Name Server

The client machine sends a request to the local name server, which , if root does not find the
address in its database, sends a request to the root name server , which in turn, will route the
query to an intermediate or authoritative name server. The root name server can also contain
some hostName to IP address mappings . The intermediate name server always knows who the
authoritative name server is. So finally the IP address is returned to the local name server which
in turn returns the IP address to the host.

Summary
This Internship at BSNL RTTC was a wholesome learning experience, where I was able to grasp the basic
idea of networking, and the inner workings of the computer networks.
I was introduced to CISCO packet tracer software that creates simulations of computer networks

References
www.geeksforgeeks.com