Protectorate

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A protectorate, in its inception adopted by modern international law, is a

dependent territory that has been granted local autonomy and some
independence while still retaining the suzerainty of a greater sovereign state.
In exchange for this, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations,
which may vary greatly, depending on the real nature of their relationship.
Therefore, a protectorate remains an autonomous part of a sovereign state.
They are different from colonies as they have local rulers and people ruling
over the territory and experience rare cases of immigration of settlers from
the country it has suzerainty of. However, a state which remains under the
protection of another state but still retains independence is known as a
protected state and is different from protectorates.

Rationale

Amical protection

In amical protection, the terms are often very favorable for the protectorate.
The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted
moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, dynastic, historical, or
ethno-cultural ties) or countering a rival or enemy power (e.g., preventing the
rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance).
This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external
relations; this, however, may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the
protectorate may not have been able to have similar use of them without the
protector's strength.

Amical protection was frequently extended by the great powers to other

Christian (generally European) states and to smaller states that had no
significant importance. In the post-1815 period, non-Christian states (such as
China's Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection towards other much
weaker states.

In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or

defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by
Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign
states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of
sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their
political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic
constraints".[1] Examples of microstates understood as modern protected
states include Andorra, Bhutan,[2] Liechtenstein, San Marino, Monaco, Niue,
the Cook Islands, and Palau.

Colonial protection

Conditions regarding protection are generally much less generous for areas of
colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a de facto
condition similar to a colony, but using the pre-existing native state as an
agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by or
exercised by the other form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which
becomes a de facto state in its European home state (but geographically
overseas), allowed to be an independent country which has its own foreign
policy and generally its own armed forces.

In fact, protectorates were declared despite not being duly entered into by the
traditional states supposedly being protected, or only by a party of dubious
authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle
several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the
protectorates, a logic disrespectful of the theoretical duty of a protector to
help maintain its protectorates' status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of
February 26, 1885 allowed European colonial powers to establish
protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by
diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This
aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the
formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation,
convenient only for the colonizer or protector, of adjacent territories over
which it held (de facto) sway by protective or "raw" colonial logic.

Foreign relations

In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the
protecting power, so other states must deal with it by approaching the
protector. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own, but
relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation, in that
the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the
protectorate.
Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors,
United Nations Trust Territories, whose administration is supervised, in
varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally
enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector,
while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-
representing body, with or without a de facto administering power.

British protectorates

Chinese protectorates

Han dynasty:

Protectorate of the Western Regions

Tang dynasty:

Protectorate General to Pacify the West

Protectorate General to Pacify the North

Protectorate General to Pacify the East

Yuan dynasty:

Goryeo (1270–1356)[3]

Dutch protectorates

Aruba   , Curaçao   , Sint Maarten   (all are presently separate

constituent countries, formerly part of the Netherlands Antilles   )

Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present Indonesia)

Trumon Sultanate (1770?), Langkat Sultanate (26 October 1869), Deli
Sultanate (22 August 1862), Asahan Sultanate (27 September 1865), Siak
Sultanate (1 February 1858) and Indragiri Sultanate (1838?) in Sumatra

Jogjakarta Sultanate (13 February 1755), Mataram Empire and Surakarta

Sunanate (26 February 1677), Duchy of Mangkunegara (24 February 1757)
and Duchy of Paku Alaman (22 June 1812) in Java.

Sumbawa Sultanate (?) and Bima Sultanate (8 December 1669) in Lesser

Sunda Islands.

Pontianak Sultanate (16 August 1819), Sambas Sultanate (1819), Kubu

Sultanate (4 June 1823), Landak Sultanate (?), Mempawah Sultanate (?),
 Matan Sultanate (?), Sanggau Sultanate (?), Sekadau Sultanate (?), Simpang
Sultanate (?), Sintang Sultanate (1822), Sukadana Sultanate (?), Kota Waringin
Sultanate (?), Kutai Kertanegara Sultanate (8 August 1825), Gunung Tabur
Sultanate (?) and Bulungan Sultanate (?) in Borneo.

Gowa Sultanate (1669), Bone Sultanate (?), Sidenreng Sultanate (?), Soppeng
Sultanate (?), Butung Sultanate (?), Muna Sultanate (?) and Banggai Sultanate
(?) in Celebes.

Ternate (12 October 1676) and Batjan Sultanate (?) in The Moluccas.

Kaimana Sultanate (?) in Dutch New Guinea.

French protectorates

Saar Protectorate   (1947–1956), not colonial or amical, but a former part

of Germany that would by referendum return to it, in fact a re-edition of a
former League of Nations mandate. Most French protectorates were colonial.

Asia
Present India: Arkat   (Arcot/Carnatic) was 1692–1750 a French
protectorate until 1763 independence recognized under British protectorate

French Indochina until 1953/54:

Cambodia   11 August 1863

Annam and Tonkin   6 June 1884

Laos   3 October 1893

Arab world and Madagascar

Comoros 21 April 1886 French protectorate (Anjouan) until 25 July 1912 when
annexed.

Present Djibouti was originally, since 24 June 1884, the Territory of Obock and
Protectorate of Tadjoura (Territoires Français d'Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et
Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888,
renamed on 20 May 1896 as French Somaliland (Côte Française des
Somalis).

Mauritania on 12 May 1903 French protectorate; within Mauritanian several

traditional states:
Adrar emirate since 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)

The Taganit confederation's emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), since

1905 under French protectorate.
 Brakna confederation's emirate

Emirate of Trarza: 15 December 1902 placed under French protectorate

status.

Morocco   – most of the sultanate was under French protectorate (30

March 1912 – 7 April 1956) although, in theory, it remained a sovereign state
under the Treaty of Fez;[4] this fact was confirmed by the International Court
of Justice in 1952.[5]
The northern part of Morocco was under Spanish protectorate in the same period.

Traditional Madagascar States

Kingdom of Imerina   under French protectorate, 6 August 1896. French
Madagascar colony, 28 February 1897.

Tunisia   (12 May 1881 – 20 March 1956): became a French protectorate by

treaty

Sub-Saharan Africa

1960 stamp of Bechuanaland

Protectorate with the portraits of
Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II

The legal regime of "protection" was the formal legal structure under which
French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900.
Almost every pre-existing state in the area later covered by French West Africa
was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule
gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or
fictive recreations of them, were largely retained as the lowest level authority
figure in the French Cercles, with leaders appointed and removed by French
officials.[6]

Benin traditional states

Independent of Danhome   , under French protectorate, from 1889

Porto-Novo a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865.

Cotonou a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. Porto-Novo French protectorate,
14 April 1882.
 Central African Republic traditional states:
French protectorate over Dar al-Kuti (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the
French), 12 December 1897

French protectorate over the Sultanate of Bangassou, 1894

Burkina Faso was since 20 February 1895 a French protectorate named Upper
Volta (Haute-Volta)

Chad: Baghirmi state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate

Côte d'Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast

Guinea: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du

Sud).

Niger, Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder), 30 July 1899 under French

protectorate over the native rulers, titled Sarkin Damagaram or Sultan

Senegal: 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with

local rulers

Oceania
French Polynesia   , mainly the Society Islands (several others were
immediately annexed).[7] All eventually were annexed by 1889.
Otaheiti (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate known
as Tahiti, 1842–1880

Raiatea and Tahaa (after temporary annexation by Otaheiti; (title Ari`i) a

French protectorate, 1880)

Mangareva (one of the Gambier Islands; ruler title `Akariki) a French

protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871[8]

Wallis and Futuna:

Wallis declared to be a French protectorate by King of Uvea and Captain
Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate,
5 April 1887.

Sigave and Alo on the islands of Futuna and Alofi signed a treaty establishing
a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.

German protectorates

The German Empire used the word Schutzgebiet, literally protectorate, for all
of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless
of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule
included:

German New Guinea  

Marshall Islands  

Nauru   , various officials posted with the Head Chiefs

North Solomon Islands

Banknotes of the Protectorate of

Bohemia and Moravia, 1939–1945

Samoa, formerly Western Samoa

Sultanate of Witu, called Wituland   , in present-day Kenya

German South-West Africa (later Namibia)

Togoland

Rwanda, a Resident with the native Mwami (king)

Urundi, a Resident with the native Mwami (king; 1908 Sultan)

Before and during World War II, Nazi Germany designated the rump of
occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates:

Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia   , 1939–1945

Denmark   , 1940–1943

Indian protectorates

Sikkim   (1948-1975) - Acceded to India as Sikkim

Bhutan   (1948 - present) - Semi-protectorate

Italian protectorates

In Europe:
 The Albanian Republic   (1917–1920) and the Albanian Kingdom   (1939–1940)

Independent State of Croatia   (1941–1943)

Monaco   under amical Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia 20

November 1815 to 1860.

In the colonial empire:

Ethiopia   : 2 May 1889 Treaty of Wuchale, in the Italian language version,

stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian
Amharic language version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so
chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the
versions came to light, Emperor Menelik II abrogated first the article in
question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the First
Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her
sovereignty in 1896.

Libya: on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over Cirenaica

(Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.

Somalia: 3 August 1889 Benadir Coast Italian protectorate (in the northeast;
unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to Italian
Somaliland.
Majeerteen Sultanate   since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate
(renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.

Sultanate of Hobyo   since December 1888 under Italian protectorate

(renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian
colony (known as Obbia).

Japanese protectorates

Korean Empire (1905–1910)  

Empire of Manchuria (1932~1945)  

Polish protectorates

Kaffa (1462–1475)

Portuguese protectorates

Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1914)  

 Cabinda (Portuguese Congo) (1885–1974) – Portugal first claimed
sovereignty over Cabinda in the February 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco, which
gave Cabinda the status of a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown under the
request of "the princes and governors of Cabinda".

Gaza Empire (1824–1895)  

Angoche Sultanate (1903–1910)

Russian protectorates

Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (1783–1801)  

Kingdom of Imereti (1804–1810)  

Revolutionary Serbia (1807–12)   and Principality of Serbia (1826–56)  

Uryankhay Krai (1914)  

Emirate of Bukhara (1873–1920)  

Khanate of Khiva (1873–1920)  

Spanish protectorates

Spanish Morocco   protectorate from 27 November 1912 until 2 April 1958

(Northern zone until 7 April 1956, Southern zone (Cape Juby) until 2 April
1958).

Swedish protectorates

Norway   (1814-1905)

Argentine protectorates

Tierra del Fuego   (1883-1990)

Peru   (1820-1822)

Paraguay   (1810-1813, 1876)

Uruguay   (1810-1813)

Gobierno del Cerrito   (1843-1851)

Patria Nueva: Chile   (1817-1818)

Upper Peru: Bolivia   (1810-1822)

United States Protectorates

 Republic of Texas   (1839-1846)

Liberia   (1822–1847)

Cuba   (1898–1904)

Haiti   (1915–1935)

Mexico   (1847-1848)

Honduras   (1903–1925)

Nicaragua   (1912–1933)

Panama Canal Zone   (1903–1979)

Dominican Republic   (1914–1924)

Sultanate of Sulu   (1903–1915)

Germany   (1945–1949)

Japan   (1945-1952)

South Korea   (1945–1948)

Ryukyu Islands   (1945–1972)

Philippines   (1934–1946): Under the provisions of the Tydings–McDuffie

Act, the territory would become self-governing although its military and
foreign affairs would be under the United States.

Hawaii   (1880s–1894/1898)

Compact of Free Association

The Marshall Islands   , the Federated States of Micronesia   , and Palau  
have a similar status (associated state) since their independence.

Contemporary usage by the United States

Some agencies of the United States government, such as the United States
Environmental Protection Agency, still use the term protectorate to refer to
insular areas of the United States such as Guam, the Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands. This was also the case with the Philippines and (it can be argued via
the Platt Amendment) Cuba at the end of Spanish colonial rule. Liberia was
the only African nation that was a colony for the United States but the
government had no control over the land as it was controlled by the privately
owned American Colonization Society. It was, however, a protectorate from
January 7, 1822 until the Liberian Declaration of Independence from the
American Colonization Society in July 26, 1847. Liberia was founded and
established as a homeland for freed African-Americans and ex-Caribbean
slaves who left the United States and the Caribbean islands with help and
support from the American Colonization Society. However, the agency
responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs
(OIA) within the United States Department of Interior, uses only the term
"insular area" rather than protectorate.

United Nations protectorates

West Papua   (then known as West New Guinea or West Irian): United
Nations Temporary Executive Authority (1962–1963)

Cambodia   : United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (1992–

1993)

Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia   : United Nations

Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western
Sirmium (1996–1998)

East Timor   : United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor

(1999–2002)

Kosovo   : United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (since

1999)

Joint protectorates

The Adriatic Republic of Ragusa   (present-day Dubrovnik in Croatian

Dalmatia) was a joint Habsburg Austrian–Ottoman Turkish protectorate from
20 August 1684 to 24 August 1798 (exceptionally both a Catholic and a
Muslim protector).

The United States of the Ionian Islands   and the Septinsular Republic  
were federal republics of seven formerly Venetian (see Provveditore) Ionian
islands (Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxos),
officially under joint protectorate of the Allied Christian Powers, de facto a
British amical protectorate from 1815 to 1864.

Bosnia and Herzegovina   were a joint Austrian and Hungarian protectorate

starting in 1878 which formally still belonged to the Ottoman Empire until
1908, when it was annexed by Austria-Hungary (see Bosnian crisis). Since the
1995 Dayton Agreement, Bosnia and Herzegovina   is again sometimes
described as a de facto international protectorate.
See also

Bosnia and Herzegovina (Peace Implementation Council, High Representative

for Bosnia and Herzegovina, European Union Police Mission in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, EUFOR Althea)

British Protected Person

Chinese Protectorate

Dominion

Protector (titles for Heads of State and other individual persons)

Puerto Rico

Suzerainty

Tributary (political)

Tribute

Vassal state

Notes

1. Dumieński, Zbigniew (2014). "Microstates as Modern Protected States:

Towards a New Definition of Micro-Statehood" (PDF). Occasional Paper.
Centre for Small State Studies. Retrieved 20 August 2014.

2. Bedjaoui, Mohammed (1991), International Law: Achievements and

Prospects , Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp. 51–, ISBN 92-3-102716-6

3. "A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, by Michael J. Seth", p112

4. Bedjaoui, Mohammed (1 January 1991). "International Law: Achievements

and Prospects" . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers – via Google Books.

5. Capaldo, Giuliana Ziccardi (1 January 1995). "Repertory of Decisions of the

International Court of Justice (1947–1992)" . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers –
via Google Books.

6. See the classic account on this in Robert Delavignette. Freedom and Authority
in French West Africa. London: Oxford University Press, (1950). The more
recent statndard studies on French expansion include:
Robert Aldrich. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion.
Palgrave MacMillan (1996) ISBN 0-312-16000-3.
Alice L. Conklin. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in
 France and West Africa 1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press
(1998), ISBN 978-0-8047-2999-4.
Patrick Manning. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995. Cambridge
University Press (1998) ISBN 0-521-64255-8.
Jean Suret-Canale. Afrique Noire: l'Ere Coloniale (Editions Sociales, Paris,
1971); Eng. translation, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900 1945.
(New York, 1971).

7. C. W. Newbury. Aspects of French Policy in the Pacific, 1853–1906. The

Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 45–56

8. Gonschor, Lorenz Rudolf (August 2008). Law as a Tool of Oppression and

Liberation: Institutional Histories and Perspectives on Political Independence in
Hawaiʻi, Tahiti Nui/French Polynesia and Rapa Nui. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii at Manoa. pp. 56–59. hdl:10125/20375 .

References

"Index of Colonies and Possessions" . World Statesmen.org. Retrieved

2008-08-06.

French
Larousse, Pierre; Paul Augé; Claude Augé (1925). Nouveau Petit Larousse
Illustré: Dictionnaire Encyclopédique. Larousse.