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Network Routing Basics

Understanding IP Routing
in Cisco® Systems

James Macfarlane
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Network Routing Basics

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Network Routing Basics

Understanding IP Routing
in Cisco® Systems

James Macfarlane
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Network Routing Basics: Understanding IP Routing in Cisco® Systems

Published by
Wiley Publishing, Inc.
10475 Crosspoint Boulevard
Indianapolis, IN 46256
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Copyright © 2006 by James Macfarlane
Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published simultaneously in Canada
ISBN-13: 978-0-471-77273-6
ISBN-10: 0-471-77273-9
Manufactured in the United States of America
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Macfarlane, James, 1953-
Network routing basics : understanding IP routing in Cisco systems / James Macfarlane.
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Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-471-77273-6 (cloth)
ISBN-10: 0-471-77273-9 (cloth)
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To Julia
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About the Author

James Macfarlane has worked in the personal computer and networking

industry for over 20 years. He has worked in the capacity of consultant, net-
work engineer, instructor, courseware developer, and technical writer.
Present and past certifications include Cisco CCNA, Microsoft MSCE
and MCT, CompTIA A+ Trainer, and Novell CNE and CNI. James can be
reached through his website at www.HotTrainingMaterials.com, and at
[email protected].

Technical Editor

Scott Bradner is the University Technology Security Officer at Harvard Uni-

versity. Scott founded the Harvard Network Device Test Lab, is a frequent
speaker at technical conferences, and a weekly columnist for Network World.
Mr. Bradner has served in a number of roles in the IETF, and is currently a
trustee of the American Registry of Internet Numbers (ARIN).

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Credits

Acquisitions Editor Project Coordinator

Carol Long Ryan Steffen
Development Editor Graphics and Production Specialists
Kenyon Brown Denny Hager
Stephanie D. Jumper
Technical Editor
Alicia South
Scott Bradner
Quality Control Technicians
Production Editor
Joe Niesen
Felicia Robinson
Charles Spencer
Copy Editor
Proofreading and Indexing
Kathryn Duggan
Tammy Todd
Editorial Manager Johnna Van Hoose
Mary Beth Wakefield
Production Manager
Tim Tate
Vice President and Executive Group
Publisher
Richard Swadley
Vice President and Executive
Publisher
Joseph B. Wikert

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Contents at a Glance

Acknowledgments xvii
Introduction xix
Chapter 1 Networking Overview 1
Chapter 2 Routing Basics 69
Chapter 3 Static Routing 89
Chapter 4 Dynamic Routing 103
Chapter 5 RIP 137
Chapter 6 IGRP 167
Chapter 7 EIGRP 185
Chapter 8 OSPF 221
Chapter 9 External Routing Protocols in Brief 343
Chapter 10 Redistribution and Default Routing 361
Appendix A Where Do You Go From Here? 379
Appendix B Recommended Reading 381
Appendix C RFCs Related to Routing 383
Appendix D Web References 387
Appendix E Administrative Distance Table 389
Appendix F Quick-and-Dirty Subnetting—No Calculator 391
Appendix G Subnetting Helper Sheet 393
Index 395

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Contents

Acknowledgments xvii
Introduction xix
Chapter 1 Networking Overview 1
Overview 1
OSI Network Model 2
The Conundrum of Explaining the OSI Model 2
Mother of All OSI Model Explanations? 3
Anatomy of a Data Communication Session 3
The Way Things Used to Be 5
Explanation of OSI Layers 6
Another Mail Analogy 12
Encapsulation 13
TCP/IP Model 15
Networking Equipment 15
Packet Forwarding 16
Repeaters—Layer 1, Physical 16
Hubs—Layer 1, Physical 16
Bridges—Layer 2, Data-Link 17
Switches—Layer 2, Data-Link 18
Routers—Layer 3, Network 19
Layer 3 Switches 23
CSU/DSUs (TSU) 23
TCP/IP Review 24
IP Addressing 24
Ports and Sockets 56
Important Protocols Related to Routing 59
Notes 67

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xii Contents

Chapter 2 Routing Basics 69

Overview 69
What Is Routing? 70
Routing Begins at Home—The Workstation’s Route Table 71
Row 1—Default Gateway 71
Row 2—Loopback Address 73
Row 3—Local Subnet Address 74
Row 4—IP Address of Host 75
Rows 5, 6, and 7—Broadcast Information 75
Anatomy of a Routed Packet 76
Track a Packet—Source and Destination on the Same Network 76
Track a Packet—Source and Destination on Different
Networks—One Router 78
Track a Packet—Source and Destination on Different
Networks—Multiple Routers 80
Anatomy of a Route Table 81
Key Concept for Understanding Route Tables 82
Populating Route Tables 83
Routing Metrics 84
Administrative Distance 84
Summary 86
Notes 88
Chapter 3 Static Routing 89
Overview 89
What Is Static Routing? 90
When to Use Static Routes 90
Configuring Static Routes on a Router 91
Example with a Small Routed Network 91
Static Routes on a Workstation 98
Floating Static Routes 100
Propagating Static Routes 101
Summary 101
Notes 101
Chapter 4 Dynamic Routing 103
Overview 103
The Need for an Automated Routing Solution 104
What Is a Routing Protocol? 105
Considerations for Designing Routing Protocols 106
Metrics of Routing Protocols 107
Categorizing Dynamic Routing Protocols 108
Interior versus Exterior Routing Protocols 108
Distance Vector versus Link-State 109
Singlepath versus Multipath 117
Broadcast versus Multicast 117
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Contents xiii

Flat versus Hierarchical 118

Classful versus Classless 118
Route Summarization 119
Network Example 1 121
Network Example 2 124
Network Example 3 127
Network Example 4 132
Summary 134
Notes 135
Chapter 5 RIP 137
Overview 137
Advantages of Using RIP 138
Disadvantages of Using RIP 138
RIP Background 139
RIP Versions 139
RIPv2 Improvements 140
How RIP Works 140
Advertising Routes 140
Learning Routes 141
Information that RIP Tracks About a Route 141
A Look at How Route Tables Are Populated by RIP 142
RIP’s Achilles Heel 145
RIP Timers that Contribute to Slow Convergence 145
How RIP Defends Itself Against the Dreaded Routing Loop 146
Anatomy of a Routing Loop 146
Measures to Prevent Routing Loops 149
Load Balancing 153
Default Routing 153
Redistribution 153
Command Reference—RIP 154
Initial Configuration 154
Common RIP Commands 159
Show Commands for RIP 163
Troubleshooting Commands 164
Notes 165
Chapter 6 IGRP 167
Overview 167
Advantages of Using IGRP 168
Disadvantages to Using IGRP 168
IGRP Background 169
How IGRP Works 170
IGRP Timers 170
Split Horizon 171
Poison Reverse 171
IGRP Metrics 171
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xiv Contents

Autonomous Numbers 173

Load Balancing in IGRP 173
Default Routing 174
Redistribution 175
Route Summarization in IGRP 175
Command Reference—IGRP 175
Initial Configuration 176
Common IGRP Commands 180
Show Commands for IGRP 182
Troubleshooting Commands 183
Notes 183
Chapter 7 EIGRP 185
Overview 185
Advantages of Using EIGRP 186
Disadvantages of Using EIGRP 187
EIGRP Background 187
EIGRP Terminology 187
Neighbor 188
Neighbor Discovery and Recovery 188
Packet Types 188
Hold-Time 188
Neighbor Table 189
Topology Table 189
Route Table 189
Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) 189
Retransmission Timeout (RTO) 189
Smooth Round Trip Time (SRRT) 189
Reported Distance (RD) 189
Feasible Distance (FD) 189
Feasibility Condition (FC) 190
Successor 190
Feasible Successor (FS) 190
Diffusing Update ALgorithm (DUAL) 190
The DUAL Finite State Machine 190
Passive and Active Route States 191
Stuck in Active (SIA) 191
How EIGRP Works 191
EIGRP Architecture 191
Populating the Topology Table and Route Table 198
Stuck in Active (SIA) Routes 205
DUAL Prevents a Routing-Loop 206
Load Balancing 207
Default Routing 208
Redistribution 208
Route Summarization 208
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Contents xv

Command Reference—EIGRP 208

Initial Configuration 209
Common EIGRP Commands 213
Show Commands for EIGRP 217
Troubleshooting Commands 218
Notes 219
Chapter 8 OSPF 221
Overview 221
Advantages of Using OSPF 222
Disadvantages of Using OSPF 223
OSPF Background 223
Explaining OSPF 224
Introduction to OSPF 224
How OSPF Works 225
OSPF Terminology 233
Important Networking Terminology 233
Important OSPF Terminology 234
Watch Out for the “Type” Trap 243
OSPF Operation, Part 1: The Building Blocks 245
OSPF and Network Types 245
OSPF Areas 251
OSPF Metrics and Population of the Route Table 284
Route Summarization in OSPF 291
Redistribution in OSPF 294
Default Routing in OSPF 295
Partitioned Areas 298
Virtual Links 300
The Options Field 300
OSPF Operation, Part 2: Tying It All Together 301
Designing OSPF Networks 301
Command Reference 309
Single Area Model 309
Multi-area Model—Standard Area 314
Other Common OSPF Commands 331
Notes 340
Chapter 9 External Routing Protocols in Brief 343
Overview 343
Internal versus External Routing Protocols 344
A Brief History of External Gateway Protocols 345
BGP—King of External Routing Protocols 346
BGP Background 346
When to Use BGP 347
Other Uses for BGP 348
How BGP Works 349
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xvi Contents

Sample BGP System 357

The Future of BGP 358
Notes 359
Chapter 10 Redistribution and Default Routing 361
Overview 361
Route Redistribution 362
The Need for Redistribution 363
Redistribution Issues 365
Default Routing 367
When to Use Default Routing 367
When Not to Use Default Routing 369
Configuring Default Routing 370
Notes 378
Appendix A Where Do You Go From Here? 379
Appendix B Recommended Reading 381
Appendix C RFCs Related to Routing 383
Appendix D Web References 387
Appendix E Administrative Distance Table 389
Appendix F Quick-and-Dirty Subnetting—No Calculator 391
Appendix G Subnetting Helper Sheet 393
Index 395
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Acknowledgments

Thanks to each person at Wiley, both the people I worked with personally, and
the many people I did not have the pleasure of meeting, for the care and effort
taken to publish this book.

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Introduction

A few years ago, I was preparing to teach my first introductory course on net-
work routing. While seeking courseware material for the class, I examined a
number of books on the subject but never found one I felt completely comfort-
able with. In the end, I chose some standardized courseware, and ended up
handing out a series of “white papers” I had authored, in order to augment the
books used in the course. Those white papers ultimately evolved into this book.
Routing is not rocket science, but it’s a bit of a challenge to explain it in a
manner that students don’t find confusing. The basic idea of forwarding pack-
ets from one network to another is really not all that difficult a concept, but
in the maturing, Internet-driven, multi-vendor, multi-protocol, classlessly
addressed world of routing we live in today, there are a number of twists and
turns when it comes to getting all those millions of packets to their destination.
In considering an addition to the various routing primers available to the
reader, I saw a need for an up-to-date introduction to the subject that leaves the
reader—after making the investment in studying the material—with the reward
of having the confidence that they actually understand modern routing enough
to go out there and put their knowledge to work. When poorly explained, rout-
ing can be a weighty, cumbersome topic. When properly understood, routing is,
well . . . fun. It’s a really enjoyable field to work in when you have a handle on
how this aspect of networking works. There is an art to routing as well as a sci-
ence. In other words, there’s more than one way to get a packet from point A to
point B. As a network engineer with a specialty in routing, you can excel in your
field and gain peer recognition by playing a game called “let’s figure out the most
efficient way to route packets on this network.” We’re here to help you play the game
well.
A primary goal in the creation of this book is to provide clear and complete
information about how modern routing works. A strong emphasis has been

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xx Introduction

placed on giving the student a broad enough background in each covered

topic so that he or she hits critical mass if you will, whereby you haven’t just
memorized an explanation for how an aspect of routing works, you truly
understand why it works the way it does. If, while reading this book, you find
yourself saying something like “Hey, I got it!” then I have done my job.

What Material Is Covered in This Book?

Because routing is an extension of basic networking, the book starts with a
review of core networking in Chapter 1. The fundamentals of networking as it
relates to routing is presented, including a thorough review of network models,
followed with a review of networking equipment. The concept of packet for-
warding is explained, and a moderate treatment of the TCP/IP protocol suite is
covered. Special attention is paid to classless addressing (subnetting, VLSMs,
CIDR, and so on), because it is easily the biggest stumbling block in under-
standing routing. The Internet runs on CIDR addressed networks now, so it’s
not a topic to be brushed aside. The treatment of this subject matter will not only
leave you with an understanding of classless addressing, you will be able to sub-
net with ease.
Chapter 2 provides the basis for understanding how routing works. The
explanation starts where routing starts—at the workstation. From there, route
tables and how they are populated are explained.
Chapters 3 and 4 explain how static and dynamic routing work, respectively.
Chapter 4 is a pivotal chapter. Besides an in-depth primer on routing protocols,
the important but elusive topics of route summarization, discontiguous net-
works, hierarchical addressing, and the longest match principal are covered
as well.
Chapters 5 and 6 cover the two legacy routing protocols, RIP and IGRP.
IGRP does not support classless addressing and was replaced by EIGRP. Its
coverage is somewhat perfunctory, but there is material there that will assist
you in understanding EIGRP. RIP was upgraded to support classless network-
ing so it is still in use, but RIP does not support large networks. Regardless,
read the treatment of RIP, because the coverage lays a foundation for many
topics covered in subsequent chapters.
Chapters 7 and 8 cover the two contemporary routing protocols for large
networks: EIGRP and OSPF. EIGRP is Cisco System’s proprietary entry into
the realm of routing protocols, whereas OSPF is the open standard entry, with
recognition as the recommended interior routing protocol on the Internet. I
have put special effort into the treatment of OSPF, and I think you will feel
quite grounded with the protocol after absorbing the material in Chapter 8.
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Introduction xxi

Chapter 9 provides a cursory introduction to the heady topic of the rout-

ing protocol that ties the whole Internet together, namely the Border Gateway
Protocol.
Chapter 10 covers some particulars of routing that are best served up after
spending some time with the routing protocols. Here, the topics of default
routing and route redistribution are taken up.

What’s Not Covered?

Any routing primer should give you an idea of what there is to pursue for fur-
ther study after you have the basics down. Toward that end, the appendix has
a list of routing topics not covered here.
An assumption is made that you know how to access a router and put it into
programming mode. If that is not so, the appendix has a Web reference that
will help.

Will This Book Help Me Pass a Cisco Test?

Glad you asked. This book is not written as a pass-the-test guide. However, the
material in this book will most certainly help you in a testing environment
because it is designed to help you truly understand the concepts of routing!
Testing these days focuses more on understanding and troubleshooting, and
less on raw facts that can be memorized. Because the book tends to give a more
in-depth treatment of the topics it covers, it in fact provides a foundation for
many of the Cisco certification exams.
So whether you read this book cover-to-cover, or jump right to a chapter of
interest, I think you will find what you’re looking for. Extensive page-level
cross-referencing will enable you to jump to supporting topics with ease.
Best of luck to you with your routing career!
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CHAPTER

1
Networking Overview

Overview
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a refresher of basic networking top-
ics related to routing. The following topics are covered:
OSI network model 2
TCP/IP network model 15
Networking equipment 15
Packet forwarding 16
IP addressing 24
Ports and sockets 56
Importatnt Protocols related to routing 59
Based TCP/IP utilities windows 64

1
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2 Chapter 1

OSI Network Model

Pop quiz. On a scale of 1–10, how well do you know the OSI network model?
Come on . . . tell the truth. Don’t be afraid if your number is not that high.
That’s what this section of the chapter is designed to help you with. The OSI
network model (see Figure 1-1) provides a framework for understanding net-
work functions, yet many folks working in the networking industry do not
fully understand it. Comprehension of the OSI model, however enhances your
ability to troubleshoot networking (and routing) problems.
A number of networking models have been developed over the years. This
chapter gives the OSI model the most coverage because it is referenced most
often. For example, a layer 3 switch refers to layer 3 of the OSI model. How-
ever the OSI model is strictly symbolic, and is less than perfect at representing
today’s networking technologies. It was developed in the ‘70s, released in the
‘80s and has had only minor updates. Because of that, there is a fair amount of
overlap between the layers. This means a certain protocol or network service
may not fit neatly into the description of a single layer.
A model that more closely reflects the modern networking environment is
the TCP/IP model. This is the model that developers actually code to. At the
end of this section the TCP/IP model to the OSI model are compared.

The Conundrum of Explaining the OSI Model

If you look through enough books on networking, you’ll find that not every
author chooses to discuss networking models up front. Some writers put the
treatment of the OSI model at the beginning of the book, others place it at the
end of the book, while still others intersperse a discussion of the model with
networking topics. That’s because the OSI model is a “chicken or egg” type
thing. It’s easier to understand networking once you understand the OSI model.
But on the other hand . . . it’s easier to understand the OSI model once you have
a knowledge of networking.

Layer Name
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
Figure 1-1 Basic OSI network model.
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Networking Overview 3

This chapter discusses the OSI model first because it lays a foundation for
how to fit routing into the broader aspects of general networking. As you read
this section, keep the following in mind: The OSI model is not some “extra
thing you have to learn about networking.” Rather, think of it as a tool to facil-
itate understanding the concepts of networking. Understanding networking
translates to understanding routing. Be advised that any unfamiliar network-
ing terms used in this section are probably explained in subsequent sections
(it’s that chicken-or-egg thing).

Mother of All OSI Model Explanations?

The OSI reference model is based on a proposal developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO)1 The model is called the ISO OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with allowing dis-
parate computing platforms to communicate with each other. The OSI model
allows PCs, Macs, Unix systems, Host systems, and so on to exchange infor-
mation by supplying a common reference for how to apply networking
technology.
Comprehending the OSI model begins with comprehending how the model
came in to being in the first place. The OSI model was developed to act both as
a reference for designing network components and as an aid in understanding
networking technology. Think about all that is required for two computers to
communicate across a network. What steps must take place to send a message
from computer A to computer B?

Anatomy of a Data Communication Session

Here is an example of what must happen for two computers to communicate
across a network.

Sending Side
The side originating the session has a checklist of several items that must be
accomplished:
■■ Data from the user’s application (on computer A) must be passed to the
network.
■■ The data may need to be converted (ASCII to EBCDIC for example).
■■ The data may need to be encrypted and/or compressed.
■■ If reliable communications are desired, a communication channel with
the destination computer (computer B) must be established to track
each packet. In that case, a mechanism is needed to tag each packet and
follow up on the delivery attempt.
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4 Chapter 1

■■ The data must be broken up into smaller chunks that can be handled by
the network (you don’t send a 10MB file in a single packet).
■■ The logical and physical addresses (IP address and MAC address
respectfully) must be determined for the destination computer.
■■ The source and destination addresses must be added to the data packets.
■■ Error-detection information must be added to the packets.
■■ The best route to the destination host must be determined.
■■ The packets then need to be formatted into the particular frame type
unique to the network architecture of computer A (Ethernet, Token
Ring, and so on).
■■ The packets must be converted into electrical signals and placed on the
cable.
■■ Access to the network cable must be managed.
■■ The packets may need to be repackaged along the way into a differing
frame type if computer B resides on a network with a different LAN
architecture.

Receiving Side
As the data stream is received, computer B has several responsibilities:
■■ Computer B must have a way of knowing which packets are intended
for it.
■■ Computer B must have a way of knowing which application should
receive the packets.
■■ Access to the network cable must be managed to retrieve the packets.
■■ The packets must be converted from electrical signals to bits.
■■ The packets must be checked for corruption.
■■ The packets must be checked for correct order delivery and for missing
packets. Packets received out of order must be reordered.
■■ If reliable delivery was utilized, an acknowledgement message must be
sent for packets received intact. A retransmit message must be sent for
missing packets.
■■ The packet data needs to be rearranged into a format the receiving
application can understand.
■■ The data may need to be decrypted and/or decompressed.
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Networking Overview 5

■■ The data may need to be converted.

■■ The data must be passed to the receiving application.
Phew. That’s quite a lot of processing going on. A lot of things have to hap-
pen behind the scenes to pass data between computers. Each one of these
processes fits into a particular layer of the OSI model and that is what helps us
keep track of everything. But the question may arise: Why do I care? As long
as it works, why bother about all that detail? Well, as a network engineer, you
used to not have to care. You didn’t have to worry about all that stuff. The ven-
dor did all the worrying for you.

The Way Things Used to Be

Back in the old days—in the primordial era of the ‘60s and ‘70s, when the
mainframe ruled the world—networks were monolithic in nature. One vendor
provided all the hardware and software for a system, so there was no need to
be concerned about all the aforementioned processes. The vendor delivered a
complete solution. All aspects of communicating across the network were han-
dled by the “solution.” You bought your hardware from IBM. You bought your
software from IBM. All those communication processes still had to be carried
out of course, but nobody worried about it, because a single vendor handled
the whole process. Interoperability was not an issue.
Things are different now. In this day and age, with hardware and software
being sourced from multiple vendors, it’s become important to have a method
and structure for handling data communications. These days we buy our net-
work OS from one vendor, our applications from another vendor or vendors,
our network interface cards from another vendor, our cabling from another
vendor, and on and on. Yet, these products must all work together. Your appli-
cations must run on Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, or whatever network archi-
tecture you choose to employ. You don’t want to have to buy the Ethernet
version of Microsoft Office, do you? The OSI reference model attempts to
address this issue by providing a structure that details the responsibilities each
vendor must assume to insure network communication can take place. The
OSI model uses a layered system that assigns responsibility for specific por-
tions of the data communication process to different layers of the model. The
key to the OSI model is that a vendor’s product only needs to interoperate with the
adjacent layers directly above and below the layer it corresponds to.
Similar models are used frequently in the brick-and-mortar realm. The post
office is a great example. If you wish to send a letter to a friend in Hawaii, do
you need to know the name of the postman who will pick up the letter from
the mailbox? Do you need to know the exact route the letter will take to
Hawaii? Nope. Someone down the line does. The letter writer just needs to
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6 Chapter 1

know the friend’s address and the location of the nearest mailbox. The post-
man who picks up the letter needs to know only two things: where the mail-
box is and the substation to drop the letter off. By the same token, the
employees at the substation need to know only two things: where the mailman
drops off the mail and which truck to load the letter on in order to get it to
Hawaii. The substation employees don’t care who wrote the letter, its contents,
what mailbox it was picked up from, or even the return address for that
matter.
It’s the same with the OSI model. For example, the networking layer needs
to know only how to receive data segments from the transport layer, process
the segments into packets, and pass them to the data-link layer. The network
layer doesn’t even care if the packets reach their destination—the transport
layer is in charge of that. The network layer certainly cares nothing about the
data itself—the layers above it worry about that.
With the uniform set of rules provided by a networking model in place, a
network-interface card manufacturer can produce a product that works with
any application or OS. This is because the NIC designer only needs to be concerned
about communicating with adjacent layers. Additionally, standardized APIs at the
boundary of each layer provide a common set of rules that facilitate intralayer
communications. As a result, product development time is greatly reduced.

Explanation of OSI Layers

Now let’s examine the functions of each layer of the OSI model and how the
layers interact with each other. Ultimately, the OSI network model manifests
itself in the form of APIs, standards, protocols, hardware, hardware drivers,
and communication technologies (Ethernet, Frame Relay, and so on). Each
technology, protocol, and the like runs at a specific layer of the model, carrying
out functions the layer is responsible for. Figure 1-2 illustrates the functions of
each layer of the model.

WHAT IS AN API?

An application program interface, or API, is a method used by application

developers to provide a standard way of accessing network services through
function calls. An API supplies standardized “hooks” into a program that allow
other processes to request it to do work. An API is published, thereby making
access to the program’s services available to any vendor. Examples of APIs are
NetBIOS, WinSock, RPC, and SQL.
APIs in the OSI model allow protocols and processes to more easily interact
with each other by reducing the amount of code required to perform a function.
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Networking Overview 7

Applications

OSI Network Model

Layer Relevant Protocols
Function
Name (partial list)
Upper Layers

7 Application Network entry point for data received HTTP, HTTPS, SSL,
from applications SMTP, POP3, FTP, SMB,
6 Presentation Application based conversion, NCP, ASCII, EBCDIC,
translation, encryption and compression MPEG, MP3, .JPEG,
of data TIFF, RPC, SQL, SMB,
5 Session Establish a communication session with
another host
4 Transport Breaks data into segments, flow control, TCP, UDP, NetBEUI,
insure packet delivery when requested SPX, NWLINK
3 Network Address packets (logical address), route IP, IPSec, ARP, RARP,
Lower Layers

determination, determines physical ICMP, IPX, NWLINK,

addresses RIP
2 Data Link Frames packets, handles access to Ethernet/802.3, 802.2,
network media Token Ring, FDDI,
Frame Relay, PPP, PPTP
1 Physical Converts bits in frames to electrical SLIP, PPP, PPTP, Frame
signals Relay

Network

OSI Reference Model

Figure 1-2 OSI reference model.

Upper Layers (5, 6, and 7)

The upper layers of the OSI model are generally thought of as being related to
applications and operating systems, whereas the lower layers are related to
networking. There is much overlap of functionality in the upper layers, and
this is one place the OSI model shows its age. As shown in Figure 1-2, certain
protocols are mapped to specific upper layers; in fact, many of the protocols
perform their functions across all three upper layers.
The upper layers are generally responsible for obtaining data from the
source application (word processor, email client, data files, and so on), and
passing that data to the network. The application and/or the operating system
may act on the data in a variety of ways. The data may be translated so that the
receiving host can understand it (PC to Mac for example), it may be com-
pressed to speed transmission, and it may be encrypted.
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N OT E One potential point of confusion is that processes like encryption may

occur at more than one layer of the model. Encryption at the upper layers is
usually performed by the application that created the data, or perhaps by the
OS, but encryption can also be performed by network protocols running at the
lower layers of the model, such as the security protocol IPSec.

Bear in mind that the upper layers are the starting point to initiate commu-
nications on the sending computer, but they are the end point for the receiving
computer. The communication process starts at layer 7 of the sending com-
puter and works its way down the OSI model to layer 1. The data is then trans-
mitted to the receiving computer, which receives the frame at layer 1 and
processes it up to layer 7 where it is then made available to the receiving
application.

Layer 7—Application Layer

The application layer is where the process of data communication commences.
Contrary to its name, the application layer does not refer to applications them-
selves, but rather it is the entry point for accepting data from applications on
the sending computer. The redirector, which is a part of the network client
software installed on the workstation, collects the data from the application
and passes it to layer 7. On the receiving side, the redirector hands off data
received from the sending host to the appropriate application. The application
layer also handles the setup of application-sponsored error-recovery and data-
integrity procedures. Quality of service (QoS) and user authentication are also
identified at the application layer.
Note that data integrity is often thought of as something to be handled by
the lower layers. While that is most certainly true, the application has the
option to add as many data integrity checks as it sees fit. Some applications
will rely entirely on the lower layers for data integrity. For example, they can
use the TCP transport protocol in layer 4. Or the application may choose to
handle data integrity on its own and thus use the UDP protocol in layer 4. This
will vary of course from one application to another.

N OT E The OSI model is protocol neutral, but due to the pervasiveness of the
TCP/IP protocol suite, TCP/IP will be used in the examples. All the TCP/IP
protocols, such as TCP and UDP, are discussed in a subsequent section.

Layer 6—Presentation Layer

The presentation layer provides independence from differences in data represen-
tation. This is where data may be translated, converted, encrypted and decrypted,
and compressed and decompressed. For example, a PC-to-mainframe session
may require data be converted from native ASCII to EBCDIC, the encoding
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Networking Overview 9

method of IBM mainframes2. Data formats such as MPEG and MP3 are associ-
ated with the presentation layer. Application-based encryption is another exam-
ple of the presentation layer. On the sending side, data would be encrypted at this
layer, and then decrypted by the corresponding layer on the receiving computer.

Layer 5—Session Layer

The session layer is where a communication connection is initiated. Sessions
have a specific starting and ending point and are required by certain protocols
for two-way communications to take place. The session layer is often used by
client applications vis-à-vis the operating system when connections to a net-
work or network applications are required. SQL, WinSock, RPC, and Named
Pipes are examples.
This layer handles session maintenance as well. If the session is interrupted,
it can be re-started. An example would be a file transfer application that auto-
matically restarts the transfer if the connection is broken. If a service such as
NetBIOS Checkpoints is used, checkpoints inserted into the data stream can
allow the transfer to pick up where it left off. This is a good thing.
The session layer on the sending computer uses the lower layers to commu-
nicate with the corresponding session layer on the receiving computer to
establish a connection.

Lower Layers (1, 2, 3, and 4)

As noted earlier, the lower layers are where networking actually takes place.
Here the stream of data coming from the upper layers into manageable chunks
determine the network (logical) and data-link (physical) addresses for both the
source and destination packets, determine the best path (route) to the destina-
tion host and convert the binary data to electrical impulses, and place it on the
network medium.

Layer 4—Transport Layer

The transport layer provides optional error detection and correction, end-to-
end (host-to-host) error-recovery, and controls the flow of the packets. This
layer provides the option for assuring data integrity independent of any
integrity checks performed by the data-link layer, which usually provides
error detection and correction as well.
If so-called “reliable” delivery of data is required, the TCP (Transport Con-
trol Protocol) protocol is employed at this layer. TCP numbers the outgoing
packets and requires a response from the destination host confirming that each
packet arrived intact. When reliable delivery of data is not required, the so-
called “unreliable,” or “best-effort,” UDP (User Datagram Protocol) protocol is
used for faster service. The application that sourced the data determines
whether to use reliable (TCP) or unreliable (UDP) delivery.
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Another important function of the transport layer is segmentation. The data

stream from the upper layers is broken up, or segmented, into more manage-
able chunks. The generic term for what to call a chunk of data is Data Protocol
Unit (DPU). A DPU is assigned a more specific name depending upon which
layer of the OSI model is being referenced. In the upper layers, the DPU is sim-
ply called “data.” At the transport layer, the DPU takes on the name segment.
So at this layer you are dealing with segments of data.
Finally, the transport layer handles flow control. Flow control insures that
data is not sent so fast that packets are dropped on the receiving side.

N OT E See the subsequent “TCP/IP Model” section for more information on

these protocols.

Layer 3—Network Layer

The DPU name at this layer is datagram or packet3. The network layer is
responsible for packet addressing, path determination (how to get to the des-
tination network), and packet forwarding. Source and destination network
addresses are assigned at this layer. Additionally, source and destination MAC
(data-link) addresses are determined and passed on for use by layer 2. In a
TCP/IP environment, the IP protocol handles path determination and net-
work addressing, while the ARP protocol handles MAC address determina-
tion. Once the path is determined and the packets are addressed, they are then
forwarded to their destination.
The network layer also has responsibility for insuring that packets passed
down to the data-link layer are not too large for the network technology to
handle. Different network technologies have varying Maximum Transmission
Units (MTU). The MTU specifies the largest packet size the technology can
handle. For example, the frame size for Ethernet is typically 1536 bytes
(12.2KB), whereas the frame size for Token Ring is either 4KB or 16KB. The net-
work layer is aware of which network technology is in use (Ethernet, Token
Ring, and so on) and will fragment the packets into smaller units that do not
exceed the MTU for the technology. The network layer on the receiving com-
puter will reassemble the fragmented packets. This is another example of how
layers in the OSI model need only be aware of adjacent layers. The network
layer must satisfy the needs of the transport layer and the data-link layer, but
on the other hand, it doesn’t care about what the data packet contains.

Layer 2—Data-Link Layer

The data-link layer is defined by the network technology in use. For LANs, this
is most often the 802.3 protocol, better known as Ethernet. The DPU name at this
layer is frame. A frame includes all the data passed down from the other layers
along with the source and destination MAC addresses, some information spe-
cific to the network protocol, and an added checksum for error detection.
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Networking Overview 11

WHAT IS A MAC ADDRESS?

MAC (Media Access Control) addresses are the unique identifying numbers
burned into every network interface card (NIC) or directly into a computer if it
does not have a separate NIC card. MAC addresses are known as physical
addresses because they are permanently associated with the NIC. In the OSI
reference model, the MAC address is also referred to as the data-link address
because the data-link layer makes use of the physical address for
communicating with another host. Communications ultimately take place
between two hosts via their MAC/data-link addresses.
A MAC address is a 48-bit number expressed as six pairs of hexadecimal
numbers, for example 00-20-40-70-F4-84. The first three pairs of numbers refer
to the manufacturer of the NIC, while the remaining three pairs are uniquely
assigned to each NIC produced. The combined numbers create a universally
unique physical address that identifies a specific node on a network.

The data-link layer is only responsible for delivery and error detection on
the local network. If the frame must be routed to a different network, the router
will strip off the current frame and apply a new one based on the network pro-
tocol the packet is being forwarded to on the next hop.
Finally, the framed data is converted to a bit stream and passed to layer 1.
One question folks have when studying the OSI model regards the need for
two sets of addresses: a network address (also known as a network ID or net-
work number) at layer 3 and a data-link address at layer 2. Isn’t one address
enough to uniquely identify a network node? In a perfect world, a single
address might be enough, but as we know all to well, it’s not a perfect world.
The OSI model reflects an open, flexible environment in having the ability to
assign logical (changeable and hierarchical) addresses as well as physical
(fixed and permanent) addresses. An analogy would be say, a Denny’s restau-
rant at 123 Goodfood Place. If Denny’s moved down the street, it would be
located at a new address. The existing building, in the meantime, might
become say, a Carrows (the logical address changes), but maintains the current
street address (the physical address remains the same).
Dual addressing simply provides the flexibility to allow an organization to
deploy any network numbering scheme it wishes (IPv4, IPv6, IPX, and so on),
while maintaining a standardized, globally unique physical addressing scheme.

Layer 1—Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, functional, and procedural
characteristics used to access and send a stream of bits over a physical medium.
This layer handles converting the bits in a frame into electrical signals (or light
or radio signals) for transmission over the media. This is the realm of specifying
maximum transmission distances and describing the physical connection to the
medium (like RJ-45), and the physical media (fiber, twisted pair, and so on).
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THE TWO FACES OF THE DATA-LINK LAYER

The data-link layer is actually divided into two sub-layers: The Logical Link
(LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer.
The LLC layer is thought of as the upper sub-layer and is defined by the IEEE
802.2 standard. The LLC is a “header within a header.” It frames the data
received from layer 3 by applying the MAC address and a checksum header to
the packet. The LLC layer can establish either a connection or connectionless
session (reliable or unreliable) with the next node in the path. Frame
synchronization, flow control, and error correction are all handled by this sub-
layer. An 802.2 frame allows for identification of the transport protocol in use.
The MAC layer is the lower sub-layer and is associated with the various
networking standards such as 802.3 (CMSA/CD or Ethernet) and 802.5 (Token
Ring). The MAC layer handles communication with the network adapter and
arbitrates shared access to the media.

Another Mail Analogy

With a more thorough explanation of the OSI model under your belt, let’s
apply another metaphor to the model. This time a more elaborate package
delivery scenario will be employed. The following describes the processes
involved in mailing a package from point A to point B, while at the same time
associating each process to a network communications session under the OSI
model (metaphors for the OSI model are imperfect partially because the OSI model is
imperfect. So just play along, OK?)
The boss wants to send a large quantity of confidential employee manu-
als to a worker named Gina at the branch office in New York. The boss
has his assistant pick up the manuals.
The assistant places each manual into the kind of binder used at the
New York office and marks them as private. Some manuals need to be
produced in different languages. The assistant then places a note with
the name “Gina” on the binders and has a shipping clerk pick them up.
The assistant calls the NY office and warns them to expect a package and
to call her when it arrives. She then hands the manuals to the shipping
clerk.
These processes are synonymous with the upper layers of the OSI model: receive
data from the application, translate and encrypt as specified, supply the name
of the destination, and inform the lower layers whether assured delivery is
required.
The shipping clerk places the manuals into individual containers that
will not exceed weight limits imposed by a local courier service that will
deliver the manuals to the shipper. The clerk also checks to see if there is
any room for other packages bound to the same destination. The clerk
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Networking Overview 13

numbers each package as 1 of 3, 2 of 3, 3 of 3, and so on. It will be the

shipping clerk’s responsibility to follow up on the safe delivery of the
packages.
This process is synonymous with the transport layer (4): break file into smaller
segments, use TCP for assured delivery, and pass the packets to layer 3.
The courier notices that the packages need to go to “Gina,” so he looks
up which office Gina works in. The courier also looks up the exact street
address and the return address, and passes that information to a shipper
that delivers to New York. In addition, the courier determines how the
packages should be shipped (by air in this case). The courier may repack
the items if there are any weight problems with the particular shipper
chosen. The packages are driven to the airport.
This is synonymous with the network layer (3): resolve destination machine
name to an IP address, add the source and destination network addresses to the
datagrams, determine the best route, fragment packets as needed to accommo-
date the maximum frame size (MTU) for the data-link protocol in use, look up
MAC address of destination, and pass the packets to layer 2.
An employee at the airport determines when a flight will be available
for each package.
This is synonymous with the data-link layer (2): determine when it’s time to
place packets on the network media and pass the packets to layer 1.
A cargo handler loads each package he receives into a compartment on
the plane and sends it on its way.
This is synonymous with the physical layer (1): NIC modulates an electric pulse
onto the network cable.

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the term used to describe adding information to packets as
they are passed down the OSI model layers. If you look closely, you will notice
that there’s one distinct difference between what happens in the upper layers
of the OSI model juxtaposed to what happens at the lower layers. In the upper
layers, nothing is added to the data. The data itself is being acted on. It is con-
verted or encrypted or whatever, but it’s still the raw data (mostly).
In the lower layers however, information is being appended to the raw data.
IP addresses, MAC addresses, tracking information, error correction code, and
so on are all being added. The process by which all this network data is added
to the application data is called encapsulation. Encapsulation adds headers of
information to the raw data segments. As Figure 1-3 shows, most of these
headers are appended to the beginning of the data.
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Encapsulation in the OSI Model

Sending Receiving
DATA 7 Application 7 DATA
DATA 6 Presentation 6 DATA
DATA 5 Session 5 DATA
TCP TCP
Hdr DATA 4 Transport 4 DATA Hdr
IP TCP TCP IP
Hdr Hdr DATA 3 Network 3 DATA Hdr Hdr
MAC LLC IP TCP DATA FCB DATA FCB TCP IP LLC MAC
Hd Hdr Hdr Hdr Hdr 2 Data-Link 2 Hdr Hdr Hdr Hdr Hd
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1 Physical 1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Figure 1-3 Encapsulation adds critical networking information to each packet of data.

In the upper three layers of the sending side (7, 6, and 5), the data is passed
down the OSI stack, usually without the addition of any headers. At the trans-
port layer, the data is segmented and a header is appended to each segment.
The header includes data such as source and destination port numbers.
The transport layer then passes the modified DPU to the network layer. The
network layer treats the incoming segments—optional TCP/UDP header and
all—as “data.” This layer cares nothing about what’s in the payload of each
segment and does not distinguish between network data and application data.
The segments are repackaged based on the LAN network type, an IP header is
appended that includes information such as source and destination IP
addresses and quality of service settings, and the segment is now treated as a
packet.
The data-link layer receives the packet and again treats the whole packet as
data. A MAC header is then appended to the packet, and, depending on the
configured frame type, an 802.2, LLC header, and/or SNAP header are added
as well. The DPU at this layer is referred to as a frame.
The physical layer receives the frames, converts each frame to a bit stream,
and modulates the bits as electrical signals onto the medium. As before, the
entire frame—headers and data—is treated as one unit.
On the receiving side, the process is reversed. Each header will be examined
by the appropriate layer. The physical layer converts the electrical signals to a
bit stream, recreates the frames and passes each frame to the data-link layer.
The data-link layer strips off and discards the frame headers, and passes what
is now a packet to the network layer, which interprets the information in the IP
header. The network layer then passes the packet to the transport layer, which
interprets the TCP/UDP header. Based on the destination IP address from the
network layer and the destination port number from the TCP/UDP header,
the segment is passed to the upper layers and to the appropriate application or
service.
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Networking Overview 15

As shown in Figure 1-3, each layer of the OSI model communicates only
with its corresponding layer on the other host. Only matching layers can inter-
pret the headers created by their counterparts on the opposing host.

TCP/IP Network Model

The TCP/IP model describes the ubiquitous TCP/IP protocol suite. The TCP/IP
model is much simpler than the OSI model. It is a four-layer model that treats
all application functions as a single layer. It also combines the OSI data-link
layer and physical layer into a single layer. Table 1-1 shows the two models
side-by-side.

Table 1-1 TCP/IP Network Model

OSI MODEL TCP/IP MODEL TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Application Application Layer HTTP, TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS, SNMP

Presentation

Session

Transport Transport Layer TCP, UDP

Network Internet Layer IP, ARP, IGMP, ICMP

Data-link Network Interface Layer

Physical

Which model should you care about? The OSI model, with all its imperfec-
tions, is imbedded in the lexicon as the reference model most used for describ-
ing networking. However, the TCP/IP model best reflects the actual protocols
used in today’s networks, as the model specifies strictly the TCP/IP protocol
suite.

Networking Equipment
This section focuses on some of the popular networking hardware in use
today. The concentration is mostly on packet forwarding equipment, with spe-
cial attention paid to routers. The following hardware will be covered:
■■ Repeaters
■■ Hubs
■■ Bridges
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■■ Switches
■■ Routers
■■ Layer 3 switches
■■ CSU/DSUs

Packet Forwarding
Before delving into packet forwarding hardware, be sure you understand
what packet forwarding actually is, and how the process differs on varying
types of forwarding hardware. The term “forwarding” is a generic term for
transferring a packet from point A to point B. It is a “method independent”
term, meaning it is used whether the packet is routed to a different network or
switched to another port on the same network. Forwarding just refers to moving
the packet along its way.
In describing forwarding, this text will usually refer to the unit of data being
forwarded as a packet. Although the term frame and datagram are best suited to
DPUs as they pass through routers (the DPU enters as a layer 2 frame and
moves through the router as a layer 3 datagram, its layer 2 header having been
stripped off), the term packet is a nice elastic one that has broader meaning in
common use and can apply to forwarding at both layers 2 and 3.

Repeaters—Layer 1, Physical
Repeaters are the most basic form of forwarding devices. They are associated
with the physical layer because they have no means of examining the contents
of frames. Repeaters don’t see the contents of headers; they simply amplify
electrical signals. A repeater receives a frame, regenerates an exact copy of the
frame, and forwards it along its way. The repeater does not scrutinize the bit
pattern in any way and makes no decision about how or where to forward
packets. A repeater therefore is only used for intranetwork communications.
Repeaters are primarily used to extend the maximum length of a cable run.
They typically have two ports: an input port and an output port. Although
repeaters still have their uses, it is rare to see one used specifically for net-
working, partially because the advent of fiber optic cabling has extended the
maximum length of cable runs. One place repeaters have seen a renaissance is
as USB extenders.

Hubs—Layer 1, Physical
Hubs (also known as concentrators) are easy to define. They are simply multi-
port repeaters. Whereas a repeater will have two ports (one in, one out), a
hub has 24 or more ports. The concept is exactly the same though. A signal
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Networking Overview 17

delivered to any port on a hub is regenerated and forwarded out all ports.
Again, no examination of the frame is performed and no forwarding decisions
are made. Every port gets a copy of the frame because the hubs are too dumb
to know which port the destination node is attached to. Because hubs cannot
read network addresses within a frame, they are restricted to forwarding
frames within a single logical network only. Hubs do not route traffic.
Hubs have traditionally been employed on smaller Ethernet LANs to pro-
vide connections to network nodes. They are cheap and simple to deploy.
However, because the Ethernet frames sent from one node is forwarded to all
nodes, bandwidth is compromised. Ethernet is a baseband medium, meaning
only one signal at a time can be placed on the network. If a second signal is
placed on the wire, a collision occurs and communications must be reat-
tempted. Hubs and repeaters therefore form what is known as a collision
domain. All traffic on an intranetwork connected solely by hubs (or repeaters)
exists within a single collision domain.
As Ethernet networks grew in size over the years, the single collision domain
architecture became an issue because each additional node attached to the net-
work increased the chances of a collision. Collisions happened so often on larger
networks (over 50–100 nodes for example) that performance was significantly
degraded. Since Ethernet looked like it was going to become a ubiquitous LAN
technology, a solution was needed to somehow partition collision domains.
The next three networking devices to be discussed—bridges, switches, and
routers—address the issue by forming multiple collision domains.

Bridges—Layer 2, Data-Link
A bridge is a different animal than a repeater or a hub because it has the abil-
ity to examine frames. This ability is limited though in that a bridge can only
“see” into the layer 2 header (the source and destination MAC addresses and
checksum).

BASEBAND VERSUS BROADBAND

Most LAN technologies employ baseband signaling (also known as narrow

band), which means only one signal can exist on the medium at a time.
Conversely, broadband signaling allows multiple signals on the medium (such
as cable TV and cable modems) at the same instant.
However, broadband is a term undergoing redefinition thanks to the huge
market for high-speed Internet access. Since broadband’s multi-signal
capability has generally translated to higher speeds over baseband signaling,
the term “broadband” has become synonymous with “fast” in the eyes of the
press, and thus the public. Therefore, any technology that delivers a high-speed
connection tends to be labeled broadband, regardless of the underlying
signaling method.
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The ability to read MAC addresses gives a bridge the ability to make intelli-
gent decisions about forwarding packets. A bridge will build a table in mem-
ory that records the MAC address of every node connected to either port. Over
a period of time, the bridge learns which nodes are connected to which of its
two ports.
How can this help network congestion? A two-port bridge can be inserted
between two LAN segments, thus splitting a single collision domain into two
collision domains. The two segments can be literally any size and contain any
number of hubs. Once the bridge learns the MAC addresses of all nodes and
which port they are connected to, it will forward packets only to the port the
destination node is connected to. In other words, if node 1 is connected to net-
work segment A, the bridge will never forward traffic destined for node 1 onto
segment B. That’s not where it lives.
However, bridges, like hubs, are restricted to forwarding frames within the
logical network because they can’t discern network addresses. The capability
of bridges is further enumerated in the following section on switches, which
are simply multi-port bridges.

Switches—Layer 2, Data-Link
Switches are quite similar to bridges. Because of a trend away from general
purpose CPUs to custom ASICs, and for marketing reasons, the bridge evolved
into the switch. Switches assist packet forwarding by creating a collision domain
on each switched port. As with bridges, switches track the source MAC address
of all packets and maps each address to the specific port it is sourced from. A
table is built containing this map, which allows the switch to forward traffic
only to the port attached to the destination node (assuming only one node is
connected to the port). If node 1 attached to port 1 sends a message to node 2
attached to port 2, that traffic is contained to port 1 and port 2. A node is
attached to port 3 could carry on a simultaneous conversation with a node
attached to port 4 without the chance of a collision. This is analogous to avoid-
ing a traffic jam by being allocated you own personal traffic lane.
Rather than attach a single workstation to a switched port, one or more hubs
could be attached to the port, although performance, as well as security, will
tend to degrade.
When switches were first introduced, they were substantially more expen-
sive than hubs, so a trade-off was made between cost and bandwidth manage-
ment, and both hubs and switches were deployed on LANs.
However, as the cost of switches has come down, more and more LANs are
built solely on switching technology. Moreover, the delay incurred by a switch
examining each packet’s MAC address has been mitigated by modern
switches employing what is referred to as wire speed technology, which is
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Networking Overview 19

firmware-based code whose operation does not impinge on the speed of the
underlining media.
Switches are now marketed to the home networking market, typically in the
form of four-port switch/Internet/router combo boxes. This is a bit silly of
course, since the amount of collisions on a four-node network hardly results in
a perceivable difference in performance to the end user, but sizzle tends to sell
over steak. However, one computer per switched port tends to enhance secu-
rity, as it makes eavesdropping quite difficult.
Due to marketing, pricing, performance, and security, switches have
evolved into the most popular network component for forwarding packets
within a logical network.

Routers—Layer 3, Network
The previously described networking equipment is limited in that hubs and
switches can only forward packets within a single network. If packets must be
forwarded to another network, a router is required. A router’s primary func-
tion is to forward packets between networks (Chapter 2 goes into detail on
this). Routers deal in network addresses and are therefore associated with the
network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model. An artifact of router behavior is that
they isolate broadcast domains as well as collision domains. Repeaters, hubs,
bridges, and switches all forward broadcasts to all ports (even switched ports).
Routers usually do not forward broadcast packets.4

What Exactly Is a Router?

A router is a device that forwards packets between networks. A router is sim-
ply a computer running code that determines how and where to forward pack-
ets bound for other networks. The computer carrying out routing functions
may be a single purpose computer with a specialized operating system (for
example, a Cisco router) or a computer running a general purpose operating
system, such as an Intel computer running a Windows 2003 server.
To be specific, a router has the following attributes:
■■ A processor
■■ An operating system (OS)
■■ Two or more network interfaces to forward packets through
■■ A route table indicating which interface the packets should be for-
warded to
■■ Some type of memory to store the OS, route tables, and the configura-
tion information
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20 Chapter 1

General-Purpose Computers as Routers

Many server-based OSs can be configured to forward packets between net-
works. All that is required to allow a Windows 2003 server to perform routing
functions is to install two or more network interface cards (NICs) and config-
ure for packet forwarding. A computer configured with two or more NICs is
considered a multi-homed system (or multi-homed computer).
Given that a general purpose OS can assume the functionality of a router,
why would anyone bother to spend the money for a dedicated router? There
are many good reasons to use a dedicated router. Unless you have very simple
requirements, a general-purpose OS just doesn’t cut it when it comes to seri-
ous routing. In the case of Microsoft operating systems, a search of Microsoft’s
knowledge base reveals a plethora of problems related to multi-homing. In
addition, configurability, flexibility, filtering, security, throughput, and the
ability to run various routing protocols are all issues with multi-homed PCs.

Dedicated Routers
A dedicated router is just that—a computer with one basic function: the for-
warding of packets. A dedicated router has all the attributes cited previously:
a processor; an operating system; two or more interfaces; a route table; and
some type of memory to store the OS, route tables and core configuration of
the router. Most router product lines are distinguished by how the aforemen-
tioned criteria are incorporated into specific router model.

Processor
Processor type and clock speed vary according to the volume of packets
required to flow through the router in a given period and how much filtering
is performed on those packets. The heavier the workload, the more processing
power is required.

Operating System
At the core of a router is its operating system. Each brand of router runs an OS
proprietary to the vendor. For example, a Cisco router employs the venerable
Cisco IOS (Internetwork Operating System). The Cisco IOS has gone through
a number of versions over the years as features have been added to keep up
with changing network technologies. Although there are various flavors of the
IOS for different router series (2500, 2600, and so on) it is essentially the same
core code. When you have learned how to configure one Cisco router, you
have a handle on configuring any Cisco router. It’s all about knowing the IOS.
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Networking Overview 21

Memory
Routers employ various types of memory for different functions. Table 1-2
illustrates the common memory types.
ROM, Flash, and NVRAM are all non-volatile forms of memory. If the router
goes down or is powered off, the stored information is retained. RAM memory
is volatile, but is much faster than non-volatile memory. Information from non-
volatile memory is copied to RAM on boot-up to allow faster operation.

Router Interfaces
If routers can’t connect to networks, they don’t have much value. The number,
type, and capabilities of a router’s interfaces vary according to a particular
product line and model number. However, just about every router you pick up
has two traditional categories of routing interfaces: a LAN interface and a
WAN interface.
A WAN interface makes possible the connection to a WAN link, such as a
modem or a digital line (a T1 or a 56K line for example). The WAN interface on
a Cisco router is usually a DB60 female serial port. A DTE/DCE cable5 is used
to connect the WAN interface to a CSU/DSU. DTE stands for Data Terminal
Equipment (the router) and DCE stands for Data Circuit-terminating Equip-
ment (the CSU/DSU, Figure 1-4).
A LAN interface connects the router to one or more local networks. The
interface takes the physical form of either an RJ-45 jack (100base-T) or a DB-15
female connector. The DB-15 connector was designed to connect to the now-
obsolete 10Base-2 networks (coax). Even so, the Cisco 2500 series routers still
come equipped with such an interface. If a 2500 series router is to be interfaced
to an Ethernet network employing unshielded twisted pair (UTP) wiring, a
transceiver that converts the DB-15 to an RJ-45 jack is attached to the interface.
By the way, the RJ-45 jacks in Figure 1-4 are not LAN connections. Rather, they
are used to connect a terminal to the router and program it. The common
application to program the router is TELNET.EXE.

Table 1-2 Types of Memory Used in Routers

MEMORY TYPE TYPICAL USE

ROM Stores a stripped-down version of the IOS

Flash / (EEPROM) Stores the operating system

NVRAM Stores the startup configuration

RAM Stores the running configuration, route tables, and so on

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22 Chapter 1

On/Off
Switch

AUX
AUI AUI Serial0 Serial1 Console 2

DB-15 DB-60 RJ-45 Power

Figure 1-4 Cisco model 2514 displaying (left to right) 2 10Base-T LAN ports and 2 serial
WAN ports.

Multi-Purpose Routers
Today’s routers have evolved and although you can certainly still purchase a
dedicated router, you now have the option of buying a router that has
absorbed the functions of other networking devices. One common router
hybrid is the layer 3 switch (defined in the next section).

EXCEPTION TO THE RULE: NAT

One exception to the requirement that a router must be used to forward

packets between networks would be a network containing a NAT (Network
Address Translation) device, which is used to forward packets between two
networks.
NAT devices are used to solve the problem of public IP address depletion
and are normally used to forward packets from a privately addressed network
to a public network. A NAT device exchanges the private source IP address in
the header of the packet for a public address, and then forwards the packet to
the Internet. Because the network number assigned to the NAT device’s private
interface must be different from the network number assigned to its public
interface, the packet has been effectively routed to a different network.
However, true routing does not take place because there is no route table on
the NAT device and no routing decisions are made. Rather, NAT simply
exchanges (translates) one source network number for another. Nonetheless,
most consumer networking devices which incorporate NAT (as well as DHCP)
are labeled “routers.”
Proxy servers and gateways are two other devices that perform IP address
substitution and connect two networks together. But as with NAT devices, they
do not actually perform routing functions.
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Networking Overview 23

Some routers are also capable of handling security functions. The Cisco IOS
for example, has native packet filtering capabilities across the product line.
Certain routers are also capable of terminating one end of a VPN solution. Still
other models have built-in hubs or even built-in switched ports.

Layer 3 Switches
A layer 3 switch is a hybrid device that combines the functions of a switch and
a router into one box. With a layer 3 switch, both OSI layer 2 and layer 3 head-
ers can be examined, so a packet can be forwarded either across the local net-
work or to another network. A layer 3 switch with VLAN (virtual LAN)
capability allows for a potent one-box solution for most packet-forwarding
needs.

CSU/DSUs (TSU)
A Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU, also referred to as a
TSU or Terminal Service Unit) is a piece of equipment that sits between the
router and a WAN connection such as a T1 line. Although a T1 line is a digital
line, the signaling methods used by the phone company are different from dig-
ital LAN signaling. The CSU/DSU conditions the signal from the router so
that it can be transmitted across the public link. A CSU/DSU on the receiving
side converts the signal back to a LAN signal and transmits it to the receiving
router6. The CSU/DSU, in turn, will typically have an RJ-45 jack that the telco
(telephone company) drop plugs into. Table 1-3 summarizes key networking
characteristics of the equipment discussed in this section.

Table 1-3 Summary of Packet-Forwarding equipment

INTRA- INTER- FORMS A FORMS A

NETWORK NETWORK COLLISION BROADCAST
HARDWARE FORWARDING FORWARDING DOMAIN DOMAIN

Repeater X

Hub X

Bridge X X

Switch X X

Router X X X

Layer 3 switch X X X X
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24 Chapter 1

TCP/IP Review
What follows is a quick review of TCP/IP networking concepts related to rout-
ing. It is by no means a complete primer on IP, but rather is intended to refresh
your recollection of IP networking and perhaps fill in some blanks. Having said
that, a fairly thorough treatment of classless networking (subnetting, variable-
length subnet masks, supernetting, and CIDR) will be covered, since it is so critical
to modern routing. The following topics will be addressed:
■■ Classful IP addressing
■■ Classless IP addressing
■■ Subnetting, variable-length subnet masks (VLSMs), supernetting, and
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
■■ Public and private addressing
■■ IPv6
■■ Ports and sockets
■■ IP protocols related to routing
■■ TCP/IP utilities related to routing

IP Addressing
An IP address is the number assigned to a host that uniquely identifies the host
on both the local network and all IP networks. IP addresses relate to the net-
working layer (layer 3) of the OSI model. The networking layer handles network
addressing and routing of packets, a topic that goes to the heart of this book.

DEFINING A HOST

A host is any device with a network interface assigned an IP address. We often

think of a device with an IP address as a workstation or a server but a number
of devices—firewalls, printers, NAT devices, and especially routers—have one
or more interfaces, each capable of being assigned to an IP address. Even
layer 2 switches, which mostly deal with physical (MAC) addresses, may have
IP addresses assigned to interfaces for management purposes.
A term sometimes used interchangeably with host is node. The two terms are
very similar in that they both point to addressable devices connected to a
network. However, a host is specifically related to a device with an IP address
whereas a node may or may not be configured with an IP address (it might be
accessed only by its MAC address or it may also have a differing type of
network address such as an IPX address). The term node therefore is more
generic than the term host.
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Networking Overview 25

IP addresses must be globally unique. No two hosts on any public IP net-

work can have the same address. The only exception to this rule is when the
network is isolated from other networks, either because it is a stand-alone net-
work or because the network is hidden from other connected networks via a
NAT box, gateway, or proxy server. In the latter case, a globally unique IP
address is substituted for the host address’s sourcing packets bound for
another network (as discussed in a subsequent section called “Public versus
Private IP Addressing”).
In the currently deployed version of IP, IPv4, an IP address is a 32-bit binary
number. For ease of readability, it is often expressed in decimal format. To
make it even easier to discern an IP address, it is usually represented in dotted
decimal format, meaning a period is inserted every 8 bits (1 byte). This results
in a four-part number expressed in decimal form (see Figure 1-5).
Each of the four portions of the decimal number is an octet. This term is
derived from the fact that each octet is 8 bits. This means that each octet can
vary in value from 0-255, for a total of 256 possibilities (28 = 256). Which pre-
sents the next logical question: How many unique addresses can an IP address
represent? Calculating the answer in decimal, you get the following:

256*256*256*256 = 4,294,967,296

That’s over 4 billion possibilities. However, the next thing to understand

about an IP address is that it represents not one, but two elements. An IP
address represents not only a particular host, but also the network the host is a
part of. The host portion of the address must be unique within a given network,
whereas the network portion of the address must be globally unique among all
possible connected networks.

Working with Binary Numbers

Not everyone is comfortable with binary numbers. Paradoxically, many
nuances of IP addressing, such as subnetting, are more easily understood if the
address is expressed in binary rather than decimal. That is why many of the
examples in this section will have the address expressed in both decimal and
binary forms.

A 32 bit IP address expressed in 3 different formats

Binary 11001000 11001000 11001000 00000001
Decimal 336,860,601
Dotted Decimal 200.200.200.1
Figure 1-5 IP address notation.
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26 Chapter 1

Binary numbers are actually easy to understand because each bit represents
only two possibilities: 0 or 1. Therefore, each additional bit doubles the num-
ber of possibilities:

1 bit = 2 possibilities 0, 1
2 bits = 4 possibilities 00, 01, 10, 11
3 bits = 8 possibilities 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111
4 bits = 16 possibilities 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, . . . 1111
5 bits = 32 possibilities 00000, 00001, 00010, 00011, . . . 11111
6 bits = 64 possibilities 000000, 000001, 000010, 000011, . . . 111111
7 bits = 128 possibilities 0000000, 0000001, 00000010, . . . 1111111
8 bits = 256 possibilities 00000000, 00000001, 00000010, . . . 11111111

That is why an octet (8 bits) represents 256 possible numbers (0–255).

2*2*2*2*2*2*2*2 = 256. A way to express the same thing in less space is 28, or 2
raised to the 8th power.
It is not necessary to perform any math by hand when working with IP
addresses expressed in binary format. Any calculator that can convert between
decimal and binary numbers, like the Windows calculator, will handle it for
you. All that is necessary is to switch the calculator to scientific mode. Simply
start the calculator program (Start → Programs → Accessories → Calculator),
then click View → Scientific.
To convert a decimal number to binary, click the Dec button, type the num-
ber, and then click the Bin button. To convert a binary number to decimal, click
the Bin button, type the number, and then click the Dec button.
For example, to convert the address the 200.200.200.1 to binary, enter each
octet one at a time with the calculator set for Dec and convert to binary. The
result should be the 11001000. 11001000. 11001000. 00000001.
Converting from binary to decimal is the same process in reverse. Just be
sure to enter the binary numbers 8 bits (1 byte) at a time with the calculator set
for Bin and convert to Dec.
You can also easily calculate powers of 2. For example to prove that 28
indeed equates to 256, do the following:
1. Be sure calculator is in Dec mode. Type 2.
2. Click the x^y button once.
3. Type 8 and press Enter.
The result should be 256.

Classful Addressing
The original, and now obsolete, system for denoting the network and host
address represented by an IP address was the classful system. You will see
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Networking Overview 27

shortly why the system is no longer used. The classful system mandates three
different types (classes) of IP addresses, whereby entire octets are tasked with
representing either the network or the host portion of the address. Table 1-4
illustrates classful IP addressing.

Network Numbering
In a classful addressing system, a class A network reserves the first octet for
network numbering while leaving the remaining three octets for host number-
ing. A class B address reserves the first two octets for network numbering and
the remaining two octets for host numbering. A class C address reserves the
first three octets for network numbers and only one octet for host numbering.
How does this all work out? Have a look at Table 1-5.
In the classful system, certain bits in the first octet are “frozen”—they form
a set pattern and are never altered. A class A address is defined by the first bit
being frozen at 0. Because the network portion of a class A network number is
confined to the first octet, this leaves 7 bits that can be manipulated to create
network IDs. 27 equates to 128 potential class A networks. This isn’t very many
networks, but with three remaining octets tasked to host numbers, each net-
work has a huge number of potential host addresses.
Class B networks have the first 2 bits of the first octet frozen at 10. Because
the first two octets of a class B address form the range of network IDs, 14 bits
are available. 214 equates to 16,384 potential class B networks.
Class C networks have the first 3 bits of the first octet frozen at 110. Because
the first three octets of a class C address form the range of network IDs, 21 bits
are available. 221 equates to 2,097,152 potential class C networks.
In point of fact, not every potential network address translates into a valid,
usable network address. Certain addresses are considered reserved for other
uses, as shown in Table 1-6.

Table 1-4 Classful IP Addressing

DIVISION BETWEEN
NETWORK AND HOST
ADDRESS CLASS PORTION OF ADDRESS EXAMPLES

A Network.host.host.host 10.10.10.0

B Network.Network.host.host 128.50.0.0

C Network.Network.Network.host 190.0.0.0
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Table 1-5 Potential Networks in the Classful System

# OF
FIRST OCTET FIRST OCTET RANGE OF POTENTIAL
CLASS IN BINARY IN DECIMAL ADDRESSES NETWORKS

A 00000000 to 0 to 127 0.0.0.0 to 27 or 128

01111111 127.0.0.0

B 10000000 to 128 to 191 128.0.0.0 to 214 or

10111111 191.255.0.0 16,384

C 11000000 to 192 to 223 192.0.0.0 to 221 or

11011111 223.255.255.0 2,097,152

D 11100000 to 224 to 239 Multicast Multicast

11101111 addresses addresses

E 11110000 to 240 to 255 Experimental Experimental

11111111

As a general rule, all network bits set to either 0 or 1 (not including frozen
bits) create invalid network addresses and explain why most of the addresses
shown in Table 1-6 are reserved. Table 1-7 shows the actual number of usable
networks.

Host Numbering
The number of hosts per network varies according to the network class. Class
A networks leave three full octets for the range of host IDs for each network.
That’s well over 16 million hosts per network!
Class B and C networks leave two octets and one octet, respectively, for host
addresses. Table 1-8 illustrates the number of hosts per network for each net-
work class.

Table 1-6 Invalid Network IDs

NETWORK ID COMMENT

0.0.0.0 First potential class A network address.

127.0.0.0 Last potential class A network address. Used for testing.

(Host 127.0.0.1 is for loopback testing.)

128.0.0.0 First potential class B network address.

191.255.0.0 Last potential class B network address.

192.0.0.0 First potential class C network address.

223.255.255.0 Last potential class C network address.

224.0.0.0 and above Multicast and experimental. Not used for host addressing.
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Networking Overview 29

Table 1-7 Usable Network IDs

FIRST OCTET RANGE OF # OF USABLE

CLASS IN DECIMAL ADDRESSES NETWORKS

A 1 to 126 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0 27 -2 or 126

B 128 to 191 128.1.0.0 to 191.254.0.0 214 - 2 or 16,382

C 192 to 223 192.0.1.0 to 223.255.254.0 221 -2 or 2,097,150

As with network addresses, not all potential host addresses are valid. The rule
is that host addresses of all binary 0s or binary 1s cannot be assigned to a host. A
host address of all binary 0s represents the network number itself (the 1.0.0.0),
and a host address of all binary 1s represents the broadcast address for the net-
work. So that’s two reserved host addresses per network. Table 1-8 accounts for
that rule with the formula 2n – 2 where n = number of host bits.

Enumerating an IP Address
Table 1-9 illustrates the range of host addresses and the broadcast address for
each of the three network classes.

Comments on the Classful Addressing Scheme

Obviously, the choice of which address class to use is paramount when you’re
designing a network under this system. If a class A network is assigned to a
company with only 500 hosts, over 16 million addresses are wasted. Because
the classful system does not allow organizations to easily share unused host
addresses with other organizations, the industry got itself in a jam a few years
ago over this exact issue. So many addresses had been wasted that a crisis was
inevitable as the Internet took off in the early ‘90s. This has given rise to a new
system for allocating IP addresses on the Internet. This newer classless system
has become the predominant way of assigning addresses, and is discussed in
detail shortly. The classful system is still used in certain circumstances how-
ever, and is useful for understanding basic IP addressing.

Table 1-8 Usable Range of Valid Host Addresses for Any Given Network Address

# OF HOSTS
HOST ADDRESS HOST ADDRESS RANGE PER
CLASS RANGE (IN DECIMAL) (IN BINARY) NETWORK

A x.0.0.1 to x.255.255.254 x.00000000.00000000.00000001 224 -2 or

to x.11111111.11111111.11111110 16,777,214

B x.x.0.1 to x.x.255.254 x.x.00000000.00000001 216 -2 or

to x.x.11111111.11111110 65,534

C x.x.x.1 to x.x.x.254 x.x.x.00000001 to x.x.x.11111110 28 -2 or 254

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Table 1-9 Enumerating a Sample Class A, B, and C Network

BEGINNING ENDING
EXAMPLE HOST HOST BROADCAST
CLASS NETWORK ADDRESS ADDRESS ADDRESS

A 1.0.0.0 1.0.0.1 1.255.255.254 1.255.255.255

B 128.0.0.0 128.0.0.1 128.0.255.254 128.0.255.255

C 192.0.0.0 192.0.0.1 192.0.0.254 192.0.0.255

Public versus Private IP Addressing

As previously discussed, IP addresses used on the Internet must be unique.
That requires a type of address known as a public IP address. This is simply a
range of the IP address space reserved for public use. Isolated networks make
use of an area of the IP address range known as private addresses. If a privately
addressed network ever needs to connect to another network across the Inter-
net, the host initiating the communication must have its private address trans-
lated to a public address (usually through NAT).

Public Addressing
In order to insure that every host’s IP address is unique, a central assigning
authority allocates all addresses that will be used on the Internet. These
addresses are known as public IP addresses (depicted later in Table 1-10).

N OT E Synonymous terms for public addresses are registered, routable,

external, legal, non-reusable, global, and globally unique addresses.

Table 1-10 Public and Private IP Address Range

PUBLIC IP NETWORK ADDRESS RANGE

Class A 1.0.0.0 – 9.0.0.0 and 11.0.0.0 – 126.0.0.0

Class B 128.0.0.0 – 172.15.0.0 and 172.32.0.0 –191.255.0.0

Class C 192.0.0.0 – 192.167.255.0 and 192.169.0.0 –223.255.255.0

PRIVATE IP NETWORK ADDRESS RANGE

Class A 10.0.0.0 (1 network)

Class B 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.0.0 (16 networks)

Class C 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.0 (256 networks)

Network portion of address is in bold.

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Networking Overview 31

WHAT’S AN RFC?

An RFC, Request for Comments, is the method used to define standards for the
Internet. An RFC starts life as a public document in draft form that is circulated
in the Internet community. Each RFC has an assigned number. Once accepted as
a standard, the RFC retains the same number and is still called a Request for
Comments—just one of those little oddities, like doctors “practicing” medicine.

Private Addressing
RFC 1918 allocates a range of the IP address space for use by private networks.
These IP addresses can never be used on the Internet. This action was taken in
the mid-1990s to conserve the rapidly depleting number of globally unique IP
addresses.

N OT E Synonymous terms for private addresses are non-routable, reserved,

internal, local, reusable, illegal, and unregistered.

Because network packets with private addresses are never routed from one
domain to another, any number of companies can use the same private
addresses. Private IP addresses are free of charge and they can be reused on
any number of private networks. Not so with the venerable public range of
addresses, which have become rare and expensive.
The implementation of privately addressed networks is what caused the
proliferation of proxy servers, NAT boxes, and gateways. These devices sub-
stitute a public address for a private address when access to the Internet is
required. A small pool of public addresses can server the needs of dozens or
even hundreds of privately addressed hosts (see Table 1-10).
The table indicates which range of addresses can be used for private net-
works. For example, the entire Class A network 10.0.0.0 is available. A Class A
network allows for over 16 million hosts (10.0.0.1 – 10.255.255.254). Is that
enough addresses for your network? Or, you could subnet the address and cre-
ate a multitudes of networks.
If you were to instead choose Class B addressing you could select the
172.16.0.0 network, for example, which allows for over 65,000 hosts (172.16.0.1 –
172.16.255.254). Or you could use 172.17.0.0, or 172.18.0.0, or any network num-
ber up to 172.31.0.0. Any of those network numbers allows for 65,000+ hosts. Or
again, you could subnet and create additional private network numbers.
If you have a smaller network and fewer hosts, you could get by with a
private Class C network. For example, the 192.168.0.0 allows for 254 hosts
(192.168.0.1 – 192.168.0.254). Most consumer Internet “routers,” which incorpo-
rate a NAT device for Internet access, default to a class C network (usually
192.168.0.0, 192.168.1.0, or 192.168.2.0).
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If you have a routed network, should you employ several private class C
addresses or a subnetted private class B address? When making such a deci-
sion, recall that one goal in network design is to keep route table entries as
small as possible. Another goal is organization of all those addresses. A hierar-
chical networking scheme with summarized network addresses is the key.
This means a private class A or B address may be the preferred choice. Or bet-
ter yet, make sure you fully understand classless addressing, classless routing,
and route summarization before deciding on an addressing scheme for a
network. These topics are fully explored throughout this book.

Classless Addressing
With classless addressing, the traditional dividing line between the network
and host portion of the address is blurred. While classful addressing draws the
dividing line only at octet borders, classless addressing draws the network/
host line at any bit boundary. This allows for a highly flexible addressing
scheme that does not unnecessarily waste IP addresses.
Before getting into the methods of how classless addressing is employed, it
is important that you understand how the IP stack running on a host deter-
mines the network portion of an IP address. This is critical in deciding whether a
packet needs to be routed to another network.

Distinguishing the Network ID

How does a host determine which network it is a part of? How does a source
host determine the network number of a destination IP address? The tradi-
tional method for making that determination was via a technique known as
the First Octet Rule. However, as you will see, the First Octet Rule only works
in a classful environment, not in this modern world of classless addressing.
That is why the industry has shifted to using something known as a subnet
mask and/or prefix number to identify the network portion of an IP address.
Both methods are explained here.

First Octet Rule

The First Octet Rule was the original mechanism a host employed to deter-
mine the address class of an IP address. It was noted earlier that the value of
the high order bits (starting left to right) define the address class. It is exactly
those bits that the First Octet Rule uses to discern the address class of the
source and destination addresses of a packet.
The first octet of the address is examined and the value is used to determine
the address class (A, B, or C). Specifically, up to the first four high order bits
(left to right) are examined as Table 1-11 indicates.
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Networking Overview 33

Table 1-11 First Octet Rule for Address Class

ADDRESS CLASS BIT PATTERN OF FIRST OCTET

A 00000000 = 0

B 10000000 = 128

C 11000000 = 192

D (multi-casting) 11100000 = 224

E (experimental) 11110000 = 240

Human beings usually recognize address class by memorizing the decimal

number 128, which demarcates the beginning of the class B address range
(anything under 128 is therefore class A), and the decimal numbers 192 and
223, which demarcate the class C range.
The problem with either system, however, is a built-in assumption that the
value of the first octet will always dictate the network number. Unfortunately,
with classless addressing redrawing the network/host dividing line within an
octet as opposed to between octets, that assumption is no longer true. The
address the 10.4.1.1 typically represented host address the 4.1.1. on network
the 10.0.0.0. But with classless addressing, the address the 10.4.1.1 could repre-
sent host 1.1 on network the 10.4.0.0 or host .1 on network the 10.4.1.0 (you will
see why shortly). The First Octet Rule fails in a classless environment because
the IP will fail to understand that a packet with a destination address of say,
the 10.4.1.1 may need to be routed to a different network. This is why no mod-
ern networking devices use the First Octet Rule for determining the network
portion of an address.

Subnet Mask
The contemporary method for determining the network address is the subnet
mask. A subnet mask does just what it implies: it masks (blocks) out the host
portion of the address, thereby revealing just the network number. How that
works will be demonstrated shortly. Why is it called a “subnet” mask and not
a “network” mask? Actually, sometimes it is called a network mask. It’s also
referred to as the net mask, the subnet address, or simply the mask.
The subnet mask, like an IP address, is a 32-bit number expressed in dotted
decimal format. For classful networks, it takes the form shown in Table 1-12.

N OT E A subnet mask is usually required when you’re configuring an IP

address on a network interface. Most networking equipment these days utilizes
the subnet mask as opposed to the First Octet Rule for determining the
network number. Also see the subsequent section on prefix addressing.
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34 Chapter 1

Table 1-12 Default Subnet Mask for Classful Networks

ADDRESS CLASS DEFAULT SUBNET MASK

A 255.0.0.0

B 255.255.0.0

C 255.255.255.0

Figure 1-6 shows a typical IP configuration of a workstation running

Windows XP.
IP uses a simple mathematical process, called ANDing, in conjunction with
the subnet mask to actually derive the network number from an IP address.
ANDing is a boolean logic process that says at least two things must be true
before an action is taken. People actually use this type of logic in everyday life:
“If you take the car to work and you have time, stop by the store for groceries on your
way home.” The recipient of the message will only bring home groceries if he or
she has both time and a vehicle (or get groceries regardless, to avoid getting into
trouble with his or her mate, but that’s a different branch of logic). It’s called boolean
logic because a mathematician named George Boole popularized it in the 19th
century. In network routing, the boolean logic goes like this: “If the IP address
bit is set to 1 and the corresponding subnet mask is set to 1, then the bit is part
of the network portion of the address.”

Figure 1-6 A default class C subnet mask

applied to a class C IP address.
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Networking Overview 35

The ANDing process is performed on the IP address and the subnet mask to
extract the network number. To understand how this occurs, you need to con-
vert the IP address and subnet mask to binary format. The IP stack performs a
comparison of the IP address and the subnet mask, bit by bit, from left to right.
The ANDing process is performed on each “bit pair” and a decision is made as
to whether the bit is part of the network number or not.
In the following example, the IP address 190.1.1.1 with a mask of the
255.255.255.0 has the ANDing process performed to extract the network
address:

Address 190 .1 .1 .1
Binary 10111110 00000001 00000001 00000001
________ ________ ________ ________
Subnet mask 255 .255 .255 .0
Binary 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
======================================
ANDing process 10111110 00000001 00000001 00000000
Network ID 190 .1 .1 .0

The process follows these steps:

1. IP compares each bit in each octet of the address to the corresponding
bit in the subnet mask. To illustrate, the first bit in the 190 octet is 1.
This is matched with the first bit in the first 255 octet, which also hap-
pens to be 1.
2. For each bit compared, IP says: “If the source address bit is set to 1 AND
the corresponding subnet bit is set to 1, then pass a 1 through. If not, pass a 0.”
3. If either bit is set to 0, the test fails and IP would pass a 0. An example
of this is the second bit over. The second bit for the source address is set
to 0. The corresponding bit in the subnet mask is set to 1. The test fails
because both values are not 1 and IP passes through a 0. It’s a very sim-
ple rule.

N OT E For some people it’s easier to look at it this way: “If the subnet mask
bit is set to 1, it passes the corresponding address bit through. If the subnet
mask bit is 0, it passes a 0 regardless.” The end-result is the same regardless of
how you look at it.

4. The process continues until all bits in all octets have been compared.
When the resulting number is converted back to decimal, the true net-
work number of the source IP address is revealed.
When making routing decisions, IP performs the ANDing process on both
the source and destination addresses, and then compares the results. If both
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36 Chapter 1

extracted network numbers are the same, the packet is delivered locally. If the
results differ, the packet is assumed to be destined for another network, and is
routed accordingly. ANDing is the key element of routing decisions in today’s
classless networking environment and the term will be referred to throughout
this guide. Be sure you understand the concept.

Prefix Notation
Prefix notation or prefix addressing is simply an alternate method of expressing
a network’s mask. Prefixes express the address masks in less space. In prefix
notation, a single number preceded by a “/” is used instead of a 32-bit number.
As you may deduce from Table 1-13, prefix notation simply reflects the num-
ber of bits turned on in the mask. Notice the default mask in the table
expressed in binary form. The first three octets of 255 each represent all binary
bits turned on; 24 bits turned on—thus the prefix of /24.
By the same token, a class A mask would be represented as /8 in prefix nota-
tion (the 255.0.0.0) and a class B mask would be /16 (the 255.255.0.0). A very
simple system. Some operating systems such as Windows XP allow you to
enter the network mask as a prefix number in lieu of a subnet mask. Public
WAN carriers also commonly use prefix notation. If you are assigned a net-
work number by your ISP, the mask will usually be notated in prefix format.

N OT E Prefix notation is also known as slash notation, prefix masking, prefix

address, and prefix routing, just to name a few.

Classless Addressing and Routing

In discussing classful and classless addressing, we are running smack dab into
the main topic of this book: network routing. Not all routing protocols—the
protocols that build route tables—support classless addressing. This is
because such protocols don’t support the use of subnet masks. Without the
knowledge of where the network/host dividing line occurs, classful routing
protocols are relegated to supporting only classful A, B, and C networks, and
even then only for privately addressed networks. Some public class A network
IDs have been broken up and distributed to multiple organizations. Classful
routing protocols cannot support this classless modification. This topic is dis-
cussed in detail in Chapter 4.

Table 1-13 Three Methods for Displaying the Same Class C Subnet Mask

Expressed in decimal 255.255.255.0

Expressed in binary 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

Expressed in prefix notation /24

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Networking Overview 37

The Manifestations of Classless Addressing—Subnetting, VLSM,

Supernetting, and CIDR
If the concepts of subnetting, VLSMs, supernetting, and CIDR have daunted
you in the past, rest easy. They are each just slightly different manifestations of
the basic concept of classless IP addressing, which is simply the process of
drawing the network/host dividing line at bit boundaries as opposed to octet
boundaries. Drawing the network/host line between any 2 bits breaks all the
old rules—something that is always fun to do.
As mentioned earlier, it’s important that you understand classless addressing
in order to understand classless routing. To that end, a complete discussion of
each of the classless addressing methods is covered here. If you take the time
to study the material in the following pages, you will understand subnetting,
VLSMs, supernetting, and CIDR like never before.
Let’s start with a quick definition of each classless addressing technique, fol-
lowed by specifics.

Subnetting in Brief
Subnetting is the act of taking a single IP network ID and subdividing it to cre-
ate two or more network IDs. Subnetting is accomplished by relocating the net-
work/host dividing line to the right from its originally assigned position—into
the area of the portion of the address representing the host IDs. As the line
moves to the right, bit-by-bit, additional network IDs are created as host IDs
are sacrificed. That’s the trade-off. The further the line is moved to the right, the
more networks (subnets) are created and the fewer the number of hosts per
network. The “borrowing” of host bits is accomplished by altering the original
mask of the network ID. A custom mask is how the ANDing process discerns
the subnets created by the bit borrowing process. The subnetting process works
the same regardless of whether the original address is classful or classless.

VLSMs in Brief
In standard subnetting, the same subnet mask used to derive the additional sub-
nets is applied to all hosts residing on all the subnets. With variable-length sub-
net masks (VLSMs), the subnet mask can be altered (varied) again for one or
more of the subnets. In effect, this is sub-subnetting. The reason for this appar-
ent insanity is the same as it always is when you’re submerged in the world of
classless addressing—namely, to provide the utmost in addressing utilization. A
standard subnetted class C address may yield say, two subnets with 62 hosts per
subnet. But what if one network requires 62 hosts and another network requires
say, only two host IDs? In that case, one of the two subnets could itself be sub-
netted further, creating additional networks with fewer hosts per subnet. One of
the two subnets remains the same and keeps the same custom mask, while the
other subnet is further subdivided into additional networks with a smaller num-
ber of hosts per network and thus a differing mask. That’s VLSM in a nutshell.
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38 Chapter 1

Supernetting in Brief
Supernetting is simply the reverse of standard subnetting. Instead of moving the
network/host dividing line to the right—creating additional networks with fewer
hosts per network—the line is moved to the left—creating fewer networks with a
greater number of hosts per network. This technique is applied to contiguous
blocks of network IDs to create a single network number with the combined
total of all host IDs that were originally spread out among several addresses.

CIDR in Brief
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is simply the concept of subnetting/
supernetting and even VLSM techniques applied at the address assignment
level, where ISPs and large organizations receive an allotment of addresses.
The assigning authority no longer wastes entire classful addresses by handing
out say, a class B address with 16,000+ host IDs. Instead, what was a class A, B,
or C address is now treated as simply a 32-bit number whose network/host
dividing line can be drawn at any point. With CIDR, every public network ID
is treated the same, regardless of its previous class distinction. A CIDR address
“block” is now assigned with the network/host dividing line determined by
the requirements of the organization receiving the address. The organization
receives the exact number of addresses it needs—no more, no less.
A pleasant side effect of allocating addresses in this manner allows the min-
imization of the number of route table entries on Internet routers. Blocks of
CIDR assigned addresses can be summarized into a single route table entry,
regardless of the number of networks actually assigned. The concept of route
summarization goes hand-in-hand with classless addressing techniques. Net-
work summarization is given extensive coverage in Chapter 4 on page 119.

Subnetting in Detail
The basic purpose of subnetting is to derive additional networks from a single
network address. Subnetting is accomplished by altering the current subnet
mask (prefix number) for the network. The current mask may be a classful A, B,
or C mask, or it may be whatever mask was assigned when the address was allo-
cated. Additional networks are created by borrowing bits from the host portion
of the IP address to create additional network IDs. When a network address is
subnetted into multiple networks, the term subnet is often used to refer to the
additional network addresses created. The result of subnetting is that you gain
additional network addresses—at the expense of fewer hosts per network.

Why Subnet?
There are many answers to this question. If the originally assigned network ID
is a public address, subnetting may be employed to efficiently allocate this rare
and valuable resource. A customer requiring several public network addresses
may be able to obtain (for a price) a single address and then subnet it into the
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Networking Overview 39

required number of networks. In fact, with CIDR addressing, it is fully

expected the allocated address will be subnetted.

N OT E Bear in mind that with the popularity of NAT, there is less of a need to
subnet public addresses at the organizational level. Just a single or a few public
addresses can represent many privately addressed hosts. ISPs, however, routinely
subnet their CIDR assigned public addresses to satisfy the demands of their
customers.

The other popular reason to subnet (and to variably subnet) is to create a

hierarchical addressing scheme for your internetwork. This is true for both
public as well as privately addressed networks. In a hierarchically addressed
network, blocks of network addresses are allocated in such a manner that a
single summarized address can represent many networks. Such an addressing
scheme provides several benefits:
■■ Smaller route tables
■■ Quicker convergence of route tables
■■ Less taxing on many different network resources (router CPU and
memory, network bandwidth, and so on)
■■ Much easier to relate an IP address to a specific geographical location and
even a specific category of hosts (workstation, printer, router, and so on)
The preceding items will of course make more sense as your knowledge of
routing grows. The benefits of summarizing network addresses is a theme this
book will frequently return to.

N OT E If there is a single topic in networking technology that most intimidates

“beginners,” it’s the process of subnetting. The following treatment of how to
subnet has proven to help time and time again when the author is teaching
networking classes.

How to Subnet
You must take the following items into consideration when subnetting:
■■ Determine the total number of subnets needed. This includes planning
for future networks.
■■ Determine the total number of hosts that each subnet must support
now and in the future.
■■ Define a custom subnet mask that will support the required number of
hosts for that subnet.
■■ Derive the subnet IDs.
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40 Chapter 1

■■ Derive the host IDs for each subnet.

■■ Derive the broadcast address for each subnet.
You accomplish this process in three steps, as described in this section. The
concept of subnetting is far more easily illustrated by looking at the subnet
mask in its binary form. Therefore, the examples in this section show the sub-
net mask in both decimal and binary formats.

Step 1: Create additional network numbers by using a custom subnet mask

This example assumes a company has been assigned the public address range
192.100.50.0 /24. The company wishes to create two smaller subnets connected
by a router to reduce broadcast traffic. Figure 1-7 depicts the address as
asigned. Note the dividing line separating the network portion of the address
from the host portion of the address. This is the default network/host dividing
point for a /24 address range.

Borrowing Bits
Creating additional network IDs involves moving the network/host dividing
line to the right—into the host portion of the address. In effect, you are remov-
ing bits from the host portion of the address and reassigning them for subnet
duty. The more bits you borrow, the more subnet IDs you create. The new sub-
net IDs are formed strictly from the combinations of the borrowed bits.
Figure 1-8 shows how 2 bits are borrowed from the host ID. The subnet
mask is altered to create the subnets. Let’s see how many networks we can cre-
ate from 2 bits.
The first row shows the original dividing line of the address. In the second
row, 2 bits have been borrowed from the fourth octet, moving them into a new
field called the Subnet ID. In the third row, the borrowed bits have been
turned on (set to 1). This is how IP knows the dividing line has been moved to
the right. IP (specifically, the ANDing process) always identifies ON bits in the
mask (1’s) as network addresses and OFF bits in the mask (0’s) as host addresses.
Note the Subnet ID field. It’s made up solely of the borrowed bits. This
“field” is simply there to illustrate the place where the subnet IDs are derived
from. IP just sees the address as one long 32-bit binary address.

1st octet 2nd octet 3rd octet 4th octet

IP address 192 .100 .50 .0
Default subnet mask in decimal 255. .255 .255 .0
Default subnet mask in binary 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
NETWORK HOST
Figure 1-7 Default network/host dividing line for a /24 address range.
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Networking Overview 41

1st octet 2nd octet 3rd octet 4th octet

Default mask 11111111 1111111 1111111 00000000
Borrowing 11111111 1111111 1111111 00 000000
Turn bits on 11111111 1111111 1111111 11 000000
NETWORK ID Subnet ID HOST ID
Figure 1-8 Borrowing bits redraws the network/host dividing line.

The original network field always remains unchanged, regardless of how

many subnets are created. Again, all subnet addresses will be derived from the
subnet field. Given that fact, one wonders what use the original network ID
has. The 192.100.50.0 will never again represent any one network, once the sub-
netting process has been instituted. However, the 192.100.50.0 can later be
used to represent all the subnets created from it in the route tables of certain
routers. In fact, this is an advantageous thing to do in order to reduce the num-
ber of route table entries (also called route summarization or aggregation).
Determining the Custom Subnet Mask
The custom subnet mask is determined by simply converting the modified
fourth octet of the mask (which is always comprised of 8 bits, regardless of their
purpose) back to decimal (see Figure 1-9).
As you can see in the figure, nothing has changed in the first three octets.
In the fourth octet, the binary number 11000000 converts to 192. Thus,
255.255.255.192 is the new subnet mask for this network, replacing the default
255.255.255.0 mask. The mask 255.255.255.192 will be used by all hosts on all
subnets of 192.100.50.0. That’s standard subnetting. Now you know why it’s
easier to understand this in binary. It’s hard to draw a dividing line on the dec-
imal number 192. But in fact, that octet now partially represents the network
ID and partially represents the host IDs. It’s weird, but it works. This will be
proven in the next step.

1st octet 2nd octet 3rd octet 4th octet

From 3rd row of 11111111 11111111 11111111 11 000000
previous table

NETWORK ID Subnet ID HOST ID

Decimal 255 .255 .255 .192
Figure 1-9 Altered subnet mask converted back to a decimal number reveals
a mask of 255.255.255.192.
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42 Chapter 1

N OT E You should follow along by performing the conversions yourself. It’s

very easy. If using Windows, just use the calculator applet in scientific mode
(click View → Scientific).

As you can see, the mechanics of creating a custom subnet mask is relatively
easy. Just remember that you always borrow from the first octet representing
the host portion of the address. For a class C address, that is the fourth octet.
For a class B address, you would start borrowing from the third octet, and con-
tinue borrowing into the fourth octet if required. For class A addresses, start
borrowing from the second octet.

Step 2: Determine the Subnet IDs

Now that the new subnet mask has been determined, the next task is to derive
the actual subnet IDs. The total number of subnets created is based on the possi-
ble combinations of the borrowed bits. Binary numbering only allows for two
possible values for each digit: 0 or 1. In the example with 2 borrowed bits, there
are four possible combinations. Both bits can be turned OFF (00), both bits can be
turned ON (11), one bit can be OFF and one ON (01), and vice versa (10).

N OT E You can also do the math with the calculator by setting it to binary
mode, and then start with 00, add 1, and continuously add 1 to the result (just
remember that the calculator won’t display leading zeros).

00 01 10 11

Although four is the maximum number of potential subnets in this example,

there is a catch. Subnet addresses of all binary 0s or all binary 1s are reserved
addresses and can’t normally be used.7 Therefore, you always lose two poten-
tial network IDs when you subnet (and all the host addresses associated with
them). So in this example, you are left with two valid network numbers to
work with (now you know why you started by borrowing 2 bits and not just
1 bit):

00 01 10 11

Perform the following steps to determining the subnet IDs:

1. Combine each valid combination of subnet bits with the remaining bits
in the octet.
2. Convert the number back to decimal.
3. Append the result to the original network address.
Figure 1-10 illustrates this process.
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Networking Overview 43

4th octet Subnets

Borrowed bits Remainder of host ID Combine and convert to decimal Resulting subnet IDs
00 000000 Reserved 192.100.50.0
01 000000 01000000 = 64 192.100.50.64
10 000000 10000000 = 128 192.100.50.128
11 000000 Reserved 192.100.50.192
Figure 1-10 The process of determining the subnet IDs.

Determining the Subnet IDs

The first column of the table reflects the possible combinations of the 2 bits
borrowed from the host portion of the address. The second column simply lists
the remaining untouched bits of the host ID. The third column of the table
combines the borrowed bits back with the remaining host ID bits and converts
the resulting number to decimal. The fourth column reflects the newly created
subnet IDs. It takes longer to explain it than to do it.
If you were not familiar with subnetting, you could easily mistake those
subnet addresses for host addresses. To the “naked eye” those addresses look
like references to host .64 and host .128 on the 192.100.50.0 network. However,
they are not host addresses anymore. They are subnet addresses, otherwise
known as network IDs. The .64 marks the beginning of the 192.100.50.64 net-
work. The .128 marks the beginning of the 192.100.50.128 network. Network
address 192.100.50.0 is now invalid and will never again be used except as pre-
viously noted as an optional summary address for routing.

N OT E Remember a cardinal rule of subnetting when converting binary

numbers to decimal: Always convert the entire octet. Even if bits have been
borrowed from an octet to create subnet IDs, you always treat the octet as a
whole when converting to decimal!

Determining How Many Bits to Borrow

This example arbitrarily borrowed 2 bits and happened to end up with two
networks. In reality, you will be trying to create a specific number of subnets.
The formula normally used is as follows:

2n – 2, (where n = the number of bits borrowed)

For example if you borrowed 3 bits, the formula would be (23 - 2 or 2*2*2 - 2),
which is 4. Borrowing 3 bits yields six valid subnets.

Step 3: Determine the host IDs and broadcast ID for each subnet
Next, the host IDs belonging to each network are determined. Originally, this
class C network number was capable of supporting 254 hosts (190.100.50.1 –
190.100.50.254). However, many host addresses are rendered invalid once
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44 Chapter 1

subnetting occurs, so it’s important to understand which host addresses remain

and which subnet they belong to.
Begin by ascertaining the total number of host addresses that will be available
for each subnet. The range of host addresses available is derived from the
remaining bits in the host portion of the address. In this example, 6 bits remain.
You can quickly calculate the total number of hosts per subnet with the formula:

2n – 2 (where n = the number of remaining bits)

N OT E This is the same formula used to determine the number of valid

network numbers for a given subnet mask.

In this case, the formula plays out like this: 26 -2 or 2*2*2*2*2*2 - 2 = 62. The
reason that 2 is subtracted from the total is because, like a subnet address, a
host address of all binary 0s or all binary 1s is reserved. All host bits set to 0
represent the subnet ID itself. All bits set to 1 represent the broadcast address
for that particular subnet.
It’s quite easy to calculate the host addresses for each subnet. Begin by cal-
culating the first valid host ID for the first network ID. The first host ID is just
one number higher than the network number (see Figure 1-11).
Notice that the last host ID has all six host bits turned on except one. If you
study the figure for a moment one thing should start to jump out at you. Cal-
culating host IDs is easy. The first ID is just the subnet number plus one, and
the last host ID is just two shy of the next subnet, the .128. The broadcast ID is
just one short of the next subnet ID. It always works out that way. Now calcu-
late the host IDs for the .128 subnet (see Figure 1-12).
Figure 1-13 summarizes the subnetted network.

192.100.50.64 network
th
Host ID 4 octet in binary Convert to decimal Complete host address
Subnet ID Host ID
1st host ID 01 000001 .65 192.100.50.65
2nd host ID 01 000010 .66 192.100.50.66
3rd host ID 01 000011 .67 192.100.50.67
4th host ID 01 000100 .68 192.100.50.68
And so on . . .
61st host ID 01 111101 .125 192.100.50.125
62nd host ID 01 111110 .126 192.100.50.126
Broadcast ID 01 111111 .127 192.100.50.127
Figure 1-11 Determining the host IDs for the .64 subnet.
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Networking Overview 45

192.100.50.128 network
Host ID 4th octet in binary Convert to decimal Complete host address
Subnet ID Host ID
1st host ID 01 000001 .129 192.100.50.129
2nd host ID 01 000010 .130 192.100.50.130
3rd host ID 01 000011 .131 192.100.50.131
4th host ID 01 000100 .132 192.100.50.132
And so on . . .
61st host ID 01 111101 .189 192.100.50.189
62nd host ID 01 111110 .190 192.100.50.190
Broadcast ID 01 111111 .191 192.100.50.191
Figure 1-12 Determining the host IDs for the .128 subnet.

Subnetting Summed Up
Here is a summary of the basic steps of subnetting:
■■ Determine the total number of subnets needed. This includes planning
for future networks.
■■ Determine the total number of hosts that each subnet must support
now and in the future.
■■ Define a custom subnet mask that will support the required number of
subnets and hosts per subnet.
■■ Derive the subnet IDs.
■■ Derive the host IDs for each subnet.
■■ Derive the broadcast address for each subnet.

Subnet 1 Subnet 2
Original network address: 192.100.50.0 Original network address: 192.100.50.0
Custom subnet mask: 255.255.255.192 Custom subnet mask: 255.255.255.192
Subnet address 1: 192.100.50.64 Subnet Address 2: 192.100.50.128
Beginning host address: 192.100.100.65 Beginning host address: 192.100.100.129
Ending host address: 192.100.100.126 Ending host address: 192.100.100.190
Total valid hosts: 62 Total valid hosts: 62
Broadcast address: 192.100.100.127 Broadcast address: 192.100.100.191
The host IDs .1-.63 and .193-.254 are gone. They are rendered invalid because they are now
owned by reserved network IDs.
Figure 1-13 The results of subnetting the 190.100.50.0 with a 255.255.255.192 mask.
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46 Chapter 1

The Proof Is in the “ANDing”

If you have any doubts about how the seemingly convoluted process of sub-
netting works, you can prove that it works beyond the shadow of a doubt by
performing the ANDing process.
Here’s an example. Host the 190.100.50.65 sends a packet to host the
190.100.50.129:

Source address 190 .100 .50 .65

Binary 11000000 01100100 00110010 01000001
________ ________ ________ ________
Subnet mask 255 .255 .255 .192
Binary 11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
======================================
ANDing process 11000000 01100100 00110010 01000000
Network ID 190 .100 .50 .64

______________________________________________________
Target address 190 .100 .50 .129
Binary 11000000 01100100 00110010 10000001
________ ________ ________ ________
Subnet mask 255 .255 .255 .192
Binary 11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
======================================
ANDing process 11000000 01100100 00110010 10000000
Network ID 190 .100 .50 .128

Which subnet will IP determine the destination host is on? The destination
host belongs to a different network, so the packets must be routed. Remember
that the ANDing process masks out the host portion of the address, leaving
just the network portion. Before subnetting ANDing would have determined
that the target host was on the same network. After subnetting ANDing shows
the target address as being part of a different network.

Subnetting and Routing

Given that the ANDing process of IP will discern that subnets of the 192.150.1.0
now exist, packets destined for a differing subnet must always be routed. Let’s
underscore that. When you subnet a network, a router must be present to for-
ward packets between the subnets.

Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSMs) in Detail

VLSMs are an extension to subnetting. Put simply, VLSMs allow a subnetted
network to be subnetted again . . . and again . . . and again. In the previous sec-
tion on subnetting, a class C address was subdivided into two networks and
both subnets were assigned the same subnet mask. All hosts on both subnets
used the same mask. This is not mandatory however. In real life scenarios, not
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Networking Overview 47

all networks require a similar number of hosts for each subnet. This is where
VLSMs come in. By varying the subnet mask of one of the subnets a second
time (by moving the network/host dividing line further to the right), addi-
tional subnets are created, albeit with a smaller number of hosts per network.
VLSMs allow for extremely granular control over the number of hosts per sub-
net. Just bear in mind that for each additional subnet created by a VLSM, a
router is required to forward packets to and from the subnet.
As with standard subnetting, the more bits you borrow when varying a sub-
net mask, the more subnet IDs you create and the fewer hosts per subnet. To
illustrate this concept, a class B address will be used as an example. Let’s say
an ISP has been assigned the class B address 170.1.0.0 /16.8 The conventional
(classful) dividing line between network/host is between the second and third
octets (255.255.0.0). It is unlikely the ISP probably has just one customer with a
network requiring 65,536 hosts. Rather, the ISP probably has multiple cus-
tomers with networks requiring far fewer hosts. Therefore, the address will be
subnetted.
It is quite common to see class B addresses subnetted with a class C subnet
mask (255.255.255.0 or /24). An entire octet is borrowed for subnet IDs, leav-
ing an entire octet for host addresses (see Figure 1-14). This alteration renders
254 subnets, with 254 hosts per subnet (28 – 2 or 2*2*2*2*2*2*2*2 – 2 = 254).
Alas, the Internet service provider is not satisfied. The ISP has a large num-
ber of point-to-point fractional T1 links connecting to its customer base. These
links require only two host addresses per network. There is no way the ISP is
going to waste 254 valuable host IDs on each point-to-point network. Variable
length subnet masks to the rescue. The ISP can burn just one of its 254 subnets,
subdividing it again, thus creating a bunch of sub-subnets. To employ this
strategy, the selected subnet will have its mask altered once again to achieve
the required result.

Original address: 170.1.0.0/16

Subnet Mask in Subnet Mask in
Subnet ID Octet Format Prefix Notation Host ID range
170.1.0.0 Reserved
170.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.1.1 - 170.1.1.254
170.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.2.1 - 170.1.2.254
170.1.3.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.3.1 - 170.1.3.254
And so on . . .
170.1.253.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.253.1 - 170.1.253.254
170.1.254.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.254.1 - 170.1.254.254
170.1.255.0 Reserved
Figure 1-14 Standard subnetting of the 170.1.0.0 renders 254 subnets.
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48 Chapter 1

N OT E How many additional bits should be borrowed to create the greatest

number of subnets possible while providing just two hosts per subnet? . . .
(Jeopardy music plays) . . . Well, only two host bits are required for a two-host
subnet (22 - 2 = 2), therefore six bits can safely be borrowed to create subnet
IDs. Borrowing six bits from the fourth octet will render 62 subnets (26 - 2 = 62).
Six borrowed bits also equates to a new subnet mask of 255.255.255.252
(fourth octet: 11111100 = 252). This is the same as a /30 prefix. Let’s pick on
say, the 24.1.253.0 subnet to perform this diabolical procedure.

Figure 1-15 shows how the subnets of the 170.1.253.0/30 are created.
Note that once a subnet has been further subnetted, all subnets (or sub-
sub-nets, if you will) are valid. The rule of no subnets with all 0s or 1s was
already obeyed when the original subnets were created. All subnets of a sub-
net are usable addresses. However, the host addresses of sub-subnets still
must obey the rule (no all-binary 0s or 1s in host ID).
The fully enumerated subnet is displayed in Figure 1-16.
To see the big picture, examine the entire assigned address range of the
revised allocation for the 170.1.0.0 shown in Figure 1-17.
There is no end to how many times the network can be subdivided. Any
other subnet ID could be subdivided just as the 170.1.253.0 just was. Any pre-
fix number higher than /24 could be used depending on how many host IDs
per subnet are required. Once sub-subnetted, the subnets could be variably
subnetted yet again, as long as bits remain to be borrowed.

Subnet 170.1.253.0 /30

4th Octet Subnets
Borrowed Remainder of Combine and Resulting Subnet
Bits Host ID Convert to Decimal Addresses
000000 00 00000000 = .0 170.1.253.0
000001 00 00000100 = .4 170.1.253.4
000010 00 00001000 = .8 170.1.253.8
000011 00 00001100 = .12 170.1.253.12
000100 00 00010000 = .16 170.1.253.16
000101 00 00010100 = .20 170.1.253.20
And so on . . .
111100 00 11110000 = .240 170.1.253.240
111101 00 11110100 = .244 170.1.253.244
111110 00 11111000 = .248 170.1.253.248
111111 00 11111100 = .252 170.1.253.252
Figure 1-15 Variably subnetting the 170.1.253.0 with a /30 prefix.
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Networking Overview 49

170.1.253.0 /30
Subnet ID Subnet Mask in Subnet Mask in Host ID Range
Octet Format Prefix Notation
170.1.253.0 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.1 - 170.1.253.2 (.3 is broadcast ID for subnet)
170.1.253.4 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.5 - 170.1.253.6 (.7 is broadcast ID for subnet)
170.1.253.8 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.9 - 170.1.253.10 (.11 is broadcast ID for subnet)
170.1.253.12 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.13 - 170.1.253.14 (.15 is broadcast ID for subnet)
170.1.253.16 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.17 - 170.1.253.18 (.19 is broadcast ID for subnet)
170.1.253.20 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.21 - 170.1.253.22 (.23 is broadcast ID for subnet)
etc . . .
170.1.253.244 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.245 - 170.1.253.246 (.247 is broadcast ID for subnet)
170.1.253.248 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.249 - 170.1.253.250 (.251 is broadcast ID for subnet)
170.1.253.252 255.255.255.252 /30 170.1.253.253 - 170.1.253.254 (.255 is broadcast ID for subnet)

Figure 1-16 Enumerating the 170.1.253.0 subnet.

Riding the Hierarchical Highway

As you can start to see, VLSM notation makes it possible to create the aforemen-
tioned hierarchical structure of network addresses. You can allocate a very few
network addresses with a large number of hosts per network to say, one whole
division of an organization, or a state, or a branch office, for example. Then, the
addresses can be further subnetted to allocate networks to say, a subdivision, a
locale, floors of a branch office, and so on. Moreover, the real power of a hierar-
chical addressing scheme is that if architected carefully, the various subnets can
be aggregated together into a very few summary addresses entered in the route
tables of the routers. You will really see the power of VLSMs when this topic is
covered in Chapter 4. But this same theme is echoed in the subsequent section on
CIDR addressing.

Revised allocation for the 170.1.0.0

Subnet ID Subnet mask in Subnet mask in Sub-subnets Host ID range
octet format prefix notation
170.1.0.0 Reserved
170.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.1.1 - 170.1.1.254
170.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.2.1 - 170.1.2.254
170.1.3.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.3.1 - 170.1.3.254
And so on . . .
170.1.253.0 255.255.252.0 /30 170.1.253.0 170.1.253.1 - 170.1.253.2
170.1.253.4 170.1.253.5 - 170.1.253.6
170.1.253.8 170.1.253.9 - 170.1.253.10
170.1.253.12 170.1.253.13 - 170.1.253.14
170.1.253.16 170.1.253.17 - 170.1.253.18
170.1.253.20 170.1.253.21 - 170.1.253.22
And so on . . .
170.1.253.244 170.1.253.245 - 170.1.253.246
170.1.253.248 170.1.253.249 - 170.1.253.250
170.1.253.252 170.1.253.252 - 170.1.253.254
170.1.254.0 255.255.255.0 /24 170.1.254.1 - 170.1.254.254
170.1.255.0 Reserved
Figure 1-17 Variably subnetted network.
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50 Chapter 1

Supernetting in Detail
Supernetting is the reverse of subnetting. With supernetting, rather than
dividing one network address into multiple subnets, you instead combine mul-
tiple network addresses into one large network. Why would you want to do
that? Take the example of a company needing a single network that can accom-
modate 1,000 public host addresses. Before the concept of supernetting (and
later CIDR), the company had the limited choice of either acquiring a class B
network address and wasting more than 65,000 host addresses, or being
assigned four class C addresses and creating four networks connected by
routers. With supernetting, those four class C addresses could be combined
into a single network ID by moving the network/host dividing line to the left
rather than to the right.
Before CIDR addressing was introduced, supernetting obviously had value.
CIDR notation negates the need for supernetting public addresses however,
because the old class limitations no longer apply. The assigning authority sim-
ply allocates an address (even what was once a class C address) with the pre-
fix set to accommodate the number of networks and hosts required by an
organization.

CIDR in Detail
Although it is the final classless addressing technique explored here, CIDR
(Classless Inter-Domain Routing) is where classless addressing actually starts
in today’s world. It’s only mentioned at the end of the discussion because
CIDR embodies the previously mentioned classless addressing methods—
with the only exception being that these methods are carried out at the level
where Internet addresses are assigned rather than at the organization level.
Here’s how it works.
The Internet agency responsible for assigning network addresses is called
the NIC (Internet Network Information Center) or InterNIC. Traditionally, the
InterNIC worked through its subsidy, IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority) to administer the addresses. As the Internet has grown larger and
larger, private regional entities have taken on the responsibility of assigning
addresses. In America, the local agency allocating network addresses is ARIN
(American Registry for Internet Numbers). To avoid confusion, this book just
uses the generic term “assigning authority” when referring to the agency that
assigns network addresses.
CIDR supports the concept of classless networking between networks, or
more accurately between routing domains—thus the moniker Inter-Domain
Routing. A domain is defined as a network or networks under a single admin-
istrative control. For example, CIDR allows organization A and organization B
to be assigned classless IP addresses and successfully route packets between
the two organizations (domains).
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Networking Overview 51

Problems Solved by CIDR

CIDR was created to solve two problems: IP addresses were being handed out
in an inefficient, wasteful manner, and the routing tables on the backbone
routers were growing frightfully large.
CIDR solves the first problem, wasted address allocation, by employing the
same classful rule-breaking method mentioned in this book over and over
again—namely the manipulation of the traditional network/host dividing line
of an address. In fact, the RFC that specifies CIDR addressing throws out the
entire classful addressing architecture. Rather than continue to hand out inef-
ficiently sized class A, B, or C network addresses, CIDR allocates an address or
group of addresses sized to fit the actual needs of the requesting organization.
No more class A, B, or C addresses!
CIDR addresses the problem of bloated route tables as well. Traditionally, the
powerful routers that form the core of the Internet needed to know the route to
every possible network. As the Internet has grown, so has the size of the routing
tables. This inhibits performance. CIDR deals with this issue by aggregating
multiple network addresses into a single entry in the routing table. The process,
known as route aggregation or route summarization, reduces the size and com-
plexity of the routing tables. This concept has been alluded to several times in
this chapter and will be fully illustrated in Chapter 4 with several examples. A
little more foundational material is required before we can get into the nitty
gritty details of summarization, which is why we keep making you wait. For
now though, think of an analogy to a housing subdivision that is accessed only
from one main road. There are dozens of streets (routes) within the subdivision,
but only one way (route) to get to the sub-division itself. Therefore, to get to the
subdivision, you need only know the location of the access road. Only upon
arriving at the entrance to the subdivision is a more specific map required.

Putting CIDR to Work

Let’s be a fly on the wall and track the assignment of a CIDR address from its
origination to your friendly neighborhood ISP. This example uses a real public
address assigned to fictitious organizations.
Any organization connecting directly to the core of the Internet receives an
IP address allocation directly from a previously described assigning authority.
Organizations not connecting to the backbone will likely receive an assign-
ment from a directly connected entity that is parceling out ranges of addresses
it obtained from the assigning authority. To illustrate how the process works,
let’s assume an example where a small, local ISP requires about 200 total IP
addresses which will be mostly allocated as a number of small, two-host net-
works for dial-up and leased-line accounts.
This small ISP (MinniMe) is going to receive its address allocation from a
medium-sized regional ISP (MiddleMan), which in turn received its allocation
from a large ISP (Mammoth) connecting to the Internet core. The large ISP has
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52 Chapter 1

received its allocation from the assigning authority. We will start at the top of
this food chain to see how a CIDR address is efficiently allocated from day one.
Mammoth received an allocation of over 65,000 addresses from the assign-
ing authority. The allocation took the form of 44.0.0.0/16. Before CIDR,
this address would have been designated a class A address of over 16 million
addresses, and possibly assigned to a single organization where most of the
address space would have remained unused. With CIDR notation, the assign-
ing authority allocates just the range of this address space that the customer
requires; about 65K addresses.
As you can see from examining Table 1-14, the 44.0.0.0 is used far more effi-
ciently under CIDR. The address, as allocated in the table, satisfies the needs of
256 customers needing a 65K allotment of addresses.
The fun doesn’t stop there however. Table 1-15 further illustrates that it is
not necessary to apply the same prefix to each portion of the 44.0.0.0.

N OT E The fourth column of the tables in this section on CIDR enumerates the
total address space for the given address range rather than the total number of
networks and hosts per network. When dealing with CIDR addresses, or any
scope of addresses that are subject to varying prefixes, its easier to just refer to
the total addressable space, because any subnet within the range is subject to
further sub-division.

Of course, varying the mask of a root address smacks of VLSMs (variable-

length subnet masks), and indeed the principals of VLSMs are in effect here.
Strictly speaking, it’s unavoidable. Mammoth is certainly not going to leave its
allocation of 44.0.0.0/16 untouched. In order to satisfy the requirements of its
customers, the mask of the address will be altered. In this example, Mammoth’s
customer, MiddleMan, requires about 1,000 addresses for its customers. There-
fore, the allocation of Mammoth’s 44.0.0.0/16 might look like what is reflected in
Table 1-16.

Table 1-14 CIDR Allocation of the 44.0.0.0

ADDRESS TOTAL
ASSIGNMENT CUSTOMER RANGE ADDRESSES

44.0.0.0/16 Mammoth 44.0.0.1–44.0.255.254 65,534

44.1.0.0/16 Customer 2 44.1.0.1–44.1.255.254 65,534

44.2.0.0/16 Customer 3 44.2.0.1–44.2.255.254 65,534

And so on . . .

44.255.0.0/16 Customer 256 44.255.0.1–44.255.255.254 65,534

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Networking Overview 53

Table 1-15 CIDR Flexibility in Allocating an Address

ADDRESS TOTAL
ASSIGNMENT CUSTOMER RANGE ADDRESSES

44.0.0.0/16 Mammoth 44.0.0.1–44.0.255.254 65,534

44.1.0.0/16 Customer 2 44.1.0.1–44.1.255.254 65,534

44.2.0.0/17 Customer 3 44.2.0.1–44.2.127.254 32,766

44.2.128.0/17 Customer 4 44.2.128.1–44.2.255.254 32,766

44.3.0.0/19 Customer 5 44.3.0.1–44.3.31.254 8,192

44.3.32.0/19 Customer 6 44.3.32.1–44.3.63.254 8,192

44.3.64.0/19 Customer 7 44.3.64.1–44.3.95.254 8,192

And so on . . .

44.3.224.0/19 Customer x 44.3.224.1–44.3.255.254 8,192

44.4.0.0 /16 Customer y 44.4.0.1–44.4.255.254 65,534

Etc.

Again, the allocated address can be subdivided into whatever balance of

networks/hosts per network is required—within the limits of the total
addressable space. Bear in mind that no matter how Mammoth slices up the
44.0.0.0/16, it will only be necessary for routers on the Internet to keep a single
entry (44.0.0.0/16) to properly route packets to any of the subnets of this
address. Only Mammoth’s routers will need to enumerate the subnets in order
to deliver packets correctly. This concept will be fully explained in Chapter 4.

Table 1-16 Mammoth’s 44.0.0.0/16 Allocation

ADDRESS TOTAL
ASSIGNMENT CUSTOMER RANGE ADDRESSES

44.0.4.0/22 MiddleMan 44.0.4.1–44.0.7.254 1,022

44.0.8.0/22 Customer 2 44.0.8.1–44.0.11.254 1,022

44.0.12.0/22 Customer 3 44.0.12.1–44.0.15.254 1,022

44.0.16.0/25 Customer 4 44.0.16.1–44.0.16.127 126

44.0.16.128/25 Customer 5 44.0.16.1–44.0.16.127 126

And so on . . .

44.0.19.128/25 Customer x 44.0.19.129–44.0.19.254 128

44.0.20.0/22 Customer y 44.0.20.0.1–44.0.23.254 1,022

Etc.
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54 Chapter 1

N OT E If you are daunted by how the range of addresses is determined for a

particular prefix, remember that expressing the address in binary will always
lend clarity. Take for example the address allocated to MiddleMan, the 44.0.4.0
/22. Use the following sequence to arrive at an understanding of how the
address range was derived:

How many addresses required? 1,000

How many bits to allocate? 10 (210 = 1024)

Prefix = 22 (10 bits remain to satisfy assignment)

Determine beginning and ending ranges for the 44.0.4.0 /22:

assignment 00101100.00000000.000001 | 00.00000000
First address (all assigned bits off – except low order bit ON)
11111111.11111111.000001 | 00.00000001
Decimal 44 .0 .4 .1

Last address all assigned bits on – except low order bit OFF)
11111111.11111111.000001 | 11.11111110
Decimal 44 .0 .7 .254

The examination of the process in binary form has revealed that the prefix of
/22 derives a subnet with the range of the 44.0.4.1 – the 44.0.7.254. The
remaining portion of the address is available for allocation elsewhere.

MiddleMan must now allocate an address to the local ISP. MinniMe has
requested 200 addresses, so the closest match will be an address space of 8 bits;
in other words, a /24 prefix. Table 1-17 elucidates the allocation to MinniMe,
along with a few other customers.

Table 1-17 MiddleMan’s Allocation of 44.0.4.0/22

ADDRESS TOTAL
ASSIGNMENT CUSTOMER RANGE ADDRESSES

44.0.4.0/24 MinniMe 44.0.4.1–44.0.4.254 254

44.0.5.0/24 Customer 2 44.0.5.1–44.0.5.254 254

44.0.5.0/26 Customer 3 44.0.5.1–44.0.5.62 62

44.0.5.64/26 Customer 4 44.0.5.65–44.0.5.126 62

44.0.5.128/26 Customer 5 44.0.5.129–44.0.5.190 62

44.0.5.192/26 Customer 6 44.0.5.193–44.0.5.254 62

44.0.6.0/24 Customer 7 44.0.6.1–44.0.6.254 254

Etc.
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Networking Overview 55

Whoops. If MiddleMan keeps this up, it will soon exhaust its allocation. No
problem. MiddleMan can lease additional CIDR blocks from Mammoth if the
need arises.
To complete the CIDR example, MinniMe will create a number of small sub-
nets for its subscribers. Table 1-18 reflects a possible allocation.
To sum up, the above examples should demonstrate CIDRs ability to effi-
ciently allocate IP addresses. Furthermore, CIDRs ability to also reduce the
size of route tables due to the natural network summarization that takes place
with CIDR-assigned address will be reinforced many times throughout this
book, especially in Chapter 4.

IPv6 to the Rescue?

CIDR and NAT were created as a solution to the problem of 32-bit network
addresses being exhausted. Another solution would be to increase the size of
the existing address space beyond 32 bits. That’s where the next version of IP,
IPv6, comes in. IPv6 purports to ultimately replace the current version of IP,
version 4, with a quadrupled address length of 128 bits. It is expected that the
industry will slowly migrate to the new version of IP over many years, and
that during this transition many IP hosts will run dual IP stacks.

Table 1-18 MinniMe’s Allocation of 44.0.4.0/24

ADDRESS TOTAL
ASSIGNMENT CUSTOMER RANGE ADDRESSES

44.0.4.0/30 Subscriber 1 44.0.4.1–44.0.4.2 2

44.0.4.4/30 Subscriber 2 44.0.4.5–44.0.4.6 2

44.0.4.8/30 Subscriber 3 44.0.4.9–44.0.4.10 2

44.0.4.12/30 Subscriber 4 44.0.4.13–44.0.4.14 2

44.0.4.16/29 Subscriber 5 44.0.4.17–44.0.4.22 6

44.0.4.24/29 Subscriber 6 44.0.4.25–44.0.4.30 6

44.0.4.32/30 Subscriber 7 44.0.4.33–44.0.4.34 2

And so on . . .

44.0.4.252/30 Subscriber x 44.0.4.253–44.0.4.254 2

44.0.5.0/30* Subscriber y 44.0.5.1–44.0.5.2 2

* Once the address range rolls over to the .5, it is out of range of the allocated CIDR address. Someone else
owns the range from there.
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56 Chapter 1

IPv6 Reality Check

Here is how things are shaping up for TCP/IP addressing in today’s real-
world networking environment. Back in the early ‘90s things were looking
very dismal for IPv4. The tremendous popularity of the Internet made it an
almost certainty that the inefficient IPv4 address space would be depleted in
just a couple of years. That provided the impetus for a new addressing scheme
(IPv6). However, the surge in address usage also sparked two important stop-
gap measures: CIDR and NAT.
CIDR and NAT have been very successful. With CIDR, allocation of the
remaining address space is extremely efficient; even some previously wasted
addresses have been reclaimed and then reallocated using CIDR notation. Addi-
tionally, NAT has made it possible to use as little as a single public IP address to
serve hundreds of hosts. The hosts are addressed with private IP addresses, of
which there is no shortage because private addresses can be reused.
Network security comes into play here as well. The security landscape has
changed so much in recent years. We’re trying to hide our networks from the
Internet now. It used to be you had bragging rights if you had enough public
addresses to assign one to every workstation. Not anymore. Now the trend is
to address hosts with private addresses that hide behind NAT appliances and
stateful firewalls. Although IPv6 is slowly permeating into our networks, it is
likely to be some time before we all jump on the IPv6 bandwagon.

Ports and Sockets

How does a server know which application or service an incoming IP packet
should be directed to? Take a computer running both web server software and
FTP software. Such a computer is capable of both serving up web pages as well
as transferring files. How does the server know which service the requesting
host wants? Do you want a web page or a file? Should I direct you to the web
server or the FTP server? On the client side, a user can fire up several web
browser windows. How does the system keep track of which page replies
should be directed to? The answer is ports and sockets.

Ports
Ports are values set in a header field of TCP and UDP packets. A port number
indicates which application is to be used to process a packet. The receiving
computer examines the value of the port field and passes the packet to the
application waiting for traffic on that port number.
Port numbers are analogous to apartment numbers. The street address (IP
address) of an apartment complex takes you to the correct building, but the
apartment number (port) is required to identify the correct location within the
building. Take a request for a web page. An incoming packet requesting a web
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Networking Overview 57

page from xyz.com will contain not only the IP address of the web server; it
will also contain the port number it expects the web server software to be listening on.
How does the packet know which port number to use? That has all been set up
in advance. Web servers listen on TCP port 80. Port 80 is one of many so-called
“well known” ports. Therefore, if the packet wants to get a web page, it had
better request the page on port 80.
When a web server is started up, it immediately begins listening on port 80.
When it detects a packet with the port number set to 80, the web server
responds by extracting the packet’s payload and processing the data. Likewise
with an FTP server. An FTP server listens on port 20. It will try to process any
packets set to port number 20 (see Table 1-19).

Table 1-19 A Sampling of Popular “Well-Known” Ports

TCP PORTS UDP PORTS

20 & 21 FTP (file transfer) 53 DNS

23 Telnet (remote control) 67 & 68 BootP (for DHCP across a

router)

25 SMTP (sending email) 69 TFTP (file transfer without

verification)

53 DNS (Domain Name System) 119 NNTP (Network News

Transfer Protocol)

80 HTTP (web access) 135 RPC (remote procedure

call)

110 POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3; 137 NetBIOS name service

retrieving email)

135 RPC (Remote Procedure Call) 138 NetBIOS datagram

service

139 NetBIOS session service 139 NetBIOS session service

143 IMAP (Internet Message 143 IMAP (Internet Message
Access Protocol) Access Protocol)

179 BGP (Border Gateway 161–162 SNMP (device

Protocol) management)

194 IRC (Internet Relay Chat) 389 LDAP (Lightweight

Directory Access
Protocol)

443 SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) 443 SSL (Secure Sockets

HTTPS Layer) HTTPS

1863 Windows Messenger 520 RIP routing protocol

(continued)
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58 Chapter 1

Table 1-19 (continued)

TCP PORTS UDP PORTS

3219 Windows Messenger Service 3219 Windows Messenger

Service

3389 NetMeeting 3389 NetMeeting

5631–5632 PC Anywhere 5631–5632 PC Anywhere

6891–6900 Windows Messenger file 6970–7170 Real Audio

transfer

Ports are numbered from 0–65,535. Port numbers that everyone agrees on
are referred to as “well-known.” The ports 0–1023 are reserved as well-known
ports. They are used by server-based applications. Both the UDP (unreliable)
and the TCP (reliable) protocols each have their own range of port numbers
numbered 0–65,535.

Sockets
Sockets are easy to understand. A socket is simply the combination of an IP
address and a port number. Sockets help identify a specific host, along with the
port a particular application is listening on. For example, if the web server for
xyz.com is 191.1.1.25, the socket for web traffic on that machine is 191.1.1.25:80
(IP 191.1.1.25 and port 80). Any traffic bound for the web server at xyz.com
would have the destination socket 191.1.1.25:80 imbedded in each packet.

N OT E The term “socket” is also used to describe a software abstract in

programming, such as BSD Unix sockets or Microsoft’s WinSock programming
interface.

Both a source socket and a destination socket are embedded in every packet.
The destination socket specifies exactly where the packet is bound for, and the
source socket specifies exactly where the packet came from. The source socket
is necessary because the server has to direct response packets back to the appli-
cation on the host that made the request.
You might be wondering which port number the source host uses when
requesting a web page. Many people would guess port 80. That’s actually not
correct. Port 80 is reserved only for computers running web server software,
not web browser software. After all, you don’t want a host receiving traffic on
port 80 if it is not running the software required to process HTTP requests. In
fact, clients making requests use any of a series of sequential port numbers
between 1024 and 4096. The first port a computer uses upon boot-up is 1024.
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Networking Overview 59

The next packet stream will use 1025, then 1026, and so on, up to 4096. Then it
rolls over to 1024 again.

N OT E The range of ports used for client requests, server responses, and other
functions is not as meticulously followed by everyone in the TCP/IP community
as it could be. Like many things, there are always exceptions to the rule, and
there is some overlap in the use of port numbers. However the well-known port
numbers are pretty universal. Appendix D provides the URL of a site that lists
the assignment for all port numbers.

Important Protocols Related to Routing

This section describes the protocols that have special significance for network
routing.

TCP and UDP—Layer 4, Transport

The Transmission Control Protocol and the User Datagram Protocol are the
two protocols that facilitate packet delivery. Both protocols handle end-to-end
(source-to-destination) communications, but only TCP provides guaranteed
delivery of packets. TCP is considered a connection-oriented protocol. TCP
establishes a connection between the source and destination hosts before
transferring data packets. UDP is a connectionless protocol. UDP does not cre-
ate an initial connection between the source and destination hosts.
The transport layer is in charge of storing the source and destination port
numbers in the layer 4 header. Once the data received from layer 5 has been
segmented, a layer 4 header is applied to each segment, which includes the
source and destination port numbers. When the segments are passed to layer 3,
networking, the source and destination logical addresses (IP addresses) are
added, thereby forming the required sockets.

UDP Protocol
The UDP protocol is a connectionless protocol. It really does nothing more
than store the source and destination port numbers and make a best effort (so-
called “unreliable”) delivery attempt. There is no mechanism to insure the
packet is delivered. Any requirement for assured delivery and/or error cor-
rection when UDP is used must be handled by the application (application
layer 7) and the network technology (data-link layer 2).
So-called unreliable delivery begs the question; Why would you ever send
data with a protocol that doesn’t follow up on the delivery attempt? A good
example of when the UDP protocol is used is for time-sensitive applications
such as video or audio transmissions. There is no point in retransmitting a lost
packet in real time data streams. Another example is the Trivial File Transfer
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60 Chapter 1

Protocol (TFTP), which uses UDP. A TFTP program is often used in lieu of a
traditional FTP application (which uses TCP) for transferring files when
assured delivery is not required. Cisco uses the TFTP protocol to upload the
IOS and configuration file to a router. This process often happens over a local
network, which is usually a reliable medium. The TFTP application uses
checksums for error detection and correction. TCP could be used, but there is
far more overhead involved and file transfers would be slower.
UDP is also the protocol used for broadcast packets. Broadcasts are sent to
all hosts on a subnet and are usually responded to by one host (if that). It
would be pointless to try to assure delivery of all broadcast packets. It’s like
walking into a bar and shouting out “Is Harry here?” You don’t expect every
patron to announce that they are not Harry.

TCP Protocol
The TCP protocol on the other hand goes to great lengths to insure packet
delivery. This is the protocol of choice when packets absolutely, positively have
to get there. TCP handles error detection, error correction, packet re-ordering,
and flow control.
TCP initially sends a SYN9 (synchronize) packet to the destination host. This
is a prerequisite to sending the actual data. A reply from the destination host
verifies it is reachable and includes information about how to set up the con-
nection.
The SYN packet is responded to with an ACK (acknowledgement) packet.
The first SYN and ACK packet contain information the two hosts will use for
numbering packets. Each packet in a TCP communication is numbered for
tracking purposes. The hosts agree on which number to start with for num-
bering packets. This number is known as the sequence number.
Once the ACK packet is received, the sending host sends one additional
packet indicating it has received the reply and has synched to a specific
sequence number. This process is analogous to making a phone call where the
caller says, “Can you hear me?” and the receiver says, “Yeah. Can you hear me?”
and the caller replies, “Yep. I can hear you. Let’s talk.” This entire setup process
is called the 3-way handshake and is used to initiate every TCP session.
At this point, TCP starts sending data packets. For each packet sent, TCP notes
the sequence number and starts a timer. If an ACK for that sequence number is
not received before the timer expires, the packet stream will be re-sent.
Flow control is achieved by throttling the number of packets sent. If packets
are sent faster than the receiving host can process them, they may be dropped
and would have to be re-sent. This slows the communication process. Therefore,
only a given number of packets are transmitted before they must be acknowl-
edged. This is known as a sliding window. A sliding window is simply a buffer
in memory used to store a given number of outbound packets. Once a burst of
packets is transmitted, no others are sent until each packet in the burst is
acknowledged. Then the window “slides” to the next set of packets waiting in
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memory and another burst is transmitted. The receiving host can signal the
sending host to increase or decrease the size of the sliding window as the session
proceeds. The initial size of the sliding window is determined during the 3-way
handshake.10

IP Protocol—Layer 3, Network
The IP (Internet Protocol) is responsible for logical packet addressing and for-
warding datagrams. IP header has fields containing the source and destination
IP addresses. IP will determine the “next-hop” of a datagram and forward it to
that address. IP is a connectionless protocol. No session is established before
exchanging data. IP datagrams are forwarded and forgotten. If reliable commu-
nications are required, the layer 4 TCP protocol must be invoked by the send-
ing application. In that case, each IP packet will be encapsulated in a TCP
header. There’s that OSI model at work!

IP Fragmentation
On the sending side, the IP performs fragmentation of outbound datagrams to
accommodate the packet size restriction of the underlying layer 2 data-link
protocol. On the receiving side, the IP reassembles the datagrams.

IP Error Detection
A TTL (Time to Live) field in the IP header contains a starting value that is
decreased at each router the datagram passes through. This causes the data-
gram to expire after a given number of router hops, preventing errant packets
from bouncing around a network in perpetuity. See section 3.1 of RFC 1122 for
a nice terse explanation of the IP’s job.

ICMP Protocol—Layer 3, Network

The ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is used to communicate error
messages when something goes wrong with packet delivery. Since the net-
work layer is where routing occurs, ICMP is a very important protocol to stu-
dents of routing. In fact, the protocol was primarily developed for signaling an
originating host or router that a route has failed. The ICMP also handles status
and control messaging regarding routing.
Two important Windows command line utilities that use the ICMP protocol
are PING.EXE and TRACERT.EXE. Both utilities are good for troubleshooting
failed communications. ICMP also provides error status messages to routers
and routing protocols. A header within the IP header carries ICMP data. Here
are a few of the more important functions of the ICMP protocol:
■■ ICMP echo and echo reply messages: ICMP is the protocol used in
the Windows PING.EXE and TRACERT.EXE utilities, which allows
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connectivity testing by sending an “echo” message that requires a reply

from the destination host. These utilities are discussed later in this
chapter.
■■ ICMP destination unreachable messages: If for some reason a destina-
tion host cannot be reached, the router that discovers the problem will
send back an ICMP destination unreachable message. The message is
passed back to the upper layers and the end-user application must han-
dle the error. Depending on how network aware the application is it
may do anything from displaying a network error of some kind to sim-
ply hanging. The PING.EXE utility displays the errors, as described
later in this chapter.
■■ ICMP Redirect Message: Sometimes routers receive packets that have
not been routed efficiently. In other words, the receiving router knows a
better path to the destination than through itself. In that case, the router
can send a redirect message to the source host. The redirect message
will include the alternative path suggested by the router. If the receiv-
ing host supports ICMP redirects, the host will route packets bound for
the same destination through the more efficient path.
When are redirects useful? Most often at the workstation on a network
with more than one router. Workstations typically do not have a fully
populated route table that allows it to choose the best path to a destina-
tion. Rather, workstations typically have a default gateway, which is the
IP address of just one router. Windows 2003, for example, supports
ICMP redirects, so Windows servers can learn better paths to a destina-
tion without the need to modify the default route table. Naturally, the
server must be multi-homed.
■■ ICMP Time Exceeded Message: Time Exceeded messages are very
important in network routing. As mentioned in the discussion of the IP
protocol earlier in this chapter, every routed packet has a TTL (Time to
Live) field in the IP header. The value of the TTL field is decremented
by 1 each time a packet passes through a router. If the TTL field reaches
0, the packet is discarded. The ICMP Time Exceeded message is how
the router notifies the sending host that the packet has been discarded.
Additionally, a Time Exceeded message is used to report that not all
fragments of a fragmented packet arrived at the destination within a
reasonable period of time.

DHCP and BOOTP Protocol—Layer 3, Networking

DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. DHCP, when config-
ured on a host, allows for automatic assignment of an IP address and subnet
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Networking Overview 63

mask. DHCP can optionally supply many other IP parameters such as default
gateway, DNS addresses, WINS servers, and other items. DHCP is quite help-
ful in a routing environment because it reduces the chances of misconfiguring
critical client information relating to the proper routing of packets (routing
begins at the workstation). DHCP also helps conserve precious host addresses
because addresses are usually leased to the host temporarily. If a host does not
renew its lease periodically, it is presumed to be offline, and the address is
reclaimed to be reused elsewhere. DHCP relies on DHCP servers responding
to requests from hosts for address assignments. Such DHCP servers are con-
figured with a range of addresses available for allocation to the requesting
hosts. A DHCP server is also configured with, and supplies the supporting
configuration information (subnet mask, default gateway, and so on).
When you’re configuring DHCP in a routed environment, it is important to
understand that DHCP uses broadcast packets for a portion of its communica-
tions, because routers do not pass broadcasts by default. When a host first
attempts to contact a DHCP server, it does not know where the server is, so it
broadcasts a special packet with request data that a DHCP server will under-
stand and respond to. After a server responds, further communications are
unicast. However, a host will also use broadcast packets if it’s unable to renew
its lease through its current DHCP server. In that case, broadcast packets are
again used to locate another DHCP server.
Unless a DCHP server is placed on every subnet containing hosts that
require DHCP services, the routers must be configured to pass the DHCP
broadcast packets to a subnet containing a DHCP server. To enable this capa-
bility, Cisco routers are configured with the ip helper-address11 global
configuration command. This command enables pass-through of several types
of broadcast messages (BOOTP, DNS, NetBIOS servers, and so on) and must
be entered with the proper options for the needs of the system.
Notice the reference to BOOTP. BOOTP is the original protocol for auto-
assignment of host addresses that DHCP is based on. DHCP is far more flexi-
ble than BOOTP and replaced it in principal. However, BOOTP is still the
protocol referred to by Cisco routers. That is not a problem, because at the
layer 3 routing level, the information the routers care about is the same
between BOOTP and DHCP. Both protocols use UDP ports 67 and 68 for
DHCP related traffic. The client listens on port 67 and the server listens on port
68. Routers enabled to pass BOOTP broadcasts listen on the same ports to rec-
ognize and direct the packets.

N OT E The author is old enough to remember a song by the group Chicago

called “Questions 67 & 68.” These are rather obscure port numbers and the
memory of the song title has helped on certification exams!
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Keep in mind that troubleshooting routing problems at the workstation

level requires that the workstation’s IP stack is configured properly. The
Windows-based IPConfig command (described soon) is extremely helpful in
verifying the IP configuration of a host, and furthermore has command line
options to release and renew the DCHP configuration of a host.

Windows-Based TCP/IP Utilities

The following are helpful programs to gather information and troubleshoot
routing issues.

PING.EXE
PING.EXE has the following characteristics:
■■ You use it to check communication link to another host.
■■ It uses the ICMP protocol.
■■ Just type ping at a command prompt to get help for command line
options.
Here are the common command line options:

-t (Ping the specified host until stopped. To see statistics and

continue - type Control-Break. To stop - type Control-C)
-n x (count. Where “x” is the number of echo requests to send)
-i x (TTL. Time To Live. Where “x” is the TTL)
-w x (timeout. Where “x” is the time in milliseconds to wait)
Ex: ping 192.168.1.1 –t (pings the host continuously)
Ex: ping widgets.com –n 1 (pings the host once)

TRACERT.EXE
TRACERT.EXE has the following characteristics:
■■ You use it to trace which routers a packet travels across to its destination.
■■ It is an extremely helpful utility for determining where the communica-
tion break-down occurs.
■■ It uses ICMP protocol.
■■ Just type tracert to get help for command line options.
Here are the common command line options:

-h (maximum hops. Maximum number of hops to search for target.)

-w (timeout. Wait timeout milliseconds for each reply)
Ex: tracert 10.12.1.4 –h 12
Ex: tracert widgets.com –w 1200
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ROUTE.EXE
ROUTE.EXE has the following characteristics:
■■ It displays and optionally alters the route table of a host (not a router).
■■ Just type route to get help for command line options.
Here are the common command line options:

-p When used with the ADD command, makes a route persistent.

print Displays routes onscreen
add Adds a route
delete Deletes a route
change Modifies an existing route
destination Specifies the host.
mask Specifies that the next parameter is the ‘netmask’ value.
netmask Specifies a subnet mask value for this route entry. If not
specified, it defaults to 255.255.255.255.
gateway Specifies gateway.
interface The interface number for the specified route.
Metric Specifies the metric, i.e. cost for the destination.

Ex: route ADD 157.0.0.0 MASK 255.0.0.0 157.55.80.1 METRIC 3 IF 2

destination^ mask^ gateway^ Interface^
Ex: route –p add 192.1.2.0 mask 255.255.255.0

IPCONFIG.EXE (98/ Me/NT/2000/XP) and WINIPCFG.EXE (95/98/Me)

IPCONFIG.EXE and WINIPCFG.EXE have the following characteristics:
■■ They display an array of IP statistics for a computer.
■■ IPCONFIG/ALL displays many additional configuration options.
■■ Just type ipconfig at a command prompt to get help for command line
options.
Here are the common command line options:

/all Display full configuration information

/release Release the DHCP assigned IP address for the specified adapter
/renew Renew the DHCP assigned IP address for the specified adapter

Ex: c:>>ipconfig /release

TELNET.EXE
TELNET.EXE has the following characteristics:
■■ You use it to establish a remote control session with another host.
■■ It is commonly used to configure routers.
■■ Type telnet to run Telnet from the RUN command.
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66 Chapter 1

NSLOOKUP.EXE
NSLOOKUP.EXE has the following characteristics:
■■ It is a utility for managing and checking configuration of DNS servers.
■■ It tends to be one of the more cantankerous utilities.
■■ It can be used in command line mode or interactive mode.
This utility is typically used to see resource records on DNS servers. Follow
these steps:
1. Start NSLOOKUP. Ignore any messages that might be displayed.
2. Type >ls followed by the domain name you want information on (for
example, type ls widgets.com).

HOSTNAME.EXE
HOSTNAME.EXE has the following characteristics:
■■ It returns the host name of a computer.
■■ No command line options are available.

NETSTAT.EXE
NETSTAT.EXE has the following characteristics:
■■ It displays the connection status and protocol status.
■■ It displays the port number used for a TCP/IP connection.
■■ Just type netstat /? to get help for command line options

ARP.EXE
ARP.EXE has the following characteristics:
■■ It displays and manages local ARP cache.
■■ Just type arp to get help for command line options.
Here are the common, testable command line options:

-a or –g (displays current arp table)

-s (adds a permanent entry to route table. Ex: arp –s 192.168.1.24 00-
aa-62-c6-09)
-d (deletes an entry from the arp table. Same syntax as adding a name)
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Notes

1. The notation that ISO stands for the International Organization for
Standardization is not a typo. Rather, it’s an artifact of language transla-
tion. ISO is based in Switzerland.
2. Computer systems vary in how they represent text and data as a binary
code. The letter “A” is represented as 11000001 in ASCII, whereas the
same letter in EBCDIC would be represented as 10000001.
3. In common practice, the term “packet” is often used to refer to the DPU
of any layer.
4. Routers can be configured to forward broadcast packets in special cir-
cumstances, such as for DHCP traffic (see page 62).
5. A DTE/DCE cable is often referred to as a v.35 cable because the two
interfaces it connects follow the v.35 standard for high-speed serial
communications.
6. CSU/DSUs are seen less often, as the telcos are delivering more and
more services with Ethernet interfaces.
7. Cisco routers allow an all-zero network address with the ip subnet-zero
global configuration command. This can cause compatibility issues
with some networking equipment however, and should be employed
with care.
8. It would be unusual for all but the largest ISPs to be assigned an
address with so many hosts in today’s CIDR base world. See the follow-
ing section on CIDR.
9. The SYN packet has gained notoriety because it is used to launch
Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. In a DoS attack, the sending host floods
the target with SYN packets. The target’s TCP buffer fills up and it
becomes too overwhelmed to respond to inquiries, even valid ones.
10. There are additional timers that fine tune how TCP works, but this is
beyond the scope of this review. See Appendix B for recommended
reading.
11. The ip helper-address command and its counterpart, the ip forward-
protocol command, are beyond the scope of this text. Refer to a Cisco
command reference.
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CHAPTER

2
Routing Basics

Overview
The purpose of this chapter is to provide foundational information about what
routing is and the basics of how it works. Specifics of routing, such as static
routing, dynamic routing, and routing protocols are provided in subsequent
chapters. The following topics are covered in this chapter:
What is routing 70
Routing begins at home 71
Anatomy of a routed packet 76
Anatomy of a routed table 81
Populating route tables 83
Static and dynamic routing 83
Routing metrics 84
Administrative distance 84

69
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70 Chapter 2

KEY TERMS

Routing metric
Cost
Administrative distance
Default gateway
Default route
Gateway of Last Resort
Virtual address
ARP
MAC address
Source routing or source path routing
Static routing
Dynamic routing
Routing protocols
NAT

What Is Routing?
Simply put, routing is the act of forwarding network packets from a source
network to a destination network. This is a straightforward concept in princi-
ple. In practice, you must take into account a variety of considerations to
insure the successful delivery of packets:
■■ When should you route?
■■ What is the best route?
■■ How is the best route determined?
■■ What if the network topology changes?
■■ What if there is a network fault?
■■ What if the destination does not exist?
Routing occurs when a packet must be forwarded off its originating network
(determined by the ANDing process covered in Chapter 1). Any packet with a des-
tination network number that differs from the local network number is, by definition,
destined for another network and must therefore be forwarded to the target network. A
router is the designated networking device for forwarding packets between net-
works. Only a router has the internetwork information and the logic required to
make the correct decision about how best to forward the packet.
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Routing Basics 71

N OT E As discussed in Chapter 1, NAT devices, gateways, and proxy servers

also forward packets between two networks, but such devices lack the routing
logic and routing information that routers posses.

Routing Begins at Home—The Workstation’s

Route Table
The routing process actually starts at the workstation: the local host initiating
the communication. If Joe Cool is sending an email to Sally Smart, the deter-
mination of whether Sally’s workstation is on the same network as Joe’s is
made at Joe’s workstation. These hosts actually have their own route table. If
you haven’t dealt with routes and routing much, that statement may surprise
you. Perhaps you thought that route tables only lived on routers. Not so. For
most workstations, however, the route table is very brief. A workstation usu-
ally needs only to forward packets bound for another network to its default
gateway. Nonetheless, it is helpful to understand the process. Figure 2-1 repre-
sents the route table of a typical Windows PC connected to a network. You can
see the route table of any Windows-based PC by opening a command prompt
and entering c:>route print.
The purpose of the local route table is to provide the host with information
about how to handle the forwarding of packets exiting the workstation. Every
packet has a source and destination address. Once the ANDing process has
determined that a packet needs to be routed, the local route table is consulted
to determine where to forward the packet. Let’s look at the table and try and
make sense of it.

Row 1—Default Gateway

Network Destination Netmask Gateway Address Interface Metric
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.100.100.101 192.100.100.191 1

Row 1 defines where to send packets for which there is no specific route. This
is known as the default gateway, default route, or Gateway of Last Resort.
The first column in row 1 is the network address. This column lists networks,
as opposed to host addresses (the only exception is the IP address of the local
host itself in row 4). Column 1 will always list every possible network the host
is aware of. The entry the 0.0.0.0 is a wild card representing any network not in
the list, and the IP stack uses the information in this row to determine how to
forward packets whose destination network is not listed in the table. Most
packets bound for another network are sent to the default gateway—a router
will have a more robust route table, and so is better equipped to make the best
decision about how to reach the destination network.
 Network Address = 192.100.100.0
05_772739 ch02.qxp

Subnet mask = 255.255.255.0

IP address of local computer = 192.100.100.191
Default Gateway = 192.100.100.101
3/3/06

C:>route print

Active Routes:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
9:21 PM

Network Destination Netmask Gateway Address Interface Metric

1 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.100.100.101 192.100.100.191 1 (Default Gateway address)

2 127.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 1 (local loopback – tests local TCP/IP stack)
Page 72

3 192.100.100.0 255.255.255.0 192.100.100.191 192.100.100.191 1 (Local subnet address. Identifies route to local network)

4 192.100.100.191 255.255.255.255 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 1 (Network card address. Identifies route to local address)

5 192.100.100.255 255.255.255.255 192.100.100.191 192.100.100.191 1 (Subnet broadcast address)

6 224.0.0.0 224.0.0.0 192.100.100.191 192.100.100.191 1 (Multicast broadcast address. 224 is a class D address)

7 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 192.100.100.191 192.100.100.191 1 (Internet broadcast address)

Persistant Routes:
None

(1) Network Destination: The IP address of a host, subnet, network, or Default Gateway.

(2) Netmask: (Subnet mask). Determines what portion of the IP address is the network ID.

(3) Gateway Address The address of a router. Where packets will be forwarded. This will be the Default Gateway address, the local computer’s
IP address, or a generic loopback address (assuming no static routes have been entered).

(4) Interface: How the packets will leave the local host. This will contain the local host’s IP address or the generic loopback address.

(5) Metric The “cost” of the route to the destination network address, usually in terms of time to the destination

Figure 2-1 Display of a Windows-based workstation’s route table.

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Column 2 defines the network mask, if any, for the network number in col-
umn 1. A network mask performs a function similar to a subnet mask. The mask
is used to isolate the network portion of the address. Note that it is a 32-bit num-
ber broken into four octets, just like a network ID. An entry of 255 allows the cor-
responding octet in the network ID to be passed through. An entry of 0 blocks
the corresponding octet. In the case of a default gateway entry, the mask will
usually be the 0.0.0.0. A mask of the 0.0.0.0 effectively means no network num-
ber, equating to “any network.” This is kind of a weird example. The 0.0.0.0 is a
pretty funky mask. More easily understood examples will be shown later.
Column 3 specifies the IP address of the gateway (router). This is the address
that the packets are forwarded to.
Column 4 specifies which local interface to forward packets to in order to
reach the gateway. In the case of a host with only one network interface card
(NIC), this entry is inconsequential. But if the host has two or more NICs
installed, this column provides an opportunity to specify which interface the
packet should be sent to.
Column 5 indicates the metric. A metric is one way to assign a “cost” to a
route. This is not a dollar cost, but rather an indicator of how expensive a route
is in terms of time to delivery. For example, let’s say that a network has been
configured with two separate paths (routes) to a destination network. This is
often done for fault tolerance. However, one path may have a T1 connection
while the other has a far slower 56K connection. Naturally, you want most of
the traffic to go through the path with the T1 link. That is where the metric
comes in. The lower the metric number, the lower the cost of the route. Therefore, if
you assign a metric of 1 to the T1 path and a metric of 2 to the 56K path, the
host will choose the T1 path over the 56K path (unless the TI is down, in which
case it will fall back to the 56K path).

Row 2—Loopback Address

Network Destination Netmask Gateway Address Interface Metric
127.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 1

Row 2 is the loopback address, which is used for testing purposes. The RFCs
that specified the assignment of IP addresses reserved the entire the 127.0.0.0
network for testing (too bad). The typical IP address used for loopback testing
is the 127.0.0.1. Try pinging the 127.0.0.1 from your command prompt. The
results should be similar to the output shown in Figure 2-2.

PING TIP

One way to save time with the ping command in Windows is to add the switch
–n 1, which will cause the target to be pinged only once, instead of the default
4 times.
Example: ping –n 1 192.168.1.1
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C:>ping 127.0.0.1
Pinging 127.0.0.1 with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=128
Ping statistics for 127.0.0.1:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds: Minimum = 0ms,
Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms

Figure 2-2 Pinging the loopback address of a host.

Pinging the loopback address is a quick way to test the integrity of the local
IP stack. A reply indicates that the stack on the local machine is functioning.
Given what you learned about how to interpret row 1, what do the five
columns represent for the loopback test?
■■ Column 1 represents the loopback network.
■■ Column 2 is the network mask. A mask of the 255.0.0.0 passes the first
octet and blocks the remaining octets, exposing a network address 127.
■■ In column 3, a gateway address of the 127.0.0.1 is in actuality a virtual
address that maps to the IP address of the workstation. The IP stack
will send test packets to this make-believe address.
■■ Column 4 indicates to send test packets out the 127.0.0.1, which again is
a fictitious gateway address pointing to the local host’s IP address.
■■ The metric in column 5 has little meaning for a loopback, but it shows
up with the default value of 1.

Row 3—Local Subnet Address

Network Destination Netmask Gateway Address Interface Metric
192.100.100.0 255.255.255.0 192.100.100.191 192.100.100.191 1

This entry defines the local network or subnet. The term subnet does not imply
that the network has been subnetted. In this context, it just reflects an individual
network—the one that the host is a part of, as shown in column 1. Column 2
reflects whatever subnet mask was entered into the IP configuration of the host,
in this case a standard class C network. The Gateway and Interface columns
both match the IP address assigned to the host’s NIC. This simply identifies the
route to this host.
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Row 4—IP Address of Host

Network Destination Netmask Gateway Address Interface Metric
192.100.100.191 255.255.255.255 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 1

To specify the host’s actual IP address in the route table, the address is listed in
the Network Destination column. A netmask of 255.255.255.255 is necessary to
pass all four octets intact and reveal the true host address. The loopback
addresses for Gateway Address and Interface are just placeholders that refer to
the local IP address.

Rows 5, 6, and 7—Broadcast Information

Network Destination Netmask Gateway Address Interface Metric
192.100.100.255 255.255.255.255 192.100.100.191 192.100.100.191 1
224.0.0.0 224.0.0.0 192.100.100.191 192.100.100.191 1
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 192.100.100.191 192.100.100.191 1

A route table needs to reflect how broadcasts are handled. A way to broadcast
on the subnet is required, plus a way to broadcast to all hosts, everywhere
(scary thought). Also, multicasting is handled here (broadcast to only a subset
of hosts).
Row 5 defines how to broadcast on the local subnet. Rather than identifying a
single host, it identifies all hosts on that subnet. A netmask of the 255.255.255.255
is required to pass the entire address. The host’s IP address is used for both the
Gateway Address and the Interface.
Row 7 is similar to row 5, so it is explained next. It defines how to broadcast
to everybody. Whereas 0.0.0.0 took on the meaning of “any network not in the
list,” 255.255.255.255 takes on the meaning “all hosts on all networks.” As with
the local subnet broadcast entry, a netmask of the 255.255.255.255 allows all
bits to be passed through.
Row 6 sets up a multicast entry. The 224 network is reserved specifically for
multicasting. Multicasting is used to broadcast to a specific subgroup of hosts.
An example of its use would be delivering a pay-per-view seminar across
the web. Some routing protocols use multicasting to communicate between
routers.
Remember that up until now, no action was required on the administrator’s
part to populate the workstation’s route table except to have specified an IP
address, subnet mask, and default gateway address in the IP configuration of
the host. The Windows IP stack did the rest. Meaning, you normally don’t have
to sweat these basic entries. But again, it’s helpful to have an understanding of a
workstation’s route table when it comes time to troubleshoot. In a real life trou-
bleshooting scenario where routing is broken, walking up to a workstation and
running the route print command gives a quick rundown of the host’s IP
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address, subnet mask, and default gateway, as well as a list of any specific routes
that have been configured. Put this command in your troubleshooting arsenal
and use it with the ping.exe and tracert.exe commands covered in Chapter 1.
See Chapter 3 for an example of when a workstation’s route table might be man-
ually altered.

Anatomy of a Routed Packet

Once a host determines that packets must be routed to another network how
does the process actually work? One way to understand routing is to track the
journey of a packet from one network to another. We will be a “fly on the wall”
as a file transfer is tracked from a host on network A on to a host on network
B. Breakout explanations will be provided as the journey progresses.

Track a Packet—Source and Destination

on the Same Network
To get warmed up, a packet with the source and destination hosts both resid-
ing on the same network will first be tracked. From there, a subsequent exam-
ple will illustrate how the routing process intervenes when packets must be
forwarded off the network to get to reach their destination.

N OT E The following explanation is a micro view of what leads up to the

initiation of the routing process. This provides additional details about how
TCP/IP and the OSI network models work. Subsequent examples skip this
detail.

In this example, someone sitting at computer A is about to copy a file to com-

puter B. Both computers A and B are on network the 160.1.0.0 (class B network).
Here is how the file gets transferred (for simplicity sake only a single packet is
being tracked; in reality, there would of course be a stream of packets):
1. A user on computer A (the 160.1.0.1) has a drive mapped to Computer B
(the 160.1.0.2). The user drags a file in Windows Explorer to a folder on
Computer B.
2. Windows Explorer calls on the operating system to initiate a communi-
cation session with the destination computer (session layer 5). Microsoft
Windows operating systems use the high-level protocol known as the
SMB (Server Message Block) protocol to perform many communication
tasks. The SMB takes responsibility for setting up the session to transfer
the file, but the SMB does not handle the transfer itself. For that job, it
calls upon the reliable TCP/IP protocol TCP (layer 4).
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3. TCP takes responsibility for insuring the data generated by SMB is sent
to the destination intact. The protocol numbers and tracks each packet
and signs off on the deal only when ACKs (acknowledgements) of each
packet are received from the destination host. TCP, however, has no
knowledge of how to initially locate the destination host, so it calls the
TCP/IP protocol known as IP (network layer 3).
4. IP adds logical addressing information for both source and destination
hosts. The source IP address is known and is added to the IP header of the
packet right away. The only thing known about the destination host how-
ever is its NetBIOS name (the friendly name of the host). A broadcast
packet is sent asking the computer called COMPUTER_B to respond with
its IP address. The packet is sent to IP address the 160.1.255.255, the broad-
cast address for the 160.1.0.0 network. All hosts on the subnet will exam-
ine the packet sent to the 160.1.255.255, but only the host named
COMPUTER_B will respond with its IP address. The newly learned desti-
nation IP address is now added to the IP header of the packet.
5. Now that both the source and destination IP addresses are known, the
ANDing process can be used to determine whether or not the destina-
tion host is on the same network as the sending host. The subnet mask
defined for the source host is applied to both the 160.1.0.1 and the
160.1.0.2 addresses, yielding network numbers the 160.1.0.0 for the
source host and 160.1.0.0 for the destination host. A comparison of the
two numbers reveals the source and destination host are on the same
network. Routing of the packet will not be required.
6. Layer 3 is not done with its work however. Communications do not take
place until the MAC address of both hosts is known. MAC addresses are
the realm of the data-link protocol (Token Ring, Ethernet, and so on),
and since it’s the data-link protocol that actually sends the packet, it
needs to know the MAC address of the target host. If the target’s MAC
address is not in the sending host’s ARP cache, the ARP protocol is
called. ARP sends a broadcast packet to ask for the MAC address of the
160.1.0.2, which replies with its physical (MAC) address. The MAC
addresses are passed to the data-link protocol for the local network
(layer 2).

VARIATIONS ON A THEME

There are in fact many ways the destination IP address might be learned in
step 4. In a Microsoft WINS environment, the address would be retrieved from
the WINS database instead of by broadcast. In a pure WIN2K environment sans
NetBIOS, the IP address would be looked up via Dynamic DNS. Or, in some
cases, the IP address of the destination would already be cached in memory.
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7. Armed with the destination’s MAC address, the data-link protocol (let’s
assume Ethernet), vis-à-vis the NIC driver, interfaces with the NIC,
which generates the electrical impulses on the network medium, which
will be heard by the destination host.
8. The two hosts have now communicated. The initial packet stream will
be the 3-way handshake that establishes the session. Then the packets
generated by SMB perform the housekeeping required to prepare for
the file transfer. Finally, the file transfer will commence.

Track a Packet—Source and Destination on Different

Networks—One Router
In this example, someone sitting at computer A is about to copy a file to some-
one at computer B. Computer A is on network 160.1.0.0 and computer B is on
network the 160.2.0.0. The packet has to be routed, as follows:
1. A user on computer A (the 160.1.0.1) has a drive mapped to Computer B
(the 160.2.0.1). The user drags a file in Windows Explorer to a folder on
computer B.
2. The IP stack on the source host performs the ANDing process on the
source and destination IP addresses. The subnet mask defined for the
source host is applied to both the 160.1.0.1 and the 160.2.0.1 addresses,
yielding network numbers the 160.1.0.0 for the source host and the
160.2.0.0 for the destination host. A comparison of the two numbers
reveals that the source and destination hosts are on different networks.
The packet must be routed to its destination.
3. Armed with the knowledge that the packet must be routed, the IP stack
starts looking for the best route to the target address. The route table on
the initiating host is examined. First, an entry with a path to the desti-
nation network is searched for. If a path is found, the packets are for-
warded to the router specified by the entry1. The router must be on the
same network as the sending host. This is considered the next hop in
the packet’s path to the destination network.
4. If no path to the destination network is located in the route table of the
source host, the IP stack has no choice but to forward the packet to the
default gateway. The default gateway is the IP address of a router on
the local network that all packets bound for networks not listed in the
hosts’ route table are forwarded to.
5. The layer 3 ARP protocol is called to derive the MAC address for the
160.1.0.254.
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Routing Basics 79

6. As the router receives the packet stream, it has to decide what to do

with it. Packet forwarding is kind of like playing Hot Potato. No one
wants to hold onto a packet very long. The router first verifies the
checksum in the packet (it discards the packet if the checksum is bad).
It then applies the rules of any access lists that may exist for inbound
packets on its receiving interface. (Access lists on a router are similar to
firewall rules, where packets are accepted or rejected based on certain
criteria applied to the packet.)
7. If the packet is accepted, the router checks its route table for a path to
the destination network. In this case, the destination network is directly
connected to another interface on the same router. The router then
strips off the layer 2 header from the packet. A layer 2 header is media-
specific. It is only relevant to the data-link protocol of a specific network.
Since the router is about to pass the packet to the interface of a different
network, the information is irrelevant. After a check for any access lists
on the destination interface, the router checks the data-link protocol of
the interface and builds a new layer 2 header, with corresponding source
and destination MAC addresses. The source MAC address is the MAC
address of the router interface the packet is forwarded from, and the tar-
get MAC address is the MAC address of the destination host (in this
case the target host, but in other cases the MAC address of the next
router). The router then decrements the TTL by one, and creates a new
checksum. The IP stack running on the router issues an ARP call to IP
address the 160.2.0.1, which returns its MAC address. Packet forwarding
can be commenced and the game of Hot Potato is over.

TROUBLESHOOTING TIP

One common place to check when network communications break down is the
default gateway setting on the sending host. If the specified address is
incorrect or missing default routing cannot take place.
It is also common to see problems with the default gateway setting at the
destination host. If a destination host has a misconfigured default gateway,
packets will reach the host, but replies will not return. This would cause a ping
from the source host to the destination host to fail. In this case, the TRACERT.EXE
command would show how far the packet got before it encountered trouble.
Workstations tend to rely more on default gateways than routers (known as
the Gateway of Last Resort on Cisco routers), but default routing is certainly
used on routers, and a router will drop a packet if the destination network is
not in the route table and no default gateway has been configured. Moral of
the story: Check your default gateways along any portion of the path under
your control when troubleshooting failed communications.
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THE RETURN PATH

What goes out must come back. How do packets find a return path to the
source host? Even in the example of a file transfer, where most packets flow
from the source to the destination, packets flow in both directions if for no
other reason than to return TCP acknowledgement packets, confirming to the
sending host that the packets arrived intact.
In fact, the term “return path” is a misnomer because there is normally no
return path per se—no “trail of breadcrumbs” to follow. What was the
“destination host” becomes the “source host” and vice versa, and the whole
process starts over. The same path determination mechanisms (route tables,
default gateways, etc.) are used to forward packets to the initiating host, so
packets might very well take a different path on their return trip.

Worth noting in this all-important step is that although the physical

MAC addresses change as packets move across networks, the logical
addresses (source and destination IP addresses) do not change. The log-
ical addresses represent the two endpoints of the communication ses-
sion and remain the same throughout a packet’s journey.

Track a Packet—Source and Destination on Different

Networks—Multiple Routers
Let’s assume the packet from our last example needed to traverse two routers
to reach its destination. This example picks up from when the packet reached
the first router:
1. The router has received the packet, but this time after an access list check
and the discarding of the layer 2 headers, an examination of the router’s
route table reveals that the destination network is not directly connected.

N OT E A router’s route table is arguably at the heart of any book on routing.

At the completion of this example, the focus will shift to the specifics of how
route tables work, but for the moment let’s simply say that a route to the
destination has been determined by performing a lookup on the route table.

The table reveals which router the packet must be forwarded to and
which interface the packet must exit this router from in order to reach
the next identified router. Therefore, the layer 1 and 2 headers are built
for the exit interface’s data-link type and the packet stream is for-
warded through that interface, after an access list check.
2. Now the process simply repeats itself. When the second router receives
the packet everything the first router did is repeated. The layer 2 header
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Routing Basics 81

is stripped off, access lists applied to the inbound interface are checked,
and a lookup of the route table is performed. If the destination address of
the packet matches to a directly connected network, the packet is for-
warded out the corresponding interface. Otherwise, the packet is for-
warded to the next hop (router) in the path. (By the way, if at any time a
router’s route table reveals no path to the destination network, a variety
of things may occur, depending on how the router is configured. That
contingency will be covered shortly.)

Anatomy of a Route Table

Routers depend upon route tables to determine how to route incoming pack-
ets. The heart of routing is indeed the route table, so what is required in order
to understand route tables? The following topics will introduce you to the
workings of route tables:
■■ How route tables are populated
■■ How routes are selected—routing metrics and administrative distance
■■ How routers match destination addresses to a network path
■■ How packets are handled if a destination network cannot be located
A route table lists every network that a router is aware of. The following fig-
ure and table show two route table examples. Figure 2-3 shows the printout of
a route table on a Cisco router when the show ip route command is executed.
Table 2-1 shows a simplified view of the same route table.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

O 10.0.0.0 /8 [110/20] via 200.1.1.1, 00:01:30, Serial0

O 172.16.0.0 /16 [110/15] via 200.1.1.1, 00:01:28, Serial0
O 192.168.1.0 /24 [110/20] via 200.2.2.2, 00:02:10, Serial1
210.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 210.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

Figure 2-3 Results of the “show ip route” command on a Cisco router.

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82 Chapter 2

Table 2-1 Simplified View of the Same Route Table. “AD” is short for Administrative
Distance

CODE NETWORK, MASK AD/METRIC NEXT HOP INTERFACE

O 10.0.0.0 /8 110/20 200.1.1.1 S0

O 172.16.0.0 /16 110/15 200.1.1.1 S0

O 192.168.1.0 /24 110/20 200.2.2.2 S1

C 210.1.1.4 /30 0/0 Directly connected E0

There are six key elements to each routing entry:

■■ Code: An abbreviation indicating what process discovered the route
(see the code explanations in Figure 2-3).
■■ Network, Mask: Indicates the address of the destination network and
its subnet mask.
■■ Administrative distance/Metric: Used to select the best route if more
than one path to a network exists (covered in the next section).
■■ Next hop: IP address of the next router the packet will be forwarded to
(specifically, the address of the interface of the next hop router that
shares a network segment with an interface on the source router).
■■ Interface: The interface the packet will be forwarded out of.

Key Concept for Understanding Route Tables

There is something important to understand about route tables that will facil-
itate your understanding of network routing. Does something seem to be
missing from the Table 2-1? Take for example the first route in the list: the
10.0.0.0 network. Notice that the table does not indicate precisely where 10.0.0.0
is. The full path to the destination is not indicated. For example, the table does
not indicate that to get to the 10.0.0.0 network you must first go through, say,
the 63.0.0.0 network, then through the 180.6.0.0 network, and so forth. All the
entry tells you about the path to the 10.0.0.0 is that you must forward packets
to the 200.1.1.1 via interface S0. The 200.1.1.1 is simply the next hop router.
That’s it. The router does not worry about how the packet ultimately gets to
the 10.0.0.0. It’s going to leave that job to the next router down the line. Again,
kind of like Hot Potato.
No single route table entry ever reveals the full path to the destination net-
work2. The best a routing entry can do is point to the next router along the
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Routing Basics 83

path. Route tables help packets along their way, one hop at a time. When the
packets arrive at the next hop, the process of path determination starts all over
again. This may seem like a less-than-efficient process, but it works out well
because it provides for great flexibility. There is often more than one path to a
destination, and network links and routers can go down. It is impossible for all
routers in a system to all have up-to-the-minute information at the same
instant. Therefore, a system of recalculating routes after each hop insures more
reliable network communications. The obvious conclusion is that every router
in an internetwork must have a very good idea about which next hop router
will get the packet to its destination most efficiently. This is where dynamic
routing comes in (discussed in Chapter 4).

Populating Route Tables

Route tables are populated through one of the following three sources:
■■ Directly connected networks
■■ Network paths statically (manually) entered into the route table
■■ Through one or more dynamic routing protocols

Directly Connected Networks

Any network directly connected to the interface of a router is automatically
added to the route table. Whatever IP address and mask were configured for
the interface are used to populate the table entry.

Static and Dynamic Routing

Aside from directly connected networks, route tables can only be populated
with network paths in one of two ways: the route is manually entered by an
administrator, or the router figures out network paths on its own by talking to
other routers. A manually entered route is known as a static route. On the
other hand, dynamic routes are routes a router learns from other routers via a
routing protocol such as RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, or BGP. Routing protocols
run as processes on routers. They exchange information about the networks in
the system and automatically populate route tables. Static and dynamic rout-
ing are important topics and each have their own respective treatments in the
following two chapters, respectively. The names of the various routing proto-
cols are listed in Table 2-2.
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84 Chapter 2

Table 2-2 Popular Dynamic Routing Protocols

PROTOCOL PURPOSE

RIP ver 1 (Routing Information Protocol Legacy protocol suited for small
version 1) networks

RIP ver 2 (Routing Information Protocol Improvements to RIPv1 to support

version 2) classless addressing

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Legacy Cisco specific protocol to replace
RIP

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Improved version of IGRP to support

Routing Protocol) classless addressing

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) De facto standard for enterprise

networks

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) De facto standard for exchanging route

information between autonomous
systems

Routing Metrics
The term metric was first introduced when the route table of a local host was
explained earlier. Metrics define the cost of a route in terms of how long it takes
to deliver packets through a particular path. Metrics have special significance
for routing protocols. Each routing protocol has its own formula for assigning
a metric value to a learned route based on factors such as hop count, band-
width, reliability of link, and so on. If a routing protocol learns of more than
one path to a particular network, it will install the route with the lowest metric
into the route table. Depending on the routing protocol, duplicate routes may
be kept as backup routes if the primary route fails, or the routing protocol may
install multiple routes into the route table and forward packets through all
paths to increase throughput.3

Administrative Distance
Administrative distance builds on the concept of a metric, but it works as a more
global means of route selection and comes into play when multiple sources are
providing more than one path to a given network. For example, more than one
routing protocol can run on a single router. Each routing protocol may learn of
the same network, and each protocol will apply its native metrics to determine
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Routing Basics 85

which path is most efficient to reach the network. But in the end, two different
protocols each present a candidate path to the same network for inclusion into
the route table. Which route should be installed? An arbitrator is needed to
choose between the two candidates. This is where administrative distance
comes in. An administrative distance value is assigned to every method for
identifying network routes—albeit a directly connected network, a statically
entered route, or a route discovered by a routing protocol.
One way to state the differences between metrics and administrative dis-
tance is to state that metrics ask the question “Which routes that I know of are
the best?” whereas administrative distance asks the question “What source do
I believe more?”
As with metrics, the lower the administrative distance value, the better the
route. The route with the lowest administrative distance is always installed
into the route table. Bear in mind that both metrics and administrative distance
can be manipulated by a network engineer (that’s you).
The default administrative distances are as follows:
Directly connected interface = 0
Static route = 1
EIGRP (summary routes) = 5
BGP (external) = 20
EIGRP (internal) = 90
IGRP = 100
OSPF = 110
RIP = 120
EIGRP (external) = 170
Internal BGP = 200
Unknown = 255
Note that directly connected routes have the lowest administrative distance,
and therefore the highest selection priority. Obviously, if a network is directly
connected to a router, there is no need to forward the packet to a different
router first. Thus, a directly connected route will always take precedence over
any other method of learning about the network. The administrative distance
values assigned to the various routing protocols have evolved as routing pro-
tocols have evolved. For example, RIP is an older protocol with less robust
metrics than OSPF, thus OSPF earns a lower administrative distance value4. A
router will trust an OSPF learned route over a RIP learned route (assuming
both protocols are running on the router). The entries in the above list will
make more sense as you complete the subsequent chapters.
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86 Chapter 2

Summary
This chapter provided you with insight into why and how packets get routed.
Specifically, it covered the following:
■■ Routing is the process of forwarding packets from one network to
another. The ANDing process running on the source host determines if
the IP address of a destination packet needs to be routed to another
network.
■■ A variety of devices forward packets from point A to point B (hubs,
routers, switches, and firewalls), but only routers have the ability to
locate and forward packets to another network.
■■ One seeming exception to the requirement that routers forward packets
between networks is Network Address Translation (NAT). Although
NAT forwards packets off the network, it is not true routing because
NAT does not incorporate route tables or make decisions about how
and where to route packets. Proxy servers and gateways are another
exception for the same reason.
■■ Routing devices must determine valid, economical paths to all destina-
tion networks and respond to changing network conditions.
■■ Route determination begins at the workstation. A workstation’s route
table usually indicates only the path of a default route, a place where
outbound packets with no listed path are sent. However, static routes
specifying the path to specific networks can be inserted into a worksta-
tion’s route table.
■■ Routers determine the path to a network through the use of routing
tables which list known networks. Route tables are populated in one of
three ways: directly connected networks are added to the table auto-
matically, routes learned through one or more routing protocols are
added automatically, or routes can be manually added as static routes.
■■ Route tables do not contain the full path that packets will take to reach
their destination. Rather, a routing table simply specifies the next router
to forward the packet to, pushing the packet closer to its destination.
Each router receiving a packet will in turn determine the best path and
forward the packet to the next router.
■■ Routing metrics and administrative distance are the two mechanisms
that determine route selection when multiple paths to a destination net-
work exist. Metrics are used to determine the best route learned from a
specific source, and are heavily used with dynamic routing protocols.
Each routing protocol will choose the best path from among multiple
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Routing Basics 87

possible paths by picking the route with the lowest metric (cost).
Administrative distance is used to choose the best route if the same net-
work is learned from more than one source— the same network may be
known through a direct connection, a static entry, or from one or more
routing protocols running on the same router.
■■ Default routes are used to forward packets when no match is found for
a packet’s destination address in the route table.
It is now time to delve into the specifics of static and dynamic routing—the two
principal ways network routes are installed into route tables. Chapter 3 is a short
but important chapter on how to configure static routes, and how to know when
static routes are required. Chapter 4, in covering routing protocols, not only acts
as a springboard for the subsequent chapters on the specific routing protocols,
but it covers a broad array of critical routing concepts as well.
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88 Chapter 2

Notes

1. If more than one path is found, the route with the lowest metric is cho-
sen and the path is considered to be determined. In either case, packets
are then forwarded to the router specified by the entry.
2. Routing protocols can be designed to contain the complete path to the
destination within the network packet (rather then just the source and
destination addresses). In this case, all routing decisions are made at the
router sourcing the packet. This is known as source routing. Most rout-
ing protocols do not incorporate source routing because allowing rout-
ing decisions to be made at each router along the path, on-the-fly,
provides far more flexibility. Source routing, when it’s used, tends to be
implemented at the data-link layer. It is also worth noting that some
protocols, like OSPF, in certain cases keeps the full path to a destination
stored in a special table. However, the route table for OSPF still func-
tions on a hop-by-hop basis.
3. Chapter 4 discusses routing metrics further.
4. The Cisco IOS makes use of the “distance” command to alter the
default administrative distance. Default routing metrics can be also
altered when entering a static route or when configuring a routing
protocol. Specifics are given in the relevant chapters covering routing
protocols.
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CHAPTER

3
Static Routing

Overview
This chapter explains the various aspects of static routing. Static routing is
often used in lieu of, or in conjunction with, dynamic routing protocols. The
following topics are covered:
What is static routing? 90
When to use static routes 90
Configuring static routes on a router 91
Static default routes 95
Static routes on a workstation 98
Floating static routes 100
Propagating static routes 100

89
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90 Chapter 3

KEY TERMS

Static route
ip route command
Static default route
Floating static routes
Route Add command
ODR: On Demand Routing

What Is Static Routing?

Static routing was alluded to in Chapter 2. It is the process of manually populat-
ing a routing table with routes to a destination network. Static routes can be
added to a router, or to any host that uses a routing table, such as a workstation.
Aside from directly connected networks, a router’s route table can only be pop-
ulated via static routes (routes added by hand), or via dynamic routing protocols
(routes added automatically). The task of manually entering and maintaining
static routes on a large network is daunting, if not impossible. Therefore, static
routes are used only in special circumstances on such networks.

When to Use Static Routes1

The smaller the network and the less often network changes occur that affect
routing (routers going up and down, networks being added and removed, net-
work links changing, and so on), the better the chances of successfully using
static routes to populate routing tables. Dynamic routing protocols use up net-
work resources to learn where all the networks are (bandwidth, router mem-
ory, router CPU time, and so on). Not to dis routing protocols. They perform a
critical service and are the only reasonable solution in many environments.
But you don’t always have to deploy a routing protocol. More often though,
static routes are used in conjunction with dynamic routing protocols to solve
specific problems. Furthermore, static routes can also be employed at work-
stations in special situations.
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Configuring Static Routes on a Router

The following examples will give you an idea of when and how to configure a
router for static routes.

Example with a Small Routed Network

Let’s say you have set up a network for a company with three branch offices in
the city (see Figure 3-1). A public carrier is used to connect the sites. A router is
set up at each site. Each router has one LAN interface to connect to the local
network and one WAN interface to connect to the public carrier. Redundant
links are not used.
This is a pretty small network in terms of routing. For the sake of this con-
versation, we don’t care how many workstations are attached to each network.
All that is required is that the three routers have properly populated route
tables in order to forward packets to all networks. Networks of this type are
often static in nature. They don’t change all that often in terms of the number of
subnets and the network numbering. There is only one path to each subnet.
That being the case, static routes could be used here. The risk is that if the net-
work does change (say a new router was added), the network administrator
must manually change the configuration of each affected router. The risk in this
case may be worth taking to negate the overhead used by a routing protocol.

Configuring the Routers

After initial configuration of the routers—no static routes added and no routing
protocols running—the route table of each router is reflected in Figures 3-2, 3-3,
and 3-4.

192.168.1.0/24 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.3.0/24

E0 E0 E0
S0 S1
S0 S0
A
200.1.1.17/28 B
200.1.1.33/28 C
200.1.1.18/28 200.1.1.34/28

Building 1 Building 2 Building 3

Figure 3-1 A small, stable network that rarely changes.

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92 Chapter 3

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.16 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0

Figure 3-2 Results of the show ip route command on router A—no static routes yet.

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.2.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.16 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.32 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1

Figure 3-3 Results of the show ip route command on router B—no static routes yet.

routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.3.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.32 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0

Figure 3-4 Results of the show ip route command on router C—no static routes yet.
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Static Routing 93

Adding Static Routes to Fully Populate the Route Tables

As you saw in Figure 3-2, router A has no information in its routing table about
how to forward packets to either the 192.168.2.0 or the 192.168.3.0 subnets. As
it stands right now, if router A received a packet from a host on the 192.168.1.0
bound for say, a host on the 192.168.2.0 network, it would discard the packet.
Not good. The same is true for routers B and C in that they have no forward-
ing information about the subnets they are not directly connected to. One way
to address this issue is with static routes. The global configuration command
ip route is used to create static routes on a Cisco router. The command is used
here to populate each router’s route table with information about how to reach
the two other respective networks:

routerA#config-term
routerA(config)#ip route 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 200.1.1.18 (1)
routerA(config)#ip route 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 200.1.1.18 (2)

routerB#config-term
routerB(config)#ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 200.1.1.17 (3)
routerB(config)#ip route 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 200.1.1.34 (4)

routerC#config-term
routerC(config)#ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 200.1.1.33 (5)
routerC(config)#ip route 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 200.1.1.33 (6)

(1) Adds a static route to the 192.168.2.0.

(2) Adds a static route to the 192.168.3.0.
(3) Adds a static route to the 192.168.1.0.
(4) Adds a static route to the 192.168.3.0.
(5) Adds a static route to the 192.168.1.0.
(6) Adds a static route to the 192.168.2.0.
Now let’s have another look at those route tables. Figures 3-5, 3-6, and 3-7
reflect the commands just entered.

N OT E Notice the numbers in brackets [ ]—these represent the administrative

distance and metric respectfully. As noted in the administrative distance chart
on page 85, directly connected networks have an administrative distance of 0,
whereas statically entered routes are 1. You can see that manifested in the
route tables.
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routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.16 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
S 192.168.2.0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.18
S 192.168.3.0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.18

Figure 3-5 Router A—static routes added.

Packets can now find their way to any destination on the example network.
Pretty straightforward, right? Just keep in mind that we are not necessarily
saying this is the only way to configure such a network. Rather, it is one way.
There are other ways the same objective could have been met. One method is
to go ahead and implement a dynamic routing protocol, which is covered in
the next chapter. Another method is outlined next.

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.2.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.16 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.32 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
S 192.168.1.0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.17
S 192.168.3.0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.34

Figure 3-6 Router B—static routes added.

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Static Routing 95

routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.3.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.34 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
S 192.168.1.0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.33
S 192.168.2.0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.33

Figure 3-7 Router C—static routes added.

Static Default Routes

Another way of configuring the example network would have been to institute
a static default route on each router. A default route is a way of saying none of the
above. A static route is a manually entered default route that provides a place to
forward packets when there is no match in the route table for the destination
address. Unless a path of some type is provided, most routers will drop the
packet and return an ICMP Destination Unreachable message to the sender.
Default routing actually gets its own special treatment in Chapter 10. Here, a
glimpse is given as to how to use default routing with static routes. No routing
protocol will be used in the next example, yet the requirement for the adminis-
trator to intervene when a change in the network configuration occurs will be
diminished.
Cisco routers refer to a default route as a Gateway of Last Resort. In the pre-
vious example, no default gateway has been configured on the routers. The
statement “Gateway of last resort is not set” in the router output reveals this.
In the upcoming example, a static default route will be instituted on two of the
routers to supply them with a default route.
Refer back to Figure 3-1. Notice that router A and router C have only one inter-
face connecting to other networks. Since there is only one possible interface to
forward outbound packets to, why not just set a default gateway instead of
adding each individual network to the route table? Then, any packet bound for
a network not directly connected will be sent to the Gateway of Last Resort. Here
is how the routers would instead be programmed to achieve the desired results:

routerA#config-term
routerA(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 200.1.1.18 (1)

routerB#config-term
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96 Chapter 3

routerB(config)#ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 200.1.1.18 (2)

routerB(config)#ip route 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 200.1.1.18 (3)

routerC#config-term
routerC(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 200.1.1.33 (4)

(1) Set a static default route that points to the next hop router.
(2) Create a static route, same as before.
(3) Create a static route, same as before.
(4) Set a static default route that points to the next hop router.
The route tables in Figures 3-8, 3-9, and 3-10 now reflect that a Gateway of
Last Resort exists.
To take as an example a packet sent from the 192.168.1.0 to the 192.168.3.0,
router A will forward the packet to its default gateway (the 200.1.1.18) when it
can’t find a match for the destination network in its route table. Router B will
find a match and the packet will successfully reach its destination. Note that
router A and B use the 0.0.0.0 network to represent the default route.
One advantage to this configuration is that if a fourth router is added down-
stream of either of the routers configured with a default gateway, fewer routers
will need to have their configurations changed. The routers would simply for-
ward packets with destination addresses not matching an entry in the route
table to the Gateway of Last Resort. Naturally, attention must be paid in con-
figuring static default routes that packets forwarded to the default gateway
will eventually reach their destination. Many more examples of default rout-
ing will be presented throughout the book, but the real lesson here is that there
is often more than one way to configure a routing scheme and one method
might work better than another. This gives you an opportunity to stand out in
your field by thinking through a better solution.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 200.1.1.18 to network 0.0.0.0

C 192.168.1.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.16 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0

Figure 3-8 Router A now has a populated Gateway of Last Resort.

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Static Routing 97

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.2.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.16 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.32 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
S 192.168.1.0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.17
S 192.168.3.0 [1/0] via 200.1.1.34

Figure 3-9 Router B still has no default gateway set.

N OT E The static default route technique will not work on router B because
router B has two interfaces connecting to other networks. Packets from router B
bound for the 192.168.1.0 must exit through the S0 interface, whereas packets
bound for the 192.168.3.0 must be forwarded through interface S1. In this case,
the specific routes must be added to the route tables.

routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 200.1.1.33 to network 0.0.0.0

C 192.168.3.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 200.1.1.32 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0

Figure 3-10 Router C now has a populated Gateway of Last Resort.

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98 Chapter 3

Static Routes on a Workstation

Although it is rare to alter the route table of a workstation, there are times
when routing will be made more efficient by doing so. Figure 3-11 illustrates a
small network with two subnets separated by a router. Router A’s default con-
figuration lists both the directly connected networks. The workstations all
have a standard default gateway pointing to router A. Any packets bound for
the corresponding network will first be forwarded to router A, which will per-
form a lookup on the target network and forward the packets out its opposing
interface. This is about as simple as it gets.
In Figure 3-12, a new router has been added to allow access to the Internet.
All that’s required to provide Internet access to the workstations is to add a
default gateway to router A that points to router B (this would be considered a
static default route since it is manually configured). When a workstation for-
wards any packet not destined for its local network to its default gateway,
router A will receive the packet. If the packet is bound for the other local net-
work, Router A will have a routing entry for the destination address of the
packet and forward it out the specified interface. Otherwise router A will for-
ward the packet out its default gateway to router B, which will in turn forward
the packet to the Internet.
This new configuration will work fine, but does it optimize routing? Note that
the workstations on the 192.168.1.0 have a direct connection to the Internet
router, but instead they forward Internet bound packets to router A. This results
in one extra hop for Internet bound packets generated from that network.
Routing could be optimized if workstations on the 192.168.1.0 could be told
to send packets bound for the 192.168.2.0 to Router A, but to send all other
packets to router B. This type of configuration only can occur at the worksta-
tion. The default gateway must be re-hypointed from the 192.168.1.254 to the
102.168.3.254. When there is a router on the network providing access to the Internet,
default gateways MUST point the way to that router. This of course means the
default route that previously served to reach the 192.168.2.0 is now defunct
(you can only have one default route). The solution is to institute a static route
at the workstations that specifically lists the path to the 192.168.2.0.

Router

192.168.1.0/24 A 192.168.2.0/24
.1 .254 .254 .1

Figure 3-11 Two-network system—workstations use default settings.

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Static Routing 99

The
Internet

Router
B
.254

192.168.3.0

Router

192.168.1.0/24 A 192.168.2.0/24
.1 .254 .254 .1

Figure 3-12 Less-than-optimal routing configuration.

Modification of a Windows-based workstation’s route table is accomplished

with the route add command. An example was provided in Chapter 1.
A pleasant side affect of this approach is that if the internal router ever went
down Internet access would still be available to the 192.168.1.0. And we all
know how important Internet access is!

PLUSES AND MINUSES OF THIS APPROACH

You should be able to see both the advantages and disadvantages to setting a
workstation’s default gateway to point to the Internet. While modifying the
workstation’s route table certainly optimizes routing, the downside is that each
internal network must be listed in the route table of each workstation on
192.168.1.0. Some administrators might balk at this idea, but it all depends on
your network and how fast it’s growing. With workstation imaging being so
prevalent, some would consider the modification of the default route table as
simply another of many configuration settings.
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Floating Static Routes

A floating static route refers to a static route that may not always be in use—
thus it “floats.” You may recall from the discussion of administrative distance
in Chapter 2 (page 84), that static routes have precedence over dynamically
learned routes for installation into the route table. Only directly connected
routes have a higher precedence than statically entered routes.
However, administrative distance values can be altered. When a static route
is entered it can have its priority altered to a value higher than the native rout-
ing protocol in use. In that case, any dynamically learned route to a particular
network would be installed in the route table over a static route pointing to the
same network. The static route would simply act as backup. If the dynamically
learned route was lost the static route would automatically be installed in its
place.
To set an administrative distance value other than the default on a Cisco
router, simply include the value as follows:

ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 200.1.1.33 99 (1)

(1) Set the administrative distance to 99

In this example, the value of 99 was randomly chosen. In fact, the value only
need be one digit higher than the administrative distance value you wish to
override. For example, if you’re running OSPF, which has an administrative
distance value of 110, setting an administrative distance value of 111 on a sta-
tic route would cause the OSPF route to be installed over the static route,
unless the OSPF route was lost, in which case the static route would then be
used.

Propagating Static Routes

When dynamic routing is employed, static routes and static default routes
can be shared with other routers vis-à-vis routing protocols. Other routers
learn about the static routes without having to manually enter the route on
each router. The process is referred to as redistribution and is covered in Chap-
ter 10.
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Static Routing 101

Summary
This chapter covered the following:
■■ Static routes are routes manually added to a routing table.
■■ Static routes may be suitable for smaller networks without redundant
network links.
■■ Static routes are often employed in conjunction with dynamic routing
protocols and as default gateways to solve specific network configura-
tion issues.
■■ Static routes are configured with the ip route command on Cisco
routers.
■■ Static routes have an administrative distance value of 1, which means
by default, a static route will always be chosen over a route learned
from any routing protocol. Only directly connected routes have a higher
precedence.
■■ Floating static routes have had their administrative distance altered to a
higher value so that they are only installed in the route table if another
route to the same network is lost.
■■ Cisco provides the ODR (On Demand Routing) facility as an alternative
to using static routing.
■■ Static routes, and static default routes can be propagated throughout
the system by way of routing protocols. (See Chapter 10 for details.)
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102 Chapter 3

Notes
1. Cisco introduced a facility in later versions of its IOS called On Demand
Routing (ODR). ODR reduces the need for static routing, providing a
“best-of-both-worlds” solution between static and dynamic routing in
very specific cases. ODR is not covered in this book.
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CHAPTER

4
Dynamic Routing

Overview
This chapter explains the heady topic of dynamic routing. It is a prelude to the
subsequent chapters that cover specific dynamic routing protocols. A number
of examples are given that illustrate important routing concepts such as class-
less routing, route summarization, longest match principal, and so on. The fol-
lowing topics are covered:
The need for an automated routing solution 104
What is a routing protocol? 105
Considerations for designing routing protocols 106
Metrics of routing protocols 107
Categorizing dynamic routing protocols 108
Route summarization 119

103
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104 Chapter 4

KEY TERMS

Interior routing protocols

Exterior routing protocols
Distance vector
Routing by rumor
Link-state
Link-state advertisements
Shortest path first
Topology map
Routing-loops
Metrics
Multipath routing
Load balancing
Hierarchical routing
Classful and classless routing
Classful and classless routing protocols
Summarization
Discontiguous networks
Longest match algorithm

The Need for an Automated Routing Solution

Adding and modifying static routes by hand can get to be anything from monot-
onous to completely unworkable, depending on the size of a network. On a
large, complex network, it is virtually impossible for an administrator to keep
the network up via manual manipulation of the route tables. Things change too
fast. A single downed router or network link may necessitate dozens or even
hundreds of routers to be reconfigured with alternate routes around the failed
device. That is where dynamic routing comes in.
The term dynamic routing intimates automaticity and flexibility, and indeed
those are two of several key features of this routing method. In a dynamic rout-
ing environment, routers learn about the condition of the network automatically
and modify their respective route tables on-the-fly—without human interven-
tion. Dynamic routing can be deployed on any size network.
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Dynamic Routing 105

What Is a Routing Protocol?

To begin with, a protocol is a set of conventions governing the treatment and
especially the formatting of data in an electronic communications system. A
routing protocol is a specialized form of a protocol that allows two or more
routers to exchange information about the networks they know about. A rout-
ing protocol is what enables the concept of dynamic routing. More specifically,
a routing protocol is based on an algorithm that runs as a process on the router.
An algorithm, on the other hand, is a procedure or formula for solving a
problem.
Algorithms used to populate route tables are based on graph theory, which
is kind of a “connect-the-dots” approach that applies to connected nodes.
Graph theory lends itself quite well to the idea of the node being a router and
the network links being the lines that connect the routers. Modern routing pro-
tocols are based on early work done by folks like R. Bellman, L.R. Ford, and
Edsger Dijkstra. The RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, and BGP protocols use a derivative of
the Bellman-Ford Distance Vector algorithm, while OSPF and IS-IS1 are based
on the Dijkstra Shortest Path First algorithm.
A variety of routing protocols have been developed over the years. No sin-
gle routing protocol is the be-all, do-all, end-all solution (although OSPF has
pretty much become the defacto choice for enterprise networks and some ISP
networks). Depending on the specific requirements of a network, one protocol
may be a better choice then another. It is quite possible that in your entire IT
career, you may work with only two or three of these routing protocols. If you
work for an ISP, the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) will be very important. If
you are administrating a small- to medium-sized network with a single WAN
link to the Internet, you might use RIPv2. On large enterprise networks EIGRP
or OSPF is often the preferred protocol.

ROUTING PROTOCOLS VS. ROUTED PROTOCOLS

These are similar terms with very different meanings, which can lead to
confusion. Routing protocols are protocols that propagate network routing
information among routers (OSPF and BGP). Such protocols do not carry user
data. Routed protocols are layer 3 and layer 4 network protocols that carry user
data and are capable of being routed across networks (IPX and TCP/IP). Some
network protocols cannot be routed, such as NetBEUI. However, because the
industry is quickly converging on IP as the routed protocol of choice, the term
“routed protocol” is heard less often.
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106 Chapter 4

Considerations for Designing Routing Protocols

When teaching a class, the author often asks students how they would design a
solution to a networking problem, prior to discussing what the industry came
up with. This helps students better relate to the industry solution and under-
stand the reasoning behind it. Let’s apply that approach to the problem of prop-
agating networks among routers.
What are some of the networking issues that must be taken into considera-
tion for a protocol that purports to automatically populate all route tables in
the system with accurate, timely information about the system’s networks?
At its core, a router running a routing protocol must be able to communicate
with other routers. It must be able to tell other routers about the networks it is
aware of, and conversely learn about networks other routers are aware of.
Therefore, a common language is needed. The language of the routing proto-
col must have a vocabulary to describe as much about the router, its status, and
its routes as needed. That language and vocabulary takes the form of the
actual routing protocol itself. Because the language is unique, routers can only
exchange information with other routers running the same protocol.2
If a routing protocol learns about more than one path to the same network,
it must have a means of evaluating which route is best to use. As will be illus-
trated shortly, a number of factors affect this decision. Off the top of your head,
how many factors can you think of that come to bear on choosing the best path
to a given network?
A routing protocol must be accommodating to changes in the network. A
single downed router or network link can dramatically impact the ability to
forward packets to their destination.
If changes in the network demand that all route tables be updated, the
delay until this process is completed (known as convergence) is extremely
important.
One significant problem with routing is the possibility of a routing-loop
(often due to slow convergence). A routing-loop occurs when packets loop end-
lessly around the network, never reaching their destination. If you think the
Internet is slow now, just imagine an ever-growing number of infinitely loop-
ing packets congesting it.3
The Internet, and many private networks are classlessly addressed (subnet-
ting, VLSM, and CIDR). In order to correctly route packets, the routing proto-
col must be able to discern that a network is employing classless addressing
and be able to forward packets to the correct subnet. In other cases, it is best for
the routing protocol to ignore subnets when advertising routes, and summa-
rize a group of addresses as a single route.
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Dynamic Routing 107

Finally, a routing protocol should economize on the use of network band-

width. Traffic generated by routers talking to each other must be minimized to
avoid wasting network bandwidth. The industry, in noting these considerations,
has come up with the following terms to describe the characteristics of a routing
protocol:
■■ Robustness
■■ Optimality
■■ Flexibility
■■ Speed of convergence
■■ Avoidance of routing-loops
■■ Support for classless addressing
■■ Simplicity
Each routing protocol’s ability to address the aforementioned concerns will
be discussed in this chapter as well as the chapters covering the individual
protocols.

Metrics of Routing Protocols

As previously discussed, a routing metric refers to how a routing protocol
decides which route is best if more than one path to a network is discovered.
This is also known as the cost of the route.
Each route learned by a routing protocol is assigned a metric value. A met-
ric has no meaning if the protocol has discovered only one route to a particu-
lar network. But if more than one route is discovered, each router is used to
choose the best path. There are a number of factors that the protocol may take
into consideration when assigning a metric to a route:
■■ Hop count: Number of routers to traverse in order to reach the destina-
tion network.
■■ Path length: A refinement of hop count that allows a more accurate cost
to be calculated.
■■ Sum of per-link costs
■■ Bandwidth: Speed of links between routers.
■■ Delay: Time in milliseconds to cross a link.
■■ Load: Congestion on link due to traffic.
■■ Reliability: Based on bit error rates of path.
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108 Chapter 4

METRIC VS. COST

Is there a difference between the term metric and the term cost? If there is,
it’s minor, as whatever distinction existed between the terms has blurred over
the years. Think of “metric” as a generic reference to the concept of a routing
protocol choosing one route over another, whereas “cost” is often embodied as
a specific value (like “1” or “1784”), and composed of whatever metric criteria
the protocol uses: hop count, bandwidth, delay, and so on.
But there are no hard and fast rules for how the terms interrelate. For
example, the popular Dijkstra algorithm uses a metric defined as cost, with
“cost” not being specified. OSPF, which uses the Dijkstra algorithm, often
defines cost as the bandwidth of the network link. Bandwidth is explained in
many texts as one of the criteria composing a metric! Go figure.

Not all routing protocols implement each of the aforementioned factors. One
reason for the plethora of routing protocols that have been developed, has to
with the difference in the metrics each protocol employs. Over the years metrics
have improved. Newer routing protocols incorporate these improvements.

Categorizing Dynamic Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are categorized according to the purpose for which they were
designed. A good place to begin understanding a routing protocol (and when to
employ it) is to understand what networking problem it was designed to solve.
There are five different ways routing protocols can be carved up to help under-
stand their intended purpose. Keep in mind that the following descriptions will
become clearer as the individual routing protocols are discussed.

Interior versus Exterior Routing Protocols

Interior routing protocols were developed to facilitate routing within an
autonomous system, whereas exterior routing protocols were developed to
facilitate routing between autonomous systems. An autonomous system (AS)
refers to a network under a single administrative control—for example, your
organization’s network. If you were to one day connect to another organiza-
tion’s network and needed to share routing information, that’s where an exte-
rior routing protocol comes in. An exterior routing protocol is tuned for
passing routing information between autonomous systems. Such a protocol
would usually be employed only on each organization’s border routers (the
router that connects your network to the rest of the world). Any interior rout-
ing protocols in use would remain.
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Dynamic Routing 109

Most routing protocols are interior protocols. The only exterior routing pro-
tocol in common use is BGP (Border Gateway Protocol). BGP is used exten-
sively in the Internet, tying together thousands of autonomous systems.
Synonymous terms for interior versus exterior protocols are intradomain ver-
sus interdomain and intranetwork versus internetwork. You will also see the
acronyms IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol) and EGP (Exterior Gateway Proto-
col). These acronyms refer to interior and exterior routing protocols as a group.
Table 4-1 lists the common routing protocols classified by interior versus
exterior.

Distance Vector versus Link-State

One important design aspect of a routing protocol is how the protocol deter-
mines the path to networks—which in turn determines the composition of the
route table on each router. Routing protocols use either distance vector or
link-state methods (an exception is BGP, which uses a variant of distance vec-
tor methods and will be discussed in Chapter 9). Each of these two methods is
based on the well-known routing algorithms referred to earlier.

Distance Vector Routing Protocols

Distance vector protocols are based on what is colloquially known as “routing
by rumor.” Routers running a distance vector protocol don’t receive routing
information from each router in the system. Rather, a router running a distance
vector protocol is told about networks known to other routers by its immediate
neighbors. Each router shares routing information with its neighbors in the form
of routing update packets. The neighboring routers receive these updates, add
the information about the newly learned networks to their own route tables, and
then send the combined information to their neighbors. In this manner, each
router in the system eventually learns the path to all networks, but much of the
information is secondhand—thus the “routing by rumor” moniker. Figure 4-1
illustrates in basic form how a distance vector protocol communicates.

Table 4-1 Classification of Routing Protocols by Interior versus Exterior

PROTOCOL INTERIOR/EXTERIOR

RIPv1 (Routing Information Protocol version 1) Interior

RIPv2 (Routing Information Protocol version 2) Interior

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Interior

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Interior

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Interior

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Exterior

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110 Chapter 4

Router A Router B Router C

Psst. Hey neighbor, I know Psst. Hey neighbor, I know Wow! I known about the,
about the 192.168.1.0 and about the 192.168.10.0, the 192.168.100.0, 200.2.2.2,
the 200.1.1.0. 200.1.1.0, the 200.2.2.0, and 200.1.1.0, 192.168.10.0,
the 192.168.1.0. and the 192.168.1.0.

192.168.1.0/24 192.168.10.0/24 192.168.100.0/24

A 200.1.1.1/24 200.1.1.2/24 B 200.2.2.1/24 200.2.2.2/24 C

Figure 4-1 Simplified view of distance vector protocol communications.

What information is shared among routers running a distance vector

protocol? To begin with, each router informs its neighbors of its directly con-
nected networks. It also includes networks the router has learned of from
other neighbors. The routers also share the metric of each network it knows of.
The metric a distance vector protocol assigns to a route is a value called dis-
tance. Traditionally, distance was composed of simply hop count—how many
routers the packet must hop across to reach its destination. This is true of RIP.
If the destination network is three routing hops away, the metric is 3. If the pro-
tocol discovered two or more paths to the same network, the route with the
lowest hop count would win and be installed in the route table. A distance vec-
tor protocol released subsequent to RIP, IGRP, uses bandwidth and delay to
determine the metric value. Although IGRP ignores hop count, it is still con-
sidered a distance vector protocol because it behaves in all other respects as a
distance vector routing protocol. This point is further illustrated in the follow-
ing discussion.

Vectors
In a distance vector environment, each router keeps a vector for each destina-
tion network. A vector is simply a direction, taking the form of the next hop
router the packet will be forwarded to on the way to its destination. The router
stores the IP address of the router that reported the lowest cost path. This
router is called the next hop because it is the next location packets will be for-
warded to on the way to the destination network.
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Dynamic Routing 111

N OT E Even though IGRP does not employ hop count in its metric, the term
“next hop router” applies even to routing protocols that don’t employ hop
count in ther metric.

Once again, distance is derived from the metric of a route; how far it is to the
destination network; while vector is simply the direction a packet is forwarded
as it leaves the router; which interface the packet leaves from. Thus we have
the distance vector protocol.

More on the Metrics Used by Distance Vector Routing Protocols

As previously mentioned, early distance vector routing protocols such as RIP
used hop count as the sole metric for determining the distance to a network. In
RIP’s mind, the fewer the number of routers the packets need to pass through,
the better the route. Hop count as a cost determiner works well on small sys-
tems with similar speed network links. On such systems, hop count is indeed a
good measure of the cost of a path. However, on larger systems, with multiple
paths to a destination, and varying bandwidth on network links hop count
alone does not always tell the truth about the best path to a network. Figure 4-2
illustrates a problem that arises for distance vector protocols that use only hop
count to determine the distance to a network when there are multiple paths to
the same network.
After all routers have shared their route tables, but before the distance vector
protocol has run, router A knows the following (simplified):
I am directly connected to network 1 via Ethernet interface 0.
I am directly connected to subnet 1 via serial interface 0.
I am directly connected to subnet 4 via serial interface 1.
Network 2 is one hop away via serial interface 0.
Network 2 is four hops away via serial interface 1.
Network 3 is two hops away via serial interface 0.
Network 3 is three hops away via serial interface 1.
Network 4 is three hops away via serial interface 0.
Network 4 is two hops away via serial interface 1.
The focus is on getting packets from network 1 to network 4. Router A is
aware of two paths to network 4. One path will be three hops away out its ser-
ial interface 0, the other path two hops away out its serial interface 1. Once the
distance vector protocol has run, the path through serial interface 1 will be
chosen as the best route to network 4 even though the path through Serial 0—
with its faster WAN links—is a faster route.
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112 Chapter 4

Network 1 Network 2 Network 3 Network 4

Subnet 1 Subnet 2 Subnet 3

E0 E0 E0 E0
S0 S1 S1
S0 S0 S0
A T1 B T1 C T1 D
S1 S1

56K

S0 S1
E 56K

Subnet 4 Subnet 5
Figure 4-2 Network diagram showing two paths from network 1 to network 4—hop count
used as metric.4

Table 4-2 shows router A’s route table after the distance vector protocol has
run (simplified).
As networks started growing in size, the designers of distance vector routing
protocols realized the limitations of using hop count for determining path
length. IGRP, a proprietary Cisco routing protocol introduced after RIP, use
bandwidth (and other factors) to determine the distance to a network. Refer
again to Figure 4-2, but this time running a distance vector routing protocol that
incorporates bandwidth in determining distance.
After all routers have broadcast their route tables, but before the distance
vector protocol has run, router A will know the following (simplified):
I am directly connected to network 1 via Ethernet interface 0.
I am directly connected to subnet 1 via serial interface 0.
I am directly connected to subnet 4 via serial interface 1.
Network 2 is reachable through a 1,544 Kbps link via serial interface 0.
Network 2 is reachable through two 56K links and two 1,544 Kbps links
via serial interface 1.
Network 3 is reachable through two 1,544 Kbps links via serial interface 0.
Network 3 is reachable through two 56K links and one 1,544 Kbps link
via serial interface 1.
Network 4 is reachable through three 1,544 Kbps links via serial
interface 0.
Network 4 is reachable through two 56K links via serial interface 1.
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Dynamic Routing 113

Table 4-2 Simplified Route Table for Router A

NETWORK INTERFACE DISTANCE

Network 1 E0 Directly connected

Network 2 S0 1

Network 3 S0 2

Network 4 S1 2

When the distance vector algorithm for IGRP is run, the links to the net-
works will be taken into account and the three-router hop across the T1 links
to network 4 will win over the two-router hop across the slower 56K links.
Table 4-3 shows router A’s route table after the distance vector protocol has
run—bandwidth is used for path determination.

Other Issues with Distance Vector Protocols

Adding metric factors like bandwidth helps distance vector protocols route
more efficiently, but they still have their issues. A characteristic that all distance
vector routing protocols share is that they are “chatty.” Conversations between
routers consume network resources. A router running a distance vector protocol
defaults to broadcasting its entire route table as often as every 30 seconds out
each enabled interface. Route tables can get quite large, and transmitting the
entire table that often can significantly impinge on network bandwidth. Chatty
protocols also interfere with the ability of the routers to converge due to the
delay incurred in sending so many update packets. This issue was addressed
with the update to IGRP and EIGRP, which is covered in Chapter 6 and 7.
Distance vector routing protocols also have a tendency to create routing-
loops. A routing-loop occurs when two routers point to each other as the path to
a network. They end up bouncing packets back and forth to each other instead
of delivering the packets to their proper destination. Therefore, distance vector
protocols must be engineered with an array of provisions to mitigate the possi-
bility of such loops. A closer look at routing-loops will be pursued when RIP is
covered in detail in Chapter 5.

Table 4-3 Simplified Route Table for Router A

NETWORK INTERFACE DISTANCE

Network 1 E0 Directly connected

Network 2 S0 1

Network 3 S0 2

Network 4 S0 3
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114 Chapter 4

For all the aforementioned reasons, distance vector routing protocols are
suitable only for smaller networks.

Link-State Routing Protocols

Link-state-based routing protocols (also known as shortest path first proto-
cols) are a step up the routing protocol evolutionary ladder. Link-state proto-
cols are based on the Dijkstra algorithm. Rather than relying on routing
information learned through hearsay, link-state routers receive first-hand rout-
ing information from each router in the area. The information is transmitted in
the form of Link-State Advertisements, or LSAs, which are passed from
router to router and include information about the state of each router’s
directly connected links (IP address, speed of link, and so on). Unlike distance
vector protocols which only compile lists of networks and the interface to for-
ward packets through in order to reach those networks, link-state protocols
allow each router to know how many routers are out there and what networks
are connected to each router. Every router ends up with a topology map of the
system. Because the routers are only passing information about their own
links, rather than the entire routing table, initial convergence is improved. Fur-
thermore, LSAs are usually only sent when the status of a link changes. This impor-
tant feature also improves convergence.5
The metric used in link-state protocols is often bandwidth, so the network map
includes the speed of each network link. With this information, the Dijkstra algo-
rithm is run, the shortest (quickest) path to each network is determined, and the
route table is populated. This type of routing protocol is not only a better deter-
miner of the quickest path to a network, it is less prone to routing-loops because
with a complete map of the network, routers can’t be fooled into advertising
routes that lead back through themselves. Figure 4-3 depicts a simplified version
of how link-state protocol communicates.

Router A Router B Router C

Hey everybody. I’m Hey everybody. I’m Hey everybody. I’m

connected to networks connected to networks connected to networks
192.168.1.0 and 200.1.1.0. 192.168.10.0 and 192.168.100.0 and
200.1.1.0 and 200.2.2.0 200.2.2.0

192.168.1.0 192.168.10.0 192.168.100.0

A 200.1.1.1 200.1.1.2 B 200.2.2.1 200.2.2.2 C

Figure 4-3 Simplified view of link-state protocol communications.

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Dynamic Routing 115

Link-state protocols have other improvements over their distance vector

cousins as well. Update packets can be sent as multicasts rather than as broad-
casts, thereby relieving the processing load on hosts not acting as routing
devices. Some link-state routing protocols can also be configured in a hierar-
chical fashion. This feature can further reduce unnecessary traffic by confining
updates within specific areas of the network. This concept will be illustrated
when OSFP is discussed in Chapter 8.
Referring again to Figure 4-2, let’s examine what information link-state pro-
tocols learn about network routes.
After all routers send their link-state advertisements (LSAs), but before the link-
state protocol has run, router A (and in fact all routers) will know the following:
Router A is directly connected to network 1 via Ethernet interface 0; the
bandwidth is 100 Mbps.
Router A is directly connected to subnet 1 via serial interface 0; the band-
width is 1544 Kbps.
Router A is directly connected to subnet 4 via serial interface 1; the band-
width is 56 Kbps
Router B is directly connected to network 2 via Ethernet interface 0; the
bandwidth is 100 Mbps
Router B is directly connected to subnet 1 via serial interface 0; the band-
width is 1544 Kbps.
Router B is directly connected to subnet 2 via serial interface 1; the band-
width is 1544 Kbps.
Router C is directly connected to network 3 via Ethernet interface 0; the
bandwidth is 100 Mbps.
Router C is directly connected to subnet 2 via serial interface 0; the band-
width is 1544 Kbps.
Router C is directly connected to subnet 3 via serial interface 1; the band-
width is 1544 Kbps.
Router D is directly connected to network 4 via Ethernet interface 0; the
bandwidth is 100 Mbps.
Router D is directly connected to subnet 3 via serial interface 0; the
bandwidth is 1544 Kbps.
Router D is directly connected to subnet 5 via serial interface 1; the
bandwidth is 56 Kbps.
Router E is directly connected to subnet 4 via serial interface 0; the band-
width is 56 Kbps.
Router E is directly connected to subnet 5 via serial interface 1; the band-
width is 56 Kbps.
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116 Chapter 4

Router A knows a lot! So does every router in the system. Each router liter-
ally has a map of the network topology. They see what you see in the diagram.
Each router not only knows how many total routers are in the area, they know
which network is connected to which router and the speed of each network
link. From this information, the Dijkstra algorithm is run and the route table is
built.
As you can see, the key difference with link-state protocols over distance
vector protocols is that link-state protocols don’t need to be told the distance to
a network by another router. Link-state routers make that calculation for them-
selves because they have enough information to do so.

Summary of Distance Vector versus Link-State Protocols

Now that you have seen examples of how distance vector and link-state proto-
cols work, let’s contrast their differences once again. It is said that distance vec-
tor protocols carry out “routing by rumor.” A router builds its route table based
on what another router “whispered in its ear.” The router that did the whisper-
ing learned most of what it knows in the same manner—from another router.
Then, after running the distance vector protocol and populating the route table
the entire table is broadcast by each router to its neighbors as often as every 30
seconds. Delays incurred propagating routing information in this manner slows
convergence and makes distance vector routing protocols prone to routing-
loops. This can severely hamper or even break routing. Therefore, a number of
route-loop prevention techniques must be engineered into such protocols.
With link-state protocols, each router speaks only for itself, describing its
direct links through advertisements that are relayed to every other router in
the area. Once the route table is built, only changes affecting network links
need to be propagated.
Although some distance vector protocols include bandwidth information in
the metric they are still prone to routing-loops. Link-state protocols reduce the
occurrence of routing-loops because each router has a map that keeps it from
being fooled into accidentally looping packets. Table 4-4 lists the common
routing protocols classified by distance vector versus link-state.

Table 4-4 Classification of Routing Protocols by Distance Vector versus Link-State

PROTOCOL DISTANCE VECTOR OR LINK-STATE

RIP ver 1 (Routing Information Protocol) Distance vector

RIP ver 2 (Routing Information Protocol) Distance vector

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Distance vector

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Advanced distance vector (hybrid of

Routing Protocol) distance vector and link-state)
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Table 4-4 (continued)

PROTOCOL DISTANCE VECTOR OR LINK-STATE

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Link-state

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Path vector (see Chapter 9)

Singlepath versus Multipath

Although any particular routing protocol may become aware of more than one
path to a network, not all routing protocols can actually install multiple paths
into the route table and route packets through both paths. A singlepath proto-
col must choose the best path from the available paths to a network as the pri-
mary path (based on the metrics of each route). Only if the primary fails can
secondary paths (if any) be used.
On the other hand, multipath routing protocols not only choose a primary
path to a particular network, but for the purposes of throughput and load bal-
ancing, they can route packets via multiple paths (called multiplexing). Multi-
path routing protocols speed network performance and improve reliability.
Table 4-5 lists the common routing protocols classified by singlepath versus
multipath.

Broadcast versus Multicast

Routing protocols differ in how they send update packets to other routers.
Certain routing protocols (such as RIP and IGRP) use broadcast packets, which
are received by every device on the subnet. More sophisticated protocols use
unicast or multicast packets (such as EIGRP, OSPF, and BGP) which are
received by only one or a group of devices, respectively.

Table 4-5 Classification of Routing protocols by Singlepath versus Multipath

PROTOCOL SINGLEPATH VS. MULTIPATH

RIP ver 1 (Routing Information Protocol) Singlepath6

RIP ver 2 (Routing Information Protocol) Singlepath

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Multipath

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Multipath

Routing Protocol)

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Multipath

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Singlepath7

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118 Chapter 4

Flat versus Hierarchical

Most routing protocols are flat in nature, meaning routing updates are propa-
gated to all routers throughout the autonomous system (either through distance
vector or link-state methods). To minimize the impact of routing updates on net-
work bandwidth, some routing protocols can be configured in a hierarchical
manner. Groups of routers within the internetwork can be segregated into areas
and certain routing updates are confined within an area. Although some routing
updates still occur between areas within the internetwork (when a major change
occurs that affects the entire internetwork), minor routing updates occur only
within an area, reducing overall network traffic as well as the load on the routers.
In short, hierarchical-capable routing protocols give the network adminis-
trator an additional tool for managing the resources used by routing adver-
tisements. The design of OSPF provides a splendid example of a well-
architected protocol that takes advantage of hierarchical routing structures
and will be examined in detail in Chapter 8. Table 4-6 lists the common rout-
ing protocols classified by flat versus hierarchical.

Classful versus Classless

Originally, routing protocols were classful in nature, meaning they were
designed to operate on networks using classful addressing (class A, B, or C).
Classful routing protocols have only limited support for classless addressing, the
reason being that such protocols do not include the subnet mask in routing
advertisements. The inclusion of the subnet mask is unnecessary in a classful
addressing environment because the router receiving an advertisement can make
an assumption about the mask in use by simply applying the First Octet Rule to
the address. Such assumptions cannot be made in a classless environment
however. Therefore, a new strain of routing protocols that include the mask in
the advertisement of a network were developed. Such protocols have full sup-
port for all classless addressing methods. Table 4-7 lists the common routing
protocols classified by classful versus classless.

Table 4-6 Classification of Routing Protocols by Flat versus Hierarchical

PROTOCOL FLAT VS. HIERARCHICAL

RIP ver 1 (Routing Information Protocol) Flat

RIP ver 2 (Routing Information Protocol) Flat

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Flat

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Flat8

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Hierarchical

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Flat

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Dynamic Routing 119

Table 4-7 Classification of Routing Protocols by Classful versus Classless

PROTOCOL CLASSFUL VS. CLASSLESS

RIP ver 1 (Routing Information Protocol) Classful

RIP ver 2 (Routing Information Protocol) Classless

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Classful

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Classless

Routing Protocol)

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Classless

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Classless (v4)

If you are in a situation where classless addressing methods must be sup-

ported by a classful routing protocol, God bless you. Upgrade to a classless
protocol.

Route Summarization
In this all-important section of the book, we are taking a broad approach to
route summarization. Rather than try and break this topic out and explain
summarization in a compartmentalized fashion, it is being treated in-context
with the peripheral networking issues surrounding summarization. The fol-
lowing topics are covered in this section:
■■ Route summarization with interior routing protocols
■■ Several examples of networking with classless routing protocols
■■ Reinforcement of classless addressing concepts: subnetting, VLSMs,
and CIDR
■■ Discontiguous networks and the special handling they require
■■ Longest-match algorithm—how routers actually match a network to a
route table entry
■■ Using summarization in a hierarchical addressing scheme

N OT E You should already be up-to-speed on classless addressing techniques

before tackling this section. Classless addressing was covered in detail in
Chapter 1 starting on page 32.

Route summarization refers to the concept of reducing the number of

entries in route tables while still providing a path to all known networks. One
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120 Chapter 4

of the unfortunate side affects of creating additional networks via subnetting

is that route tables grow in size as they are populated with the paths to all
those networks. Every route must be propagated and that takes bandwidth.
Also, as route tables get larger, it takes longer for a router to lookup a route.
Finally, large route tables require additional router resources such as memory
and CPU cycles. Even before classless addressing was introduced, the shear
number of classful addresses being assigned, contributed to bloated route
tables on the Internet’s backbone routers. The additional networks created by
classless addressing techniques potentially makes the problem more toxic. The
antidote is route summarization.
Route summarization, simply stated, allows the propagation of a single
route, which in fact refers to a path to multiple subnets. Summarization reduces
the size of route tables because a series of network addresses can be repre-
sented as a single summary address in the table. This is a critical function in
modern networking, so several examples will be presented to illustrate how
summarization performs its magic.
Summarization can occur both at the address-assignment level, where the
assigning authority allocates IP addresses to ISPs, large organizations, and
educational institutions, and at the organization level where smaller organiza-
tions receive their address assignments from ISPs.
At the assignment level, summarization takes the form of CIDR addressing,
which inherently summarizes a range of allocated addresses into a single
address.
At the organizational level, the additional networks created through the use
of subnetting and/or VLSMs can be mitigated by configuring route summa-
rization. Here, summarization can best be taken advantage of when the IP
addressing scheme has been implemented in a hierarchical fashion.
Finally, the examples will make it clear that route summarization is usually
a good thing, but there are times when it can break routing. Because summa-
rization is on by default in some routing protocols it underscores the need to
be familiar with this topic. Table 4-8 lists the common routing protocols classi-
fied by summarization capabilities.

Table 4-8 Route Summarization Capabilities

PROTOCOL SUMMARIZATION

RIPv1 (Routing Information Always summarizes routes at major network

Protocol version 1) boundary (auto-summarization).

IGRP (Interior Gateway Auto-summarization cannot be disabled.

Routing Protocol)
Never summarizes routes when not crossing a
major boundary.
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Dynamic Routing 121

Table 4-8 (continued)

PROTOCOL SUMMARIZATION

RIPv2 (Routing Information Defaults to auto-summarization at major network

Protocol version 2) boundary.

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Auto-summarization can be disabled.

Gateway Routing Protocol)
Can be forced to summarize routes even when not
crossing a major boundary.

Summarization can occur at the

bit boundary.9

OSPF (Open Shortest Path Defaults to summarization off.

First)
Summarizes routes at area boundaries only.

Summarization can occur at the bit boundary.

BGP (Border Gateway Defaults to auto-summarization at a major network

Protocol) boundary.

Can be disabled.

N OT E We’re going to be talking about the three common interior classful

routing protocols here—RIPv2, EIGRP, and OSPF—even though they are not
covered in detail until subsequent chapters. The coverage is mostly conceptual
however. Don’t worry about the “how to” for now, as that is the easy part, and
will be covered in each chapter devoted to these protocols.

Network Example 1
Classfully addressed network
No summarization
Allocated IP addresses: 150.1.0.0/16, 150.2.0.0/16, 150.3.0.0/16
Figure 4-4 portrays a simple, routed network employing pre-CIDR network
addresses. Router A connects the departmental networks. Router B is a border
(edge) router connecting to the Internet. Router A has sent its route table to
router B. Note that the prefix was advertised with the route. Packets from the
Internet destined for any of the three networks will be directed to router A.
Table 4-9 shows a simplified view of router B’s route table.
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122 Chapter 4

The
Internet

150.1.0.0/16
150.1.1.1 (incoming packet)

S0
S0
150.2.0.0/16 A 200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 B

150.3.0.0/16
Figure 4-4 Network model for summarization example 1.

In this example, summarization was left at the routing protocol’s defaults.

RIPv2 and EIGRP will never summarize a classful address and OSPF will
never summarize at all until it’s told to do so. Router B therefore lists one entry
for each of the three networks it learned of.

Tracking an Incoming Packet

An incoming packet with a destination address of 150.1.1.1 arrives at router B.
Router B performs a lookup in its route table and finds a route matching the
destination address. Figure 4-5 illustrates the action in binary—the best way to
view what’s really going on when routing decisions are made.

N OT E Normally only the prefix of the address is stored in the route table. The
diagram shows the entire 32 bits of the address with the network portion in
bold for illustrative purposes only.

Table 4-9 Router B Receiving Three Routes from Router A

ROUTE TABLE FOR ROUTER B (SIMPLIFIED)

Network Mask Next Hop Interface

150.1.0.0 /16 200.1.1.5 S0

150.2.0.0 /16 200.1.1.5 S0

150.3.0.0 /16 200.1.1.5 S0

200.1.1.4 /30 Directly connected

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Dynamic Routing 123

Incoming packet (150.1.1.1)

10010110.00000001.00000001.00000001
I‘m looking for a match!

Router B’s route table in binary

11001000.00000001.00000001.00000100 (200.1.1.4/30)
10010110.00000011.00000000.00000000 (150.3.0.0 /16)
10010110.00000010.00000000.00000000 (150.2.0.0 /16)
10010110.00000001.00000000.00000000 (150.1.0.0 /16)
(Network portion of address shown in bold)
Figure 4-5 An exact match is made with network 150.1.0.0.

How Did That Match Get Made?

Let’s take a closer look at exactly how a match is made when a route table look-
up is performed. The network mask of a destination address is unknown
because the mask is not included in the IP header. Routers use an algorithm
known as longest match to perform the look-up. A bit-by-bit comparison is
performed on the destination address against each route table entry starting
with the high-order bits of the destination address and working to the right.
The algorithm locates which routing entry most closely matches the destination
address. More often than not, an explicit or exact match is made, meaning only
one entry in the route table matches the address. Because table entries only
keep the prefix of a network ID, what is considered an explicit match is only in
reference to the prefix of the network address.
In example 1, the first three entries in the table fail to make a match, even
before the entire network prefix has been compared. The final route table
entry, however, does make a match because every bit in the network portion of
the entry matches the corresponding number of high-order bits in the destina-
tion address of the incoming packet.

EXPLICIT MATCHES ARE NOT ALWAYS MADE

Although explicit matches are often made on a destination address, this is not
always the case. Sometimes two or more entries in the table may match the
address and in that case the table entry with the greatest number of matching
prefix bits is selected—thus the term longest match. The ambiguity of multiple
route table matches to an address is usually due to the use of variable length
subnet masks. Upcoming example 3 demonstrates the longest match principal
at work in a VLSM networking model.
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124 Chapter 4

Now that the match is made, router B forwards the packet out the interface
specified for the 150.1.0.0 network (S0). Router A then delivers the packet to its
directly connected interface for the destination address, using the same look-
up method.

Network Example 2
Classlessly addressed network
Summarization occurs automatically with certain protocols
Allocated IP address 150.1.0.0/21
Figure 4-6 is the same network from the previous example, except that the
organization has been assigned a CIDR address with a /21 prefix. The assign-
ing authority controls the first 21 bits of this address, but the organization can
manipulate the remaining 11 bits to tailor whatever number of subnets and
hosts per subnet it requires. The address as supplied creates a single network
address, 150.1.0.0 /21, with 2,046 hosts (211 – 2). Since the organization actually
requires several subnets capable of supporting up to 200 hosts per subnet,
the prefix is altered to /24. This modification creates the addressing scheme
reflected in Table 4-10.
The organization then implements three of the derived subnets on router B’s
connected networks by configuring the router with the three addresses using
the /24 prefix. The specifics of how this is done for each routing protocol will
be given in the chapter that covers the protocol.

The
Internet

150.1.1.0/24
150.1.1.1 (incoming packet)

S0
S0
150.1.2.0/24 A 200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 B

150.1.3.0/24
Figure 4-6 Network model for summarization example 2.
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Dynamic Routing 125

Table 4-10 Address Allocation for 150.1.0.0/24

SUBNET ADDRESS HOST ADDRESSES BROADCAST ADDRESS

150.1.0.0 /24 150.1.0.1 to 150.1.0.254 150.1.0.255

150.1.1.0 /24 150.1.1.1 to 150.1.1.254 150.1.1.255

150.1.2.0 /24 150.1.2.1 to 150.1.2.254 150.1.2.255

150.1.3.0 /24 150.1.3.1 to 150.1.3.254 150.1.3.255

150.1.4.0 /24 150.1.4.1 to 150.1.4.254 150.1.4.255

150.1.5.0 /24 150.1.5.1 to 150.1.5.254 150.1.5.255

150.1.6.0 /24 150.1.6.1 to 150.1.6.254 150.1.6.255

150.1.7.0 /24 150.1.7.1 to 150.1.7.254 150.1.7.255

Summarization at the Assignment Level

This is the first opportunity to get a look at where route summarization
begins—at the assigning level. No other router on the entire Internet, except
the routers belonging to this organization, will ever need more than a single
route table entry to reach any network in the range of 150.1.0.0 through 150.1.7.0.
The address is summarized as route table entry 150.1.0.0/21, and that is how it
will be propagated among Internet routers10. Any packet with a destination
address falling within the range of the assigned address will be directed to that
organization’s border router. The individual subnets need not be enumerated
until the packets arrive at the border.

Summarization at the Organization Level

Summarization occurs at the organizational level when a router within the
autonomous system summarizes a range of networks before advertising them.
Table 4-11 illustrates how summarization has occurred on the network in
example 2.

Table 4-11 Router B Receiving a Summarized Route from Router A

ROUTE TABLE FOR ROUTER B (SIMPLIFIED)

Network Mask Next Hop Interface

150.1.0.0 /16 200.1.1.5 S0

200.1.1.4 /30 Directly connected

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126 Chapter 4

WHEN DOES AUTO-SUMMARIZATION OCCUR?

RIPv2 and EIGRP have auto-summarization turned ON by default, but

summarization only occurs automatically in the following circumstances:
◆ The subnets are using a mask other than the classful mask for that
address.
◆ The subnets are being advertised through an interface belonging to a dif-
fering major network number.
If both these conditions are true, RIPv2 and EIGRP will auto-summarize
subnets to their classful border before advertising them. However, auto-
summarization can be turned off for both these protocols.

Router A has advertised a single route representing its three connected net-
works. It has summarized the three /24 networks to the classful border of /16.
This is the default behavior of RIPv2 and EIGRP. These two routing protocols
automatically summarize routes in certain cases. This behavior is known as
auto-summarization. OSPF on the other hand, does not auto-summarize. Any
summarization performed by OSPF must be manually configured. Let’s
assume for the purpose of this example that OSPF has been configured to sum-
marize router A’s subnets in the same manner.

What’s Wrong With This Picture?

So, everything is fine and dandy in example 2, right? A very small routing
update was sent to router B, which is economizing its own route table by list-
ing a single entry that represents all of router A’s subnets. As Figure 4-7 illus-
trates, an incoming packet will be correctly routed to router A.
In fact, if you try the same thing with any destination address in the range
of 150.1.0.1 through 150.1.7.254 router B will make a match and forward the
packet to router A.

Incoming packet (150.1.1.1)

10010110.00000001.00000001.00000001
I‘m looking for a match!

Router B’s route table in binary

10010110.00000001.00000000.00000000 (150.1.0.0 /16)
11001000.00000001.00000001.00000100 (200.1.1.4/30)
Figure 4-7 Router B makes a match with network 150.1.0.0.
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Dynamic Routing 127

The problem however, is that the summarized address listed in router B’s
route table covers the entire range of subnets of the 150.1.0.0 /16, but not all of
those subnets are configured on router A. In fact, the organization does not even
own this entire address range. These routes have been over-summarized by
router A. Setting aside the fact that router A is listing subnets it does not have
routes to, the next example illustrates how deploying additional subnets of the
150.1.0.0 /21 on another router will break routing within the organization.

Network Example 3
Classless addressing
Summarization occurs automatically with certain protocols
Routing fails due to discontiguous network
Allocated IP address 150.1.0.0/21
In Figure 4-8 additional subnets of the 150.1.0.0 /21 have been deployed with
the same /24 prefix used on router A. How will these routes be advertised to
router B? Table 4-12 shows that router B is having trouble.

The
Internet

150.1.1.0/24
150.1.1.1 (incoming packet)

S0
S0
150.1.2.0/24 A 200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 B

200.1.1.9/30 S1

150.1.3.0/24

200.1.1.10/30 S0

150.1.4.0/24 C 150.1.5.0/24
Figure 4-8 Network model for summarization example 3.
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128 Chapter 4

Table 4-12 Router A’s Attempt to Handle Two Routers Advertising the Same Address

ROUTE TABLE FOR ROUTER B (SIMPLIFIED)

Network Mask Next Hop Interface

150.1.0.0 /16 200.1.1.5 S0

150.1.0.0 /16 200.1.1.10 S1

200.1.1.4 /30 Directly connected

200.1.1.8 /30 Directly connected

Both routers A and C have advertised the same summarized network to

router B. Router B has no way of knowing that certain subnets of the 150.1.0.0
reside on router A, while other subnets of 150.1.0.0 live on router C. Figure 4-9
shows that router B can’t properly route an incoming packet bound for any
subnet of the 150.1.0.0.

Discontiguous Networks
What has been created here is a discontiguous network. A discontiguous net-
work is defined as a major network (a classful network address), being sepa-
rated by another major network. In the example, the major network 150.1.0.0 is
being separated by major network 200.1.1.0. If router B is fooled into thinking
that both paths are valid for all subnets of the 150.1.0.0, it will accept the routes
and try to load balance between the two paths. Naturally some number of
packets will find their destination network and some will not. The symptom of
the problem will be an intermittent routing problem and would be difficult to
troubleshoot.11

Incoming packet (150.1.1.1)

10010110.00000001.00000001.00000001
Uh oh. Which path is correct?

Router B’s route table in binary

10010110.00000001.00000000.00000000 (150.1.0.0 /16)
10010110.00000001.00000000.00000000 (150.1.0.0 /16)
11001000.00000001.00000001.00000100 (200.1.1.4 /30)
Figure 4-9 A match cannot be made for the incoming packet.
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Dynamic Routing 129

Incorrect summarization has caused a routing failure on this discontiguous

network. The network configuration is unworkable. There are three possible
remedies:
■■ Make the network contiguous by not crossing a major network bound-
ary. Auto-summarization does not occur unless a major network num-
ber is crossed.
■■ Disable auto-summarization on RIPv2 or EIGRP. OSPF could get into
this jam, but only if it was specifically configured to summarize in this
fashion.
■■ Configure summarization manually.12
It’s really not necessary to do anything as drastic as renumber the network, as
the first solution alludes to. The second solution would solve the problem, but
summarization would be lost. Fortunately, modern routing protocols allow sum-
marization to be performed manually—and at any bit boundary. This allows for
very flexible route summarization as demonstrated in the next section.

Manual and Bit-Level Summarization

The term manual summarization refers to changing the default settings for how
a routing protocol handles summarization. As has been demonstrated, auto-
summarization behaves in a very restricted manner and has limited usefulness.
When manually configuring summarization, more granular control can be
exerted over how the summarization occurs. To begin with, manual summa-
rization allows you to choose which network addresses will be summarized.
This can be very helpful, because summarization is not always desirable. Also,
manual summarization can be executed at the bit boundary, not just the octet
boundary. This feature allows for very fine control over which range of net-
works are summarized. Indeed, it is the feature that allows for summarization
to occur even with discontiguous networks.
Finally, manual summarization is configured at the interface level, so its
effects are on a per-interface basis. Not only can the range of addresses being
summarized be controlled, but which interfaces the summary addresses are
advertised through can be controlled.

Configuring Bit-Level Summarization

Configuring bit-level summarization is remarkably easy. All that’s required is
to identify the common high-order bits of the subnets you want to summarize.
These bits will be masked off:

10010110.00000001.00000000.00000000 (150.1.0.0 /24)

10010110.00000001.00000001.00000000 (150.1.1.0 /24)
10010110.00000001.00000010.00000000 (150.1.2.0 /24)
10010110.00000001.00000011.00000000 (150.1.3.0 /24)
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130 Chapter 4

RIPV2 CONFUSION?

RIPv2, EIGRP, and OSPF all support summarization at the bit boundary. There
are texts on routing that dispute this assertion in regards to RIPv2. But in fact,
only Cisco’s implementation of RIPv2 supports bit level summarization, and
only in IOS ver 12.1 or better.

The three networks connected to router A are shown here in binary (also
shown is 150.1.0.0 /24, because it falls within the same bit pattern range as the
other three subnets). The common bits are shown in bold. There are 22 high-
order bits in common among the addresses, thus the prefix /22 (255.255.252.0)
is the desired mask. It’s that simple. The following is an example of entering
the command for EIGRP (RIPv2 uses the same commands, but OSPF uses a
different command and syntax):

routerA(config)#int serial 0/0

routerA(config-if)#no auto-summary
routerA(config-if)#ip summary-address eigrp 1 150.1.0.0 255.255.252.013

Now only the previously specified range of adresses will be advertised! The
routes will now be summarized from router A as 150.1.1.0 /22. Note that the
commands are entered at the interface level. Only routes advertised through the
specified interface are affected by the summary command.
Now for router C. The drill is the same. The number of bits common to all
subnets of the 150.1.x.x is used as the prefix number for the mask in the ip
summary-address command:

10010110.00000001.00000100.00000000 (150.1.4.0)
10010110.00000001.00000101.00000000 (150.1.5.0)
10010110.00000001.00000110.00000000 (150.1.6.0)
10010110.00000001.00000111.00000000 (150.1.7.0)

There are 21 bits in common to the addresses, so the prefix is /21

(255.255.248.0) is used:

routerC(config)#interface serial 0/0

routerC(config-if)#no auto-summary
routerC(config-if)#ip summary-address eigrp 1 150.1.4.0 255.255.248.0

Note that the address at the beginning of the range is the one specified in the
statement. The routes will now be summarized from router B as 150.1.4.0 /21.
One notable difference for router C is that the range enclosed by the mask
encompasses more than just the two subnets connected to the router. The
remaining two subnets are also part of the summarized address because they
are within the same unique 3-bit pattern as the other subnets, even though
they are not currently in use. This demonstrates that the granularity of control
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Dynamic Routing 131

over which networks are summarized extends down to the bit boundary, but
no further. If either the 150.1.6.0 or the 150.1.7.0 network is ever used it must be
implemented at router C, or downstream of router C. Table 4-13 shows the
results on router B.
Note that the route table is now populated in such a manner as to be able to
forward packets bound for subnets of the 150.1.0.0 correctly. But don’t just take
our word for it. Let’s prove that this particular brand of madness works by
again tracing the path of an incoming packet.
In this case however the diagram for showing the incoming packet making
a match to a route table entry has been altered. A more sophisticated diagram
is required to reveal a subtle change in how a match is made when bit-level
summarization is in use, as follows:

10010110.00000001.00000001.00000001 Incoming packet

====================================================================
Route table
10010110.00000001.000000 150.1.0.0 /22 - Winner!
10010110.00000001.00000 150.1.0.0 /24
11001000.00000001.00000001.00010000 200.1.1.16 /28
11001000.00000001.00000001.00100000 200.1.1.32 /28

The Longest Match Algorithm Saves the Day

Up until now explicit matches have been made for incoming packets. In previ-
ous examples, the entire network prefix of a route table entry matched the high
order bits of the destination address. In this case however, the first entry in the
route table is declared as the correct path for the packet, even though there are
in fact two candidates for making a match. Note that the first two entries in the
route table make a match. Ambiguity has arisen! This is where the longest
match algorithm proves its worth. If the router locates more than one possible
match when performing a lookup, the entry with the longest number of matching bits
takes precedence. Indeed, if you refer back to the network diagram, forwarding
the packet through the S0 interface routes the packet correctly.
Let’s see if a packet bound for a network connected to router C is routed cor-
rectly as well.

Table 4-13 Revised Route Table after Fine-Tuning Summarization

ROUTE TABLE FOR ROUTER B (SIMPLIFIED)

Network Mask Next Hop Interface

150.1.0.0 /22 200.1.1.5 S0

150.1.4.0 /21 200.1.1.10 S1

200.1.1.4 /30 Directly connected

200.1.1.8 /30 Directly connected

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132 Chapter 4

10010110.00000001.00000100.00000001 Incoming packet

====================================================================
Route table
10010110.00000001.000000 150.1.0.0 /22
10010110.00000001.00000 150.1.0.0 /24 - Winner!
11001000.00000001.00000001.00010000 200.1.1.16 /28
11001000.00000001.00000001.00100000 200.1.1.32 /28

The correct route is chosen, and the packet is correctly forwarded out of the
serial 2 interface to router C.

Network Example 4
Classlessly addressed network with VLSMs
No summarization occurs by default due to contiguous network
Allocated IP address 150.1.0.0/24
Figure 4-10 illustrates a network model that employs VLSMs on router A. In
this model, the network also happens to be contiguous, because no major net-
work boundaries are crossed when routers advertise their route. Therefore,
RIPv2 and EIGRP won’t try to auto-summarize routes. Table 4-14 shows router
B’s route table before manual summarization is configured.

The
Internet

150.1.1.0/24
150.1.1.1 (incoming packet)

S0
S0
150.1.2.0/25 A 200.1.6.5/30 200.1.6.6/30 B

S1 200.1.6.9/30 S1

150.1.2.128/25

200.1.6.10/30 S0

150.1.4.0/24 C 150.1.5.0/24
Figure 4-10 Network model for summarization example 4.
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Dynamic Routing 133

Table 4-14 Router B’s Route Table Before Summarization

ROUTE TABLE FOR ROUTER B (SIMPLIFIED)

Network Mask Next Hop Interface

150.1.1.0 /24 150.1.6.5 S0

150.1.2.0 /25 150.1.6.5 S0

150.1.2.128 /25 150.1.6.5 S0

150.1.4.0 /24 150.1.6.5 S1

150.1.5.0 /24 150.1.6.5 S1

150.1.6.4 /30 Directly connected

150.1.6.8 /30 Directly connected

The variably subnetted networks connected to router A can easily be sum-

marized using bit-level summarization:

10010110.00000001.00000000.00000000 (150.1.0.0 /24)

10010110.00000001.00000001.00000000 (150.1.1.0 /24)
10010110.00000001.00000010.00000000 (150.1.2.0 /25)
10010110.00000001.00000010.10000000 (150.1.2.128 /25)
10010110.00000001.00000011.00000000 (150.1.3.0 /24)

As you can see, even with variable subnetting there are 22 high-order bits in
common, so the same /22 mask will be used in the summarization command
as was used in the previous example. Table 4-15 shows router B’s route table
after manually summarizing router A’s networks.

Table 4-15 Router B’s Route Table After Summarization

ROUTE TABLE FOR ROUTER B (SIMPLIFIED)

Network Mask Next Hop Interface

150.1.1.0 /22 150.1.6.5 S0

150.1.4.0 /24 150.1.6.5 S1

150.1.5.0 /24 150.1.6.5 S1

150.1.6.4 /30 Directly connected)

150.1.6.8 /30 Directly connected)

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134 Chapter 4

Router C’s subnets cannot be summarized and this fact has nothing to do
with VLSMs. Why? Note that the point-to-point links are employing a subnet ID
within the range of subnets that would be summarized at router C, which as
demonstrated in the previous example is 150.1.4.0 – 150.1.7.0. Because a subnet
within this range is configured on another router, the range is discontiguous and
cannot be summarized. Moral of the story: Plan your network addressing well.

Summary
As you can see, summarization is a powerful tool for managing routing
updates. It must be used with caution though as you need to be aware of when
summarization takes place and the range of subnets that are summarized. This
chapter covered the following:
■■ Dynamic routing protocols are used to automatically populate and
maintain route tables with the best paths to networks.
■■ A variety of routing protocols have been developed over the years. As
networks have grown in size, routing protocols have evolved to keep
up with the demands placed on them.
■■ Routing metrics help a routing protocol choose the best route when
multiple paths to the same network exist.
■■ Routing protocols are categorized by several criteria:
■■ Interior versus exterior: Used within an autonomous system or
between autonomous systems, respectfully.
■■ Distance vector versus link-state: Distance vector protocols com-
municate only with neighboring routers (routing by rumor),
whereas link-state protocols build topology maps by talking to all
routers in the area.
■■ Singlepath versus multipath: Multipath protocols can keep more
than one path to a network in the route table and optionally load
balance among the routes.
■■ Broadcast versus multicast: Some routing protocols are capable of
sending route updates using unicasts and multicasts rather than
broadcasts.
■■ Flat versus hierarchical: Some routing protocols are capable of
being configured in a hierarchical architecture to minimize routing
updates.
■■ Classful versus classless: Classful protocols have limited support
for classless addressing and no support for VLSMs or discontiguous
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Dynamic Routing 135

networks, whereas classless protocols include the subnet mask in

routing updates and therefore support VLSMs. Most classless rout-
ing protocols even support discontiguous networks via manual
summarization at the bit boundary.
■■ Routes are summarized (aggregated) in order to reduce the number of
route table entries.
■■ Summarization can be employed at both the address assignment level
and organization level.
■■ Auto-summarization is the term used when a routing protocol summa-
rizes routes by default.
■■ Auto-summarization only occurs when a router advertises a subnet of a
major network across a major network boundary.
■■ RIPv2 and EIGRP auto-summarize routes by default when a major net-
work boundary is crossed. Auto-summarization can be disabled. OSPF
must be configured to summarize.
■■ Use of route summarization on discontiguous networks must be
employed with extreme caution to avoid dropped routes or incorrectly
routed packets.
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136 Chapter 4

Notes
1. IS-IS was developed around the time OSPF was, but for several reasons
never gained wide acceptance. Therefore, it will not be covered in
this book.
2. Chapter 10 describes a facility known as redistribution, which allows
the routes learned by one routing protocol to be shared with other rout-
ing protocols.
3. Chapter 5 describes routing-loops in detail.
4. The terms network and subnet are being used simply to make it easy to
distinguish the networks that contain hosts from the WAN links con-
necting the routers.
5. OSPF sends infrequent, periodic updates as a backup mechanism to
insure that all route tables are synchronized.
6. Cisco’s implementation of RIP is multipath in that it incorporates load
balancing on multiple paths, but only if each path has the exact same
metric value (known as equal cost multipath routing).
7. Some vendor implementations allow for multipath routing.
8. Although EIGRP is not hierarchical in the strictest sense, routing
updates can be confined to specific sections of the network in a variety
of ways. See the treatment of EIGRP in Chapter 7.
9. RIPv2 only summarizes at the bit boundary with Cisco IOS 12.1 or
higher.
10. In fact, the address may be summarized even further for the majority of
the Internet, especially if the entire 150.1.0.0 was allocated to a single
ISP. This concept was explained in the CIDR section of Chapter 1.
11. In point of fact, the two erroneous entries may or may not show up in the
route table, depending on the protocol in use and how it is configured.
12. Another way to deal with the scenario would be to institute static
routes to the individual subnets. You could manually configure static
routes on the routers that would point to the discontiguous networks.
But that is defeating the purpose of dynamic routing, isn’t it?
13. The “1” in the command line refers to an autonomous system number
identifying which EIGRP process will be affected by the command and
has nothing to do with the summary-address command.
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CHAPTER

5
RIP

Overview
RIP stands for Routing Information Protocol. It is the oldest interior routing
protocol still in common use and it is widely supported. Version 2 supports
classlessly addressed networks. It is not suitable for large networks. Table 5-1
shows the basic characteristics of RIP.

Table 5-1 Routing Characteristics of RIP

Metric Hop count

Interior or Exterior? Interior

Distance vector or Link-state? Distance vector

Singlepath or Multipath? Multipath

Broadcast or Multicast? RIPv1 = broadcast; RIPv2 = multicast

Flat or Hierarchical? Flat

Classful or Classless? RIPv1 = classful; RIPv2 = classless

137
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138 Chapter 5

This chapter covers the following RIP topics:

Advantages of using RIP 138
Disadvantages of using RIP 138
RIP background 139
RIP versions 139
How RIP works 140
Advertising routes 140
Learning routes 141
What information RIP tracks about a route 141
A look at how route tables are populated by RIP 142
RIP’s Achilles heel 145
How RIP defends itself against the dreaded routing loop 146
Load balancing 153
Default routing 153
Redistribution 153
Command reference 154

Advantages of Using RIP

■■ Supported on the widest variety of networking platforms

■■ Acceptable for use in smaller networks
■■ Easy to configure
■■ Good for networks with few or no redundant paths
■■ Good for networks with similar speed network links
■■ May be the only available cross-platform routing protocol supported in
certain environments

Disadvantages of Using RIP

■■ Maximum hop count of 15 hops (can forward packets no more than 16

networks away)
■■ Prone to routing loops due to slow convergence
■■ Chatty protocol – sends entire route table periodically
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RIP 139

RIP Background
RIP was the first interior routing protocol to achieve widespread use. It is a dis-
tance vector protocol suitable for smaller systems without multiple redundant
paths to networks. While some would say RIP is more of a rotting protocol than
a routing protocol, it still sees use. Like so many other computer technologies,
RIP was created at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) in the late 1970s.
Although you may have no immediate need to understand distance vector
protocols, you should read this chapter because routing loops are covered in
the greatest detail here. It’s also good to be familiar with RIP because other
routing protocols are often compared to RIP when their various features are
explained.
RIP is based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm, which it uses to compute the
metric for a route. The algorithm uses hop count as the metric for stating the
cost to a network. Hop count is simply a value that states how many routers
(hops) a packet must pass through to arrive at the destination network. RIP
cannot take into account variables such as bandwidth, load, reliability, and
other factors that can dramatically influence the time required to deliver pack-
ets. Given a choice of two possible paths, a distance vector protocol such as
RIP will always choose the path with the lowest hop count, even though a path
with more hops may be preferable due to say, higher speed network links.1
RIP communicates via UDP port 520. RIP has an administrative distance
of 120.

RIP Versions
There are two versions of RIP. Version 1 (RIPv1) is a classful routing protocol
and therefore has only limited support for classless addressing. Classful rout-
ing protocols are not considered viable for today’s CIDR-based world, so cov-
erage of RIPv1 is limited here. There are very few networking environments
that cannot upgrade from a classful routing protocol, and where they are
employed it is likely a privately addressed, classfully addressed system
behind a NAT box or gateway of some type.
Version 2 of RIP (RIPv2), released in 1993 under RFC 2453, added several
enhancements, the most important of which was support for classless address-
ing through inclusion of the subnet mask in routing advertisements. RIPv2
therefore fully supports CIDR addresses, subnetting, VLSMs, and—with ver-
sion 12.1 or higher of the Cisco IOS—even discontiguous networks, thanks to
the inclusion of bit-level summarization.
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140 Chapter 5

RIPv2 Improvements
■■ Auto-summarization is on by default, but summarization can either be
disabled entirely, or manually configured to summarize subnets at any
bit boundary.
■■ Multicasts are used rather than broadcasts to communicate with neigh-
boring routers. RIPv2 routers listen on multicast address 224.0.0.9 for
RIPv2 updates. This reduces the processing on network hosts that don’t
care about RIP traffic (unicasts and multicasts are not processed by
other hosts once it is discovered that the MAC address does not match).
■■ RIPv2 supports simple password authentication to verify the genuine-
ness of incoming update packets.
■■ A field was added to the RIP header that allows a value to be associated
with a route known as a route tag. Route tags are used with route redis-
tribution, which is covered in Chapter 10.
■■ The next hop field was added in RIPv2 to allow better integration with
OSPF networks by potentially reducing the number of hops to an OSPF
network. This field potentially avoids routing loops because the
receiver can see if its own address is listed as the next hop.

How RIP Works

This section describes the operation of RIPv2.

Advertising Routes
When a router running RIP is first booted, it builds a route table that contains
only the directly connected networks and any statically added routes. Once
initialized, the router then broadcasts its entire route table to its immediate
neighboring routers. In RIP, a neighboring router is any router with an inter-
face sharing a common link with another router. In other words, a router one
hop away. By default, the IP implementation of RIP advertises the route table
to its neighbors every 30 seconds. A small time variance, sometimes termed
“jitter,” is introduced so that not all updates are triggered at the exact same
instant.
By default, RIP will advertise the entire route table out each interface
enabled for RIP. Individual interfaces can be configured to not propagate the
route table, yet still advertise the associated network out other interfaces. This
prevents advertising routing updates unnecessarily out interfaces with no
neighboring router (stub networks that only contain workstations).
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RIP 141

Learning Routes
RIP-enabled routers learn about networks from other RIP-enabled routers via
the advertisements just described. When a router running RIP learns of a qual-
ifying route to a network from a neighboring router it adds the route to its own
route table after first bumping the hop count by one. The router then adver-
tises the new route, along with the existing routes it is aware of, to its other
neighbors2 at a predetermined time interval. For example, let’s say a router
learns about a network x that is two hops away. That router will in effect say to
its neighboring routers; “You can get to network x by going through me. Net-
work x is three hops away.”
RIP routing updates cascade throughout the autonomous system. After
being initialized, every router in the system ultimately learns the path to every
network advertised by RIP. When a change to a network link occurs the
affected router updates its neighbors, who in turn update their neighbors, and
so on. The time it takes for all routers to learn about all routes is referred to as
convergence. When all route tables have the same information they are con-
sidered converged or normalized.
Even after the route tables have converged, RIP routers continue to broad-
cast their entire route table every 30 seconds, even if no changes take place.
This makes for a chatty protocol. The overall design of RIP (and IGRP) requires
a fair amount of bandwidth for router-to-router communications.

Information that RIP Tracks About a Route

RIP stores most of the information about each learned route in the route table.
The route table was covered in Chapter 2 on page 81. For convenience, the
information is summarized below.
The route table (also known as the forwarding database) contains the fol-
lowing information for each route:
■■ The address of the destination network (or in some cases an actual host,
which is known as host routing)
■■ The subnet mask/prefix number of the destination network
■■ The administrative distance and metric of the destination network
■■ The local interface to forward packets out of, in order to reach the
next hop
■■ The address of the next hop to reach the destination network (the
receiving interface of the next hop router)
■■ The timers running for each route
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142 Chapter 5

In Figure 5-1, RIP has learned about three routes from its neighbors. Note
that the routes all have an administrative distance value of 120, the default
value for the RIP protocol. Two of the routes are one hop away and one route
is two hops away. The only route timer displayed with the show ip route com-
mand is the invalid timer, which indicates how long since the last update was
received for the route. RIP maintains more timers than just the update timer
though. (All the timers will be covered shortly.)

N OT E Although the route table reflects the same general information

regardless of the routing protocol in use, other protocols store additional
routing information in separate databases. RIP itself was enhanced in later
versions of the Cisco IOS to store information about advertised routes that
were not installed in a separate table.

A Look at How Route Tables Are Populated by RIP

When a router is first booted, it only knows about its directly connected net-
works (and any static routes), so these will be the only entries in the route table
(see Figure 5-2). At this point, a workstation on the 192.168.10.0 network has
no chance of reaching the 192.168.20.0 or 192.168.30.0 network (assuming no
static default routes have been configured). Note that the metric—which is
simply the hop count when you’re using RIP—is 0. There are zero hops to
directly connected networks.3

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.10.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
R 200.1.1.8 [120/1] via 200.1.1.6, 00:01:05, Serial1
R 192.168.20.0 /24 [120/1] via 200.1.1.6, 00:01:05, Serial1
R 192.168.30.0 /24 [120/2] via 200.1.1.6, 00:01:05, Serial1

Figure 5-1 Route table indicates RIP routes with an “R” preceding the entry.
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RIP 143

River City Atlantic City Jersey City

192.168.10.0/24 192.168.20.0/24 192.168.30.0/24

E0 E0 E0
S1 S1
S0 S0
A
200.1.1.5/30 B
200.1.1.9/30 C
200.1.1.6/30 200.1.1.10/30

Route table for router A (simplified) Route table for router C (simplified)
network mask next hop int a/m Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.10.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0 192.168.30.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.4 /30 (direct) S1 0/0 200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S0 0/0

Route table for router B (simplified)

Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.20.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.4 /30 (direct) S0 0/0
200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S1 0/0

State of route tables when routers are first booted

(a/m = administrative distance / metric).

Figure 5-2 Route tables upon boot (no RIP traffic yet).

In Figure 5-3, router B has learned of routes from router A.

River City Atlantic City Jersey City

192.168.10.0 192.168.20.0 192.168.30.0

E0 E0 E0
S1 S1
S0 S0
A
200.1.1.5/30 B
200.1.1.9/30 C
200.1.1.6/30 200.1.1.10/30

Route table for router A (simplified) Route table for router C (simplified)
network mask next hop int a/m Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.10.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0 192.168.30.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.4 /30 (direct) S1 0/0 200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S0 0/0

Route table for router B (simplified)

Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.20.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.4 /30 (direct) S0 0/0
200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S1 0/0
192.168.10.0 /24 200.1.1.5 S0 120/1

Route table B reflects RIP advertisement from A.

Figure 5-3 Route tables after router A advertises its networks to router B.
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144 Chapter 5

Note the following:

■■ Router A sent its route table to router B. Router B has installed router
A’s networks into its route table (shown in bold).
■■ Router B also bumped the hop count for the learned network by one,
resulting in a hop count of 1.
■■ Router B ignored the advertisement about 200.1.1.4 because it already
has an entry for that network with a lower metric.
In Figure 5-4, the network has converged.
Note the following:
■■ Each router has shared its entire table with its neighbors and the neigh-
bors have done the same down the line. Every router is now aware of
every network. The network is converged.
■■ Router B has acted as a middleman, facilitating router C learning of
router A’s networks and vice versa. Router A and router C never com-
municated directly.

River City Atlantic City Jersey City

192.168.10.0 192.168.20.0 192.168.30.0

E0 E0 E0
S1 S1
S0 S0
A
200.1.1.5/30 B
200.1.1.9/30 C
200.1.1.6/30 200.1.1.10/30

Route table for router A (simplified) Route table for router C (simplified)
network mask next hop int a/m Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.10.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0 192.168.30.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.4 /30 (direct) S1 0/0 200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S0 0/0
192.168.20.0 /24 200.1.1.6 S1 120/1 192.168.10.0 /24 200.1.1.9 S0 120/2
192.168.30.0 /24 200.1.1.6 S1 120/2 192.168.20.0 /24 200.1.1.9 S0 120/1
200.1.1.8 /30 200.1.1.9 S1 120/1 200.1.1.4 /30 200.1.1.9 S0 120/1

Route table for router B (simplified)

Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.20.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.4 /30 (direct) S0 0/0
200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S1 0/0
192.168.10.0 /24 200.1.1.5 S0 120/1
192.168.30.0 /24 200.1.1.10 S1 120/1

Route tables fully populated with RIP learned routes.

Normal text = directly connected networks.

Bold = rip learned routes.

Figure 5-4 Route tables after all routers have advertised their route tables.
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RIP 145

RIP’s Achilles Heel

The RIP protocol has a major drawback. It’s prone to routing loops. A routing
loop occurs when a router accepts a route that leads back through itself. This
problem in RIP is partly due to slow convergence of the route tables after a
change occurs in the network topology and partly because no route-loop
detection mechanism is built into RIP. Slow convergence is mostly due to var-
ious timers that RIP employs that prevent excess routing update traffic. Until
the network converges, some routers may continue to advertise bad routes
because they haven’t heard the news about the failure. The misleading adver-
tisements propagate to other routers, who tend to trust what they hear from
their neighbors. A vicious circle develops.

RIP Timers that Contribute to Slow Convergence

There are a variety of timers that the RIP protocol uses for varying purposes.
The timers that influence how quickly RIP converges after a network change
are covered here. Other RIP timers will be covered shortly.

Update Timer
The update timer dictates the interval of outbound routing updates (adver-
tisements). This is when the entire route table is broadcast out of all interfaces
enabled for RIP (the broadcast address is 255.255.255.255). The default setting
for the update timer is 30 seconds on Cisco routers.

Invalid and Flush Timers

A RIP-enabled router does not keep RIP learned routes in its route tables indefi-
nitely. It relies on receiving continual updates from its neighboring routers, pro-
viding assurance that the networks are still there. If the update for one or more
networks stops, RIP assumes something has gone wrong. The last thing a router
wants to do is send packets through an invalid route, so two timers are used for
every RIP installed route to deal with this issue: an invalid timer and a flush
timer. These timers are both reset each time an update is received for the route.
The invalid timer defines how long to wait for an update before marking the
route as invalid in the route table. If no update regarding the route is received
before the invalid timer expires, the route is considered dead and is marked as
invalid in the route table and advertised with a metric of 16 (unreachable).4
This is known as route poisoning. The route continues to be advertised with
the unreachable metric until the flush timer expires. This gives the router time
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146 Chapter 5

to spread the news about the dead route. When the flush timer expires the
route is removed from the route table. The flush timer is always set higher than
the invalid timer to allow time for the invalid route to be advertised to the
neighbors. The default setting for the invalid timer is 180 seconds (six update
periods). The default setting for the flush timer is 240 seconds (60 seconds
longer than the invalid timer).
As you can see, even with route poisoning, it takes quite a while to time out
a route. The settings on the timers could be lowered, but that would increase
the amount of network bandwidth used. So what’s a routing protocol to do?
RIP is kind of between a rock and a hard spot here, so other means have been
developed to speed convergence and prevent routing loops when a change
occurs. These techniques will be covered after first explaining how routing
loops get started.

How RIP Defends Itself Against the Dreaded

Routing Loop
This section illustrates how routing loops get created, how RIP attempts to
prevent them from occurring, and how they are stopped if they do occur.

Anatomy of a Routing Loop

Figure 5-5 portrays the beginning of a routing loop. How the loop occurs will
be described and then each loop prevention technique will be explained.
A network fault has occurred between routers A and B. Here’s what’s dif-
ferent about the route tables now:
■■ The routes to the 200.1.1.4 on routers A and B have been removed from
the respective router’s route tables. Directly connected networks that
fail are removed immediately. (They are shown in the figure in strikeout
for illustrative purposes only.)
■■ Since routers A and B lost a directly connected link, any routes depend-
ing on the link are marked invalid and advertised as such (poisoned).
■■ No change has occurred on router C’s route table because C has not yet
been made aware of the problem. However, the invalid timer on router
C is running for the 192.168.10.0 and 192.168.20.0.
How did routers A and B know the link had gone down? Routers use keep-
alive packets to tell if the links to their directly connected networks are up.5
The default keep-alive period is 10 seconds. So after a short grace period, both
router A and router B detected that the link to the 200.1.1.4 was down and
removed the associated network from their respective route tables.
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River City Atlantic City Jersey City

192.168.10.0 192.168.20.0 192.168.30.0

E0 E0 E0
S1
S1 S0 S0
A B
200.1.1.9/30 C
200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 200.1.1.10/30

Route table for router A (simplified) Route table for router C (simplified)
network mask next hop int a/m Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.10.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0 192.168.30.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.4 /30 (direct) S1 0/0 200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S0 0/0
192.168.20 /24 200.1.1.6 S1 120/1 192.168.10.0 /24 200.1.1.9 S0 120/2
192.168.30 /24 200.1.1.6 S1 120/2 192.168.20.0 /24 200.1.1.9 S0 120/1
200.1.1.8 /30 200.1.1.9 S1 120/1 200.1.1.4 /30 200.1.1.9 S0 120/1

Route table for router B (simplified)

Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.20.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.4 /30 (direct) S0 0/0
200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S1 0/0
192.168.10.0 /24 200.1.1.5 S0 120/1
192.168.30.0 /24 200.1.1.10 S1 120/1

Ten seconds after WAN link went down.

Normal text = directly connected networks.

Bold = RIP learned routes.
Strikeout = removed from table.
Gray = routes marked as invalid.

Figure 5-5 Trouble in River City. The WAN link joining routers A and B went down 10
seconds ago.

Additionally, the RIP-learned routes that depended on the downed link are
no longer good, so they are marked invalid immediately without even waiting
for the invalid timer to expire. The routes are not removed from the table
though. Those entries will be advertised along with the rest of the route table
with an unreachable metric of 16 until the flush timer expires.
Meanwhile, router C has no clue what’s going on. The RIP learned entries
on router C are timing out normally because router C has no knowledge of the
downed link at this point. Let’s review the timers:
■■ RIP routers expect to receive routing updates periodically. The default
period is 30 seconds.
■■ A router will wait for six update periods (180 seconds) to get an adver-
tisement from a neighbor about each route in its table and then mark
the route as invalid. This is controlled by the invalid timer. If the invalid
timer expires, the routes will be advertised as unreachable until the
flush timer expires.
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■■ The flush timer always runs longer than the invalid timer to give the
router time to advertise the invalid routes before they are removed from
the router’s route tables. The flush timer is set to 240 seconds, so the flush
timer expires 60 seconds after the invalid timer. Once the flush timer
expires the invalid routes are removed and never advertised again. This
action has a cascading effect. An invalid and flush timer is running on all
routers for each route listed in their tables. As the invalid and flush
timers expire, routes are removed from each route table and no longer
advertised. Ultimately, every router removes the route and stops adver-
tising the route, and the route tables are considered converged.
So, except for the downed link, everything is OK, right? The invalid and
flush timers keep the routers “honest,” and after a while router C will dump the
dead routes. Right? Wrong. Without additional rules to handle this outage, RIP
will get into deep trouble very quickly by creating a routing loop. The problem
is with router C which still has an entry in its route table listing routes to the
200.1.1.4 and 192.168.10.0 through router B, which of course are now invalid.
Router B has marked the routes invalid but before router B can notify its neigh-
bors in its regular 30 second update, router C sends a periodic update to router
B, telling it about the routes that B thought were dead. Router B, thinking it has
a new path to the missing networks, accepts the updates from router C and incre-
ments the metrics for each network by one. This is reflected in Figure 5-6.
Here’s what’s different about router B’s route table now:
■■ Router B now lists a RIP learned route to the 200.1.1.4 via serial 1 with a
metric of 2.
■■ Router B now lists a RIP learned route to the 192.168.10.0 via serial 1
with a metric of 3.
Here is where things go from bad to worse as a routing loop is inadvertently
created. Router B has replaced the invalid routes to the 192.168.10.0 and
200.1.1.4 with routes to the same networks via router C. Router B erroneously
thinks the way to these networks is through router C, and router C still thinks
the way to the networks is through router B! Without the safeguards in place
(which will be discussed in a moment), RIP is too dumb to see what it has
done. Every time router B receives a packet bound for the 192.168.10.0 it will
forward it to router C. Every time router C receives a packet bound for the
192.168.10.0 it will forward it to router B! The two routers will do nothing
except ping-pong the packets back and forth to each other. That’s a basic rout-
ing loop.
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River City Atlantic City Jersey City

192.168.10.0 192.168.20.0 192.168.30.0

E0 E0 E0

S1 S0 S1
S0
A B
200.1.1.9/30 C
200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 200.1.1.10/30

Route table for router A (simplified) Route table for router C (simplified)
network mask next hop int a/m Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.10.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0 192.168.30.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
192.168.20 /24 200.1.1.6 S1 120/1 200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S0 0/0
192.168.30 /24 200.1.1.6 S1 120/2 192.168.10.0 /24 200.1.1.9 S0 120/2
200.1.1.8 /30 200.1.1.9 S1 120/1 192.168.20.0 /24 200.1.1.9 S0 120/1
200.1.1.4 /30 200.1.1.9 S0 120/1

Route table for router B (simplified)

Network mask next hop int a/m
192.168.20.0 /24 (direct) E0 0/0
200.1.1.8 /30 (direct) S1 0/0
192.168.30.0 /24 200.1.1.10 S1 120/1
200.1.1.4 /30 200.1.1.8 S1 120/2
192.168.10.0 /24 200.1.1.8 S1 120/3

30 seconds after WAN link went down.

Router B has been given an invalid path to the 192.168.10.0
and the 200.1.1.4 by router C.

Normal text = directly connected networks

Bold = RIP learned routes
Gray = routes marked as invalid
Italics = RIP learned routes router B just learned about from router C

Figure 5-6 The route tables 30 seconds after the WAN link has gone down (no routing
loop safeguards in place).

Measures to Prevent Routing Loops

Several methods of speeding convergence and avoiding routing loops are built
into RIP. The following list enumerates the routing loop prevention techniques
built into most distance vector routing protocols:
■■ Maintain only the best route (lowest metric)
■■ Time out directly connected routes immediately upon failure
■■ Route poisoning
■■ Hold-down timer
■■ Split horizon
■■ Triggered updates
■■ Poison reverse
■■ Maximum hop count (limits the “counting-to-infinity” syndrome to
15 hops)
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ROUTING LOOPS OCCUR FOR MANY REASONS

Don’t conclude that the scenario being described here is the only way routing
loops are created. They can happen for a number of reasons even with routing
protocols relatively immune from loops, like EIGRP and OSPF, if they are not
configured correctly. For example, two trouble spots for routing loops are
misconfigured redistribution and incorrectly architected OSPF areas. These
issues are discussed in the relevant chapters.

Installing only the routes with the lowest metric not only speeds routing,
but since the fewest number of routers are used in the path, there are simply
fewer things to go wrong. Routing metrics are a critical function of any routing
protocol and will be covered in detail later in the chapter. The concepts of tim-
ing out directly connected routes as soon as the keep-alives detect a dead link
and poisoning the route were covered earlier in the scenario. Let’s turn our
attention to the remaining items on the list.

Hold-Down Timer
One mechanism that helps stabilize route tables and avoid looped routes is the
hold-down timer. The rule for the hold-down timer says this: “Once an entry
in a route table is updated (added, changed, or deleted), ignore any updates
about the route until the hold-down timer expires.” The default value of the
hold-down timer for RIP is 180 seconds.
The hold-down timer acts as a buffer when network conditions are chang-
ing rapidly. Suppose, for example, the link previously shown in Figure 5-5 was
down because of a loose connection. As the connection engages and disen-
gages, the line goes up and down. If it were not for the hold-down timer, a
large amount of network traffic would be created as RIP propagates broad-
casts saying first that the link is up, then down, then up, and so on. This activ-
ity is known as route flapping. The hold-down timer will “freeze” the route in
its current status in the route table even though RIP advertisements may say
the status is otherwise. When the timer expires, the router will start paying
attention to updates once again.
The hold-down timer would help in the example under study. It would have
probably prevented router B from accepting the faulty routes from router C.
Once router B’s path to the routes had been altered, the hold-down timer
would have prevented router B from accepting the update from router C. That
would have given router B time enough to notify router C about the bad routes
in its routine 30 second updates.
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Split Horizon
While the hold-down timer is helpful, it is by no means a foolproof mechanism
for preventing routing loops. Take the advertisement of the 192.168.10.0 for
example. Router B originally learned about the the 192.168.10.0 network from
router A. Router C learned about the same network from router B. The loop
was created because router C kept sending its entire route table to router B,
including a claim that router C new how to reach the 192.168.10.0. The inclu-
sion of this network was unnecessary and in fact wrong, because router C had
no other path to the 192.168.10.0.
Advertising a route back to the router that told you about the route in the
first place is a mistake. What’s really needed is a rule that says: Never advertise
a route back through the link you learned the route from. With this rule, a router
would never include a route in an update to a neighbor that had already
advertised the route. On the other hand, the router would definitely include
the route in advertisements to any other neighbors. Well, they made just such
a rule. It’s called split horizon. Split horizon is a simple loop-prevention tech-
nique that would have prevented the routing loop shown in Figure 5-6 from
ever occurring. With the split horizon rule in place, router C would not have
tried to tell router B about 200.1.1.4 or 192.168.10.0, because router B told it
about those routes in the first place.
With split horizon in place router C still thinks it has a path to the
192.168.10.0, but at least it has not tried to convince router B of the same.

Triggered Updates
As things stand right now in the example (previously shown in Figure 5-6),
router B will be notifying router C of the invalid routes in the next route
update by setting the metric to 16, also known as route poisoning. Route poi-
soning occurs until the flush timer expires.

SPLIT HORIZON: FRIEND OR FOE?

There are times when split horizon may backfire and prevent propagation of
routes on the network. In certain configurations, it is actually necessary for a
router to advertise a route back out of the same interface it learned the route
on. This happens often with frame-relay networks where multiple logical
networks attach to one physical router interface (using sub-interfaces). If the
router does not advertise a route learned from one logical network back out
the same interface to the other logical networks, the route tables of one or
more routers will not be fully populated.
See the command reference later in this chapter for information about how
to manually enable and disable split horizon.
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To speed convergence, a complementary rule to route poisoning called trig-

gered updates (also known as flash updates) makes route poisoning even
more efficacious. Router B is not going to wait around for the normal 30-sec-
ond periodic update period to tell router C about the poisoned route. The trig-
gered updates rule will force router B to trigger a route update immediately
(with a small random delay), ignoring the 30-second timer. Triggered updates
include only the information about the changed route. Again, convergence is
the name of the game, so it’s worth creating some traffic to spread this impor-
tant news.
Triggered updates are so helpful that they are in fact used whenever a
change occurs in the network topology.

Poison Reverse
The drive toward rapid convergence does not stop with hold-down timers,
route poisoning, split horizon, and triggered updates however. Another rule
has been developed called poison reverse. The poison reverse rule says that
any router that knows of a poisoned route learned through one interface and
learns about the same route through another interface, will immediately
advertise the route back out of that interface with a metric of 16, thus inform-
ing its neighboring router that the route is dead. In effect, this is a temporary
suspension of the split horizon rule that helps speed convergence.
By the way, the poison reverse rule is so closely tied with the split horizon
rule, the rules are often stated together as “split horizon with poison reverse.”

Hop Count
A last-ditch mechanism for preventing routing loops in RIP is to limit the num-
ber of times a packet can traverse routers. RIP has a hop count limit of 15,
meaning a packet can be forwarded through only 15 routers before it is dis-
carded. Each RIP router receiving a packet increasing the hop count by 1. The
fifteenth router receiving the packet will discard it unless it is addressed to a
directly connected network.

LIMITING PACKET LIFE AT LAYER 3

While RIP has its own method of limiting the life of a routing packet, there is
also a routing protocol-independent means of detecting that a packet has been
on a network for too long. It is the TTL (Time to Live) field in the IP header. The
TTL field is set to a positive value by the sender, then each router along the way
decrements the TTL field by 1. If the value of the TTL field reaches 0, the packet
is discarded and the host sends an ICMP message back to the originating host.
The TTL is originally set anywhere from 32 to 256, depending on the type of
host initiating communications.
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Packets bouncing around a network in perpetuity when running a distance

vector routing protocol is referred to as counting to infinity. RIP sets “infin-
ity” at 15 hops.

Load Balancing
Although there are no provisions for load balancing in the RFC for RIP, Cisco’s
implementation of IP RIP allows for automatic load balancing across equal cost
paths (each route to the same network must have the same metric). By default,
RIP will keep up to four equal cost paths in the route table and forward traffic
through each of them. Two to six equal cost paths may be manually configured.

Default Routing
Default routing is covered in detail in Chapter 10 along with configuration
commands. Notations pertaining specifically to RIP are included here.
RIP supports both commands for creating default routes: the ip route com-
mand and the ip default-network command. As a general rule, use the ip
route command to set a default route on the current router that is not to be
propagated to other routers, and use the ip default-network command to set
a default route on the current router that is also propagated as a candidate
default route to all other RIP routers in the system.
The ip route command creates a static default route that uses a wildcard for-
mat of 0.0.0.0 in the statement. When you’re using the command specify the IP
address of the next hop router interface rather than the local interface name
(like “e0”) in the statement, or the route may be propagated anyway.
The ip default-network command will always propagate a candidate
default route, as well as install a default route on the current router. Unlike
some other protocols, the network specified in the statement need not be listed
on a router to accept the default route, because RIP propagates the default
route as network 0.0.0.0.
Use the examples provided in Chapter 10 to configure default routing for RIP.

Redistribution
RIP is capable of including static and externally learned routes in its updates—
in other words, redistribution. Chapter 10 provides general information on
redistribution. Examples of configuring RIP for redistribution are covered in
the following command reference for RIP.
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154 Chapter 5

Command Reference—RIP
Figure 5-7 provides a network model for the configuration of RIP. The exam-
ples will cover configuring RIP on a Cisco router.

Initial Configuration
An initial configuration of the routers will be performed and the route tables
will be shown before the RIP routing protocol is configured.

Configuring the IP Addresses

IP addresses are assigned on a per-interface basis with the ip address com-
mand, as follows:

routerA#configure terminal
routerA(config)#interface fastethernet 0 (1)
routerA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0 (2)
routerA(config-if)#exit (3)
routerA(config)#interface serial 1 (4)
routerA(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.5 255.255.255.252 (5)
routerA(config-if)#exit
routerA(config)#

routerB#configure terminal
routerB(config)#interface fastethernet 0
routerB(config-if)#ip address 192.168.21.0 255.255.255.0
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#interface serial 0
routerB(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.6 255.255.255.252
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#interface serial 1
routerB(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.9 255.255.255.252 (6)
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#
routerC#configure terminal
routerC(config)#interface fastethernet 0
routerC(config-if)#ip address 192.168.31.0 255.255.255.0
routerC(config-if)#exit

River City Atlantic City Jersey City

192.168.10/24 192.168.20.0/24 192.168.30.0/24

E0 E0 E0
S1 S1
S0 S0
A
200.1.1.5/30 B
200.1.1.9/30 C
200.1.1.6/30 200.1.1.10/30
Figure 5-7 Example network for commands.
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RIP 155

routerC(config)#interface serial 0
routerC(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.10 255.255.255.252
routerC(config-if)#exit
routerC(config)#

(1) Change to interface E0.

(2) Configure the address with a /24 prefix.
(3) Exit interface mode back to global configuration mode.
(4) Change to interface S1.
(5) First subnet of 200.1.1.0 /30.
(6) Second subnet of 200.1.1.0 /30.

Route Tables Before RIP Is Configured

Figures 5-8, 5-9, and 5-10 reflect the state of the route tables before RIP is
configured.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.10.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1

Figure 5-8 Router A – before RIP is configured.

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.20.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1

Figure 5-9 Router B before RIP is configured.

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156 Chapter 5

routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.30.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0

Figure 5-10 Router C before RIP is configured.

Configure RIP
The configuration of RIP is fairly straightforward. The router rip command
enables RIP on the router—once enabled, it is mostly a matter of specifying
which networks to advertise, via the network x.x.x.x command, as follows:

routerA(config)#router rip (1)

routerA(config-router)#network 192.168.10.0 (2)
routerA(config-router)#network 200.1.1.4 (3)
routerA(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0 (4)
routerA(config-router)#exit
routerA(config)#

routerB#config-term
routerB(config)#router rip
routerB(config-router)#network 192.168.20.0
routerB(config-router)#network 200.1.1.4
routerB(config-router)#network 200.1.1.8
routerB(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0
routerB(config-router)#exit
routerB(config)#

routerC#config-term
routerC(config)#router rip
routerC(config-router)#network 192.168.30.0
routerC(config-router)#network 200.1.1.8
routerC(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0
routerC(config-router)#exit
routerC(config)#
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RIP 157

(1) Enable RIP on this router (router no rip disables RIP).

(2) Include network in RIP advertisements. All interfaces with an
address configured within the range of this address will send and
receive routing updates.
(3) Include network in RIP advertisements. All interfaces with an
address configured within the range of this address will send and
receive routing updates.
(4) Suppress routing advertisements on this interface.
Notice that the network x.x.x.x command does two things. It both advertises
the specified network and enables advertising the route through any interfaces
configured with an address within range of the specified network. For exam-
ple, if three subnets of 172.1.0.0 /16 are configured on three separate interfaces
of a router, then the statement network 172.1.0.0 would enable advertising any
subnets of 172.1.0.0 through all three interfaces.
The dual behavior of the network x.x.x.x command gives rise to the passive-
interface command. Each router in the example network (shown in Figure 5-11)
had to have a network 192.168.x.0 statement issued in order to advertise the
network. However, these are stub networks—there are no neighboring routers
on the Ethernet networks—thus, there’s no need to advertise the routes
through the Ethernet interfaces. The passive-interface command suppresses
route advertisements through the specified interface, while still allowing the
route associated with the interface to be propagated out of any other RIP
enabled interfaces.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.10.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
R 200.1.1.8 [120/1]via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1
R 192.168.20.0 /24 [120/1]via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1
R 192.168.30.0 /24 [120/2]via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1

Figure 5-11 Router A after RIP is configured.

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158 Chapter 5

Route Tables After RIP Is Configured

Figures 5-11, 5-12, and 5-13 show how the route tables look after RIP has been
configured and the tables have normalized.

Common RIP Commands

Here are examples of some of the more commonly used commands for config-
uring RIP.

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.20.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
R 192.168.10.0 /24 [120/1]via 200.1.1.5, 00:00:05, Serial1
R 192.168.30.0 /24 [120/1]via 200.1.1.10, 00:00:05, Serial1

Figure 5-12 Router B after RIP is configured.

routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.30.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
R 200.1.1.4 [120/1]via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0
R 192.168.20.0 /24 [120/1]via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0
R 192.168.10.0 /24 [120/2]via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0

Figure 5-13 Router C after RIP is configured.

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RIP 159

Setting the RIP Version

RIP defaults to sending version 1 updates and receiving version 1 or version 2
updates. The statement version 2 forces RIP to send and receive version 2
updates exclusively. This is a global command that affects all interfaces. Exe-
cuting the version 2 command on every RIP router is all that is necessary to
enable RIPv2 and thus enjoy all its benefits such as classless addressing sup-
port. Here’s how:

routerX(config)#router rip
routerX(config-router)#version x (1)

where:
(1) x = 1 or 2
In the rare case where more granular control is required, the RIP version can
be set at the interface level. Since routers configured for version 2 of RIP ignore
RIP version 1 updates, a specific interface could be set to accept version 1
advertisements if say, one router was still using RIPv1. Here’s how:

routerX(config)#int e0

routerX(config-if)#ip rip send version 1

routerX(config-if)#ip rip receive version 1

If need be, the interface level RIP commands could be used to advertise
and/or receive both versions of RIP updates, like this:

routerX(config)#int e1

routerX(config-if)#ip rip send version 1 2

routerX(config-if)#ip rip receive version 1 2

Displaying the RIP Version

routerX(config)#show ip protocols

Changing Default Timers

Most RIP timers can be altered from their default settings. Care should be
taken when changing a timer, and it is best to match any changes on all RIP
routers in the system.
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The format of command is as follows:

routerX(config-router)#timers basic update invalid holddown flush x (1)

where:
(1) x = number of seconds
For example:

routerX(config)#router rip

routerX(config-router)#timers basic 60 180 180 240 (2)

where:
(2) doubles the length of time between routing updates from 30 to
60 seconds and maintains all other timers at default.

Load Balancing—Changing the Default Number of Multiple Paths

The Cisco implementation of RIP defaults to load balancing up to four equal
cost paths. This can be altered with the following command:

RouterX(config)#router rip

RouterX(config-router)#Maximum-paths x (1)

where:
(1) x = (1-6)

Enabling and Disabling Split Horizon

Split horizon is on by default for most configurations, but may be off by default
on serial interfaces and/or sub-interfaces. You can check the status of split hori-
zon on a particular interface with the show ip interface x command. For exam-
ple, to see the status of split horizon on serial 0, execute the following:

routerX(config)#show ip interface s 0

Scan the output for the statement “Split horizon is enabled” or “Split hori-
zon is disabled.” Split horizon can be forcibly enabled or disabled on an inter-
face level with the following command:

routerX(config-if)#{no} ip split-horizon
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RIP 161

Configuring Summarization
Auto-summarization is on by default for both RIPv1 and RIPv2 when adver-
tising a route across a major network boundary. This behavior cannot be
altered for RIPv1. Auto-summarization can be disabled for RIPv, and can
optionally be configured to summarize at any bit boundary. (Summarization
was covered in Chapter 4.) Here is an example of the command syntax for RIP:

routerX(config)#interface s0

routerX(config-if)#no auto-summary (1)

routerX(config-if)#ip summary-address rip 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 (2)

where:
(1) disables auto-summarization on specified interface only.
(2) summarizes advertised subnets of the 192.168.1.0 on this interface to a
class C boundary.

Configuring for the IP Classless Feature

The ip classless command is explained in Chapter 10. This command should
be executed if default routing is configured. The command to enable classless
routing is the same for all routing protocols:

routerX(config)#router rip
routerX(config-router)#ip classless

As of Cisco IOS 12.1, classless routing is enabled by default.

Redistribution
The general principals of redistribution are covered in Chapter 10. Listed here
is a sample configuration of redistributing IRGP routes into RIP (redistribution
is OFF by default in RIP):

routerX(config)#router rip

routerX(config-router)#redistribute igrp 100 tag 1

routerX(config-router)#default-metric 10

The key to including external routes in RIP is to get the metric right. RIP can
only deal with a metric in the range of 1–15. The metrics of other routing pro-
tocols have significantly larger values. Values larger than 15 are treated as
unreachable networks in RIP.
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162 Chapter 5

The redistribute igrp 100 tag 1 statement causes IGRP update packets to be
injected into the RIP process. An assumption is made that IGRP is running on
the same router. RIP will include any IGRP-learned networks with its regular
updates. All IGRP routes will be tagged with the number 1. This allows other
routers to identify the IGRP injected routes if need be. The default-metric 10
statement applies a metric of 10 to all injected routes. This is mandatory
because IGRP metrics make no sense to RIP. The number “10” in this case is
arbitrary. The IGRP-learned networks are not necessarily 10 hops away, but
that does not prevent the delivery of packets. To mitigate the possibility of a
routing loop, use a metric value greater than the metric of any IGRP routes that
RIP is also aware of. In other words, if both IGRP and RIP are aware of a route
to 172.1.0.0, then RIP will become aware of the route again when the IGRP
routes are redistributed into RIP. The external route should be set to a metric
less than the current metric RIP has for the route it learned from another RIP
router. This will force RIP to choose the routes it learned directly over the
external IGRP routes.

Alternative Method of Applying a Metric to Redistributed Routes

The redistribute command provides an option for applying a metric to just the
IGRP injected routes, as follows:

routerX(config)#router rip
routerX(config-router)#redistribute igrp 100 tag 1 metric 10

These statements have the same effect as the previous example, except that
they apply only to IGRP-injected routes, whereas the default-metric statement
in the previous example applies to any protocol being redistributed into RIP.
This provides for more granular control over the redistribution process.

Redistributing Static Routes

Static routes configured on a RIP router can be included in routing updates.
The following command causes all static routes to be included in updates on
the router it is executed on:

routerX(config)#router rip
routerX(config-router)#redistribute static

Be advised that static default routes are configured slightly different (see
Chapters 3 and 10).

Filtering Redistributed Routes with a Distribution List

Although distribution lists and access lists are not covered in this book, an
example of how they are pertinent to redistribution is given here. The follow-
ing statements prevent any subnets of 190.100.100 from being redistributed
from IGRP into RIP:
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RIP 163

routerX(config)#access-list 1 deny 190.100.100.0 0.0.0.255

routerX(config)#router igrp 100
routerX(config-router)#distribute-list 1 out
routerX(config-router)#exit
routerX(config)#router rip
routerX(config-router)#redistribute igrp 100

A distribution list allows you to control which external routes the native
routing process learns about. An access list must be created that specifies
which networks will be permitted or denied. In this example, the access-list
statement denies any subnets of the 192.100.100.0. Until the access list is
applied somewhere, the distribution list is meaningless. The router igrp 100
statement accesses the IGRP routing process. Then the access list is applied to
outgoing routing updates in the form of an outbound distribution list with the
statement distribute-list 1 out. IGRP will now be prevented from advertising
this network from this router. Finally, the redistribute igrp 100 statement
injects IGRP updates into RIP (minus network 190.100.100.0).
Be advised that this example prevents IGRP from advertising the
190.100.100.0 network to anybody, not just RIP. However, this does not prevent
other IGRP processes on other routers to propagate the network throughout
the IGRP system.

Show Commands for RIP

Here are a few of the common commands for displaying the state of a RIP router.

Showing the Configuration

The following command shows all routing protocols, RIP timers, filters, redis-
tribution, version, and summarization status:

routerA#Show ip protocols

Showing the RIP Database

The following command shows all information learned from updates, before
the algorithm is run to populate route tables:

routerA#show ip rip database

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164 Chapter 5

Showing the Route Table

The following shows static, directly connected, and RIP learned routes:

routerA#show ip route (shows all routes)

routerA#show ip route xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx (1)

where:
(1) shows all Routes.
(2) shows more detail for a single route.

Troubleshooting Commands
If you get into trouble, these commands can help get you out.

Showing RIP Updates

The debug ip rip command shows the actual routing updates. This is a great
way to get a sense of how RIP communicates with routers and is indispensable
when things aren’t going right. Care should be taken with this command how-
ever, as it consumes router resources.

Activating Debugging
Use the following command to activate debugging:

routerA#debug ip rip

Showing Debug Status

Use the following command to show the debugging status:

routerA#show debug

Stopping Debugging
Use the following command to stop debugging:

routerA#undebug all
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Notes
1. This characteristic was illustrated in Chapter 4, in the section on dis-
tance vector routing protocols, page 109.
2. The term “neighbor” has various meanings, depending on the specific
routing protocol. EIGRP and OSPF require an initial exchange between
routers to establish a neighbor relationship and share route tables. RIP,
however, rather blindly broadcasts updates without prior knowledge of
who may be out there. Every RIP router sharing a network link on an
interface enabled for RIP is automatically considered a neighbor.
3. The command reference later in this chapter lists the configuration com-
mands and actual router output for this model.
4. RIP cannot forward packets more than 15 hops away, therefore adver-
tising a route with a metric of 16 is telling other routers the route cannot
be used.
5. Routers can also detect the loss of a carrier on some types of WAN
links, which is an even faster indication that the link has gone down.
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CHAPTER

6
IGRP

Overview
IGRP stands for Interior Gateway Routing Protocol. It is one of the early
replacements for RIP that eliminated the hop count limitation and used more
robust metrics. It provides the same limited support for classlessly addressed
networks as RIP. It is a Cisco-proprietary protocol. In its time, IGRP provided
a good solution, but now it should be replaced by the classless protocols
EIGRP or OSPF. Table 6-1 shows the basic characteristics of IGRP.

Table 6-1 Routing Characteristics of IGRP

Metric Bandwidth + delay

Interior or Exterior? Interior

Distance vector or Link-state? Distance vector

Singlepath or Multipath? Multipath

Broadcast or Multicast? Broadcast and unicast

Flat or Hierarchical? Flat

Classful or Classless? Classful

167
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168 Chapter 6

This chapter covers the following IGRP topics:

Advantages of using IGRP 168
Disadvantages of using IGRP 168
IGRP background 169
How IGRP works 170
IGRP timers 170
Split horizon 171
Poison reverse 171
IGRP metrics 171
Autonomous numbers 173
Load balancing 173
Default routing 174
Redistribution 175
Route summarization 175
Command reference 175

Advantages of Using IGRP

■■ Acceptable for use in smaller, classfully addressed networks

■■ Easy to configure
■■ Good for networks with few redundant paths
■■ Good for networks with varying speed WAN links
■■ Better metrics than RIP
■■ No hop count limitation
■■ Can unicast route table
■■ Composite metric composed of more than hop count

Disadvantages to Using IGRP

■■ Proprietary to Cisco IOS—must employ all Cisco routers to avoid hav-

ing to run multiple routing protocols
■■ Prone to routing loops due to slow convergence
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IGRP 169

■■ Chatty protocol—sends entire route table periodically

■■ Has limited support for classlessly addressed networks

IGRP Background
IGRP is a proprietary classful routing protocol developed by Cisco to replace
RIPv1. It was released in 1986. IGRP runs only on Cisco routers. IGRP
attempted to overcome RIPv’s limitations such as using hop count for the met-
ric and transmitting the route table every 30 seconds. IGRP is considered a dis-
tance vector protocol for use within autonomous systems (as is RIP).
Rather than hop count, IGRP uses the bandwidth of the link and delay of the
link to calculate the metric. Additionally, an administrator can add load of the
link and reliability of the link to the metric (these terms were defined in Chap-
ter 4 on page 107).
IGRP can even be optionally configured for hop count and MTU (Maximum
Transmission Unit), but these factors are not incorporated into the metric. Hop
count is used only to set a limit on counting to infinity problems. The hop count
can be manually configured for up to 255 hops—the default is 100 hops. The
MTU is a setting identifying the maximum MTU that can be handled by any
networking device in the system. It is desirable to set an MTU no larger than
the smallest MTU of any link on the network. This prevents routing update
packets from being fragmented and thus improves throughput.
IGRP has more in common with RIPv1 than any other routing protocol. It is
therefore recommend that you read Chapter 5 even if you have no intention of
working with that protocol. Chapter 5 goes into detail about how distance vec-
tor protocols propagate routes and how routing loops are handled. Table 6-2
illustrates the difference between IGRP and RIP.

Table 6-2 IGRP versus RIP Comparison Chart

FEATURE RIPV1 RIPV2 IGRP

Broadcasts entire table Yes Yes Yes

Hop count for metric Yes Yes No

Supports subnet masks No Yes No

Equal-cost multipath routing Yes Yes Yes

Unequal-cost multipath routing No No Yes

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170 Chapter 6

Because IGRP is a classful routing protocol, it does not support subnet

masks, so it cannot fully support classless addressing. IGRP can support
unequal-cost multipath routing. It was noted in Chapter 5 that only the Cisco
implementation of RIP supports multipath routing. But even then, only equal-
cost multipath routing is supported in RIP—meaning multiple paths to the
same destination can be shared for load balancing only if the metric is the same
for each path. With IGRP’s unequal-cost multipath routing capability, multiple
paths to the same destination will be installed in the route table even if the
metrics are not all the same value.

How IGRP Works

IGRP behaves much like RIP when it comes to learning and propagating
routes. IGRP transmits the entire route table periodically to neighboring
routers. As with RIP, routes are learned from neighboring routers, who in turn
share routes they have learned from their neighbors (routing by rumor). By
default, IGRP uses broadcasts to propagate routing update packets, but like
RIPv2, the protocol can be configured to send unicast updates (see the com-
mand reference at the end of the chapter).

IGRP Timers
IGRP has timers similar to RIP that control route propagation and limit rout-
ing loops. However, as Table 6-3 illustrates, the values for these timers are
quite different for IGRP.

Table 6-3 Comparison Chart of RIP versus IGRP Timers

TIMER RIP IGRP

Update timer 30 90
Invalid timer 180 270

Flush timer 240 630

Hold-down timer 180 280

As you can see, IGRP is not nearly as chatty as RIP. Saving network band-
width is a good thing. But what keeps IGRP from slipping in the convergence
department? IGRP implements flash updates. When a router learns of a
change to a route (link down, new route, different metric for an existing route,
and so on), it immediately sends an update to its neighbors. Flash updates are
similar to RIP’s triggered updates. In earlier releases of the Cisco IOS, IGRP’s
flash updates were triggered by a wider variety of events than RIP, but RIP
convergence has been improved in later releases of the IOS.
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IGRP 171

Split Horizon
As with RIP, IGRP usually does not advertise a route back through the same
interface the route learned. However, the same cautions regarding Frame
Relay apply here, namely that split horizon may need to be disabled on Frame
Relay sub-interfaces.

Poison Reverse
This feature works the same as with RIP.

IGRP Metrics
IGRP calculates a metric for a route differently than RIP. Stated in its simplest
form, with default values, the formula for the algorithm is shown in Figure 6-1
This formula reduces to a single value based on the assignments for band-
width and delay shown in Table 6-4.

Table 6-4 Assignments for Bandwidth and Delay Metrics

LINK TYPE BANDWIDTH (IN KBPS) DELAY (IN MICRO-SECONDS)

Ethernet 10,000 1000

Fast Ethernet 100,000 100

Gigabit Ethernet 1,000,000 10

FDDI 100,000 100

Token Ring
(16 Mbps) 16,000 630

T1 1544 20,000

The values from the table are manipulated to render the actual metric. Let’s
take the example of a route passing through two WAN links: one link is FDDI
and one link is T1. The algorithm first divides 10,000,000 by the slowest link
in the path, then adds the result to the sum of the delay values for each link,
and divides by 10. The slowest link in this example is the T1 link, so the for-
mula looks as the one shown in Figure 6-2.

Bandwidth + Delay
Figure 6-1 Basic formula for metric calculation in IGRP.
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172 Chapter 6

(10,000,000 / Bandwidth) + ((sum of delays) /10)

(10,000,000/1,544) + ((20,000+100) /10)
6477 + 2,010
8487
Figure 6-2 Calculating the metric.

The metric yielded is 84871. This number can be compared to IGRP metrics
derived from other routes to the same destination. The path with the lowest
number will be chosen by IGRP as the best route. Note that delay values
include outbound interfaces only.
Bandwidth and delay metrics can be modified from their default values if
required. These factors can be adjusted on Cisco routers with the metric
weight command. The metric formula is adjusted to accommodate these
optional weighting factors as reflected in Figure 6-3.
The variables k1 and k3 are set to 1 by default, so they normally have no
effect (1 x a number = that number). But if the settings are altered, they affect
the metric as shown in the figure.
If desired, the factors load and reliability can be added to weigh the metric,
but most deployments do not do so. When used, the formula is now fully
expressed in Figure 6-4.
The additional variables k2, k4, and k5 have been added. They all have a
default value of 0, so unless they are altered, they have no impact on the
formula.
Note that the IGRP algorithm is not as adept at automatically picking the
best route as it would seem from all the factors that contribute to the compos-
ite metric. All metric factors except reliability and load are static values, and
reliability and load metrics are not active by default. Furthermore, you must
have a very good handle on your network traffic before going here and futzing
with these settings. Cisco recommends leaving the values at their default,
which means you are dealing with a protocol that, in the end, uses the formula
as first expressed (Bandwidth + Delay).

(k1 x (10,000,000 / Bandwidth)) + (k3 x (sum of delays /10))

Figure 6-3 IGRP metric formula with optional weighting factors.

((k1 x (10,000,000 / Bandwidth)) + ((k2 x Bandwidth) /

(256-load)) + ((k3 x (sum of delays /10)) x (k5 / (reliability + k4))
Figure 6-4 Complete rendering of the IGRP metric formula.
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IGRP 173

N OT E Since bandwidth is a core part of IGRP’s metric, it is important that you

manually set the bandwidth on all serial interfaces. The router may not detect
the true bandwidth of the link. For example, if a Cisco router does not detect
the link speed on a serial interface it will assume a bandwidth of 1.544 Kbps.
If the link is faster or slower, setting the true bandwidth will result in more
accurate routing decisions (see command reference at the end of this section).

Autonomous Numbers
Unlike RIP, IGRP (and EIGRP) can run multiple instances of its routing process
on a single router. An instance of IGRP is identified by an autonomous system
number associated with the routing protocol when it is enabled. Multiple
instances of IGRP are isolated from each other. Each instance sends and
receives separate updates and builds separate route tables. You could, for
example, run two instances of IGRP on one router if there are two autonomous
systems under separate administrative control that need to share routing
information.

Load Balancing in IGRP

The IGRP routing protocol goes a step further than RIP by supporting not only
equal, but unequal multipath routing. With equal multipath routing, IGRP will
load balance by sending an equal number of packets through each of up to six
parallel (redundant) routes that can reach the same destination network. Each
route must have the same metric—that is what defines equal cost load balanc-
ing. Equal multipath routing for up to four routes is on by default2.
IGRP also supports unequal multipath routing by load balancing traffic
across up to six redundant paths with varying metrics. The route with the low-
est cost is selected as primary, with the other redundant routes acting as
failover routes and/or for load balancing. When performing unequal multi-
path routing IGRP will allocate a percentage of packets based on the metric of
the route. Routes with lower metrics (faster links) will receive a proportionally
greater number of packets than routes to the same destination with higher
metrics.
Unequal multipath routing is OFF by default. To activate the feature, the
variance IGRP subcommand must be used. Figure 6-5 portrays a network
example to illustrate how the variance feature works.
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174 Chapter 6

S0 S1
S0 S0
A B D
FDDI FDDI
S1

T1

T1

S0 S1
C

Figure 6-5 Network with varying routing metrics.

Router A has a 100 Mbps path to router D through the FDDI link. Router A
also has a 1.544 Mbps path to router D through the T1 link. The metric for the
path to router D via the FDDI link is 120 and via the T1 link is 10477. By divid-
ing the larger metric by the smaller metric, the multiple between the two val-
ues can be determined as 87.3 (10477/120). So the metric 10477 is 87.3 times
larger then the metric 120. That number will be needed in a moment.
Until the variance command is issued, router A will use router B to get to
router D exclusively, since the metrics of the two paths are dissimilar. In order
to activate the other path, the metric of the path through router C must be a
lower effective metric then through router B. This is where the variance command
comes in. A variance must be entered that is greater than the multiple between
the larger and smaller metric. A variance of 88 will do the trick. After configur-
ing the variance, the two paths will now be active. The faster link will carry 88
percent more packets than the slower link. (See the previous discussion about
flow-based splitting. See the command reference for the exact commands.)

Default Routing
Default routing is covered in Chapter 10. Differences pertaining specifically to
IGRP are noted here.
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IGRP 175

IGRP does not support the ip route command (ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 x.x.x.x)
for configuring default routing because the protocol does not understand the
0.0.0.0 network. Instead, the ip default-network command must be used.
Unlike RIP, all routers must list the network specified in the ip default-
network statement, or the default route will not be accepted.

Redistribution
IGRP is capable of including static and externally learned routes in its updates
(redistribution). The general principals of redistribution are covered in Chap-
ter 10. Redistribution is OFF by default in IGRP, with one exception: IGRP and
EIGRP, which have similar metrics, automatically distribute routes to each
other when both routing protocols are running on the same router and both
protocols are using the same autonomous system number. The one dissimilar-
ity between the protocols, the metric multiplier of 256, is automatically
adjusted when routes are redistributed. It is clear that EIGRP, IGRP’s succes-
sor, was engineered to make an easy upgrade from IGRP.

Route Summarization in IGRP

IGRP, being a classful routing protocol, can only summarize to a classful bor-
der. Furthermore, summarization cannot be forcibly enabled or disabled.
Routes will be auto-summarized to the classful border whenever the address
is advertised across a major network number.

Command Reference—IGRP
Figure 6-6 provides a network model for the configuration of IGRP. The exam-
ples will cover configuring IGRP on a Cisco router.

River City Atlantic City Jersey City

192.168.10.0/24 192.168.20.0/24 192.168.30.0/24

E0 E0 E0
S1 (56K) S1 (T1)
S0 S0
A
200.1.1.5/30 B
200.1.1.9/30 C
200.1.1.6/30 200.1.1.10/30
Figure 6-6 Example network for commands.
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176 Chapter 6

Initial Configuration
An initial configuration of the routers will be performed, and the route tables
will be shown before the IGRP routing protocol is configured.

Configuring the IP Addresses

routerA#configure terminal
routerA(config)#interface fastethernet 0 (1)
routerA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 (2)
routerA(config-if)#exit (3)
routerA(config)#interface serial 1 (4)
routerA(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.5 255.255.255.252 (5)
routerA(config-if)#bandwidth 56 (6)
routerA(config-if)#exit
routerA(config)#

routerB#configure terminal
routerB(config)#interface fastethernet 0
routerB(config-if)#ip address 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#interface serial 0
routerB(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.6 255.255.255.252 (7)
routerB(config-if)#bandwidth 56
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#interface serial 1
routerB(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.9 255.255.255.252 (8)
routerB(config-if)#bandwidth 1544
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#

routerC#configure terminal
routerC(config)#interface fastethernet 0
routerC(config-if)#ip address 192.168.30.0 255.255.255.0
routerC(config-if)#exit
routerC(config)#interface serial 0
routerC(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.10 255.255.255.252
routerC(config-if)#bandwidth 1544
routerC(config-if)#exit
routerC(config)#

(1) changes to interface E0.

(2) configures the address with a /24 prefix.
(3) exits interface mode back to global config mode.
(4) changes to interface S1.
(5) configures the address with a /30 prefix.
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IGRP 177

(6) sets the bandwidth to match the link speed.

(7) is the first possible subnet of the 200.1.1.0 /30.
(8) is the next possible subnet of the 200.1.1.0 /30.

Route Tables Before IGRP Is Configured

Figures 6-7, 6-8, and 6-9 reflect the state of the route tables before IGRP is
configured.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.10.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1

Figure 6-7 Router A – before IGRP is configured.

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.20.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1

Figure 6-8 Router B – before IGRP is configured.

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routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.30.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0

Figure 6-9 Router C – before IGRP is configured.

Configuring IGRP

routerA(config)#router igrp 100 (1)

routerA(config-router)#network 192.168.10.0 (2)
routerA(config-router)#network 200.1.1.4 (3)
routerA(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0 (4)
routerA(config-router)#exit

routerB#config-term
routerB(config)#router igrp 100
routerB(config-router)#network 192.168.20.0
routerB(config-router)#network 200.1.1.4
routerB(config-router)#network 200.1.1.8
routerB(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0
routerB(config-router)#exit
routerB(config)#

routerC#config-term
routerC(config)#router igrp 100
routerC(config-router)#network 192.168.30.0
routerC(config-router)#network 200.1.1.8
routerC(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0
routerC(config-router)#exit
routerC(config)#
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(1) enables IGRP on this router with an AS number of 100.

(2) and (3) include network in IGRP advertisements. All interfaces with
an address configured within the range of this address will send and
receive routing updates.
(4) suppresses routing advertisements on this interface.
One of the key differences configuring IGRP versus RIP is the inclusion of
an autonomous system (AS) number. This is due to the capability of IGRP to
run multiple instances of the routing protocol on one router. If more than one
instance of IGRP is activated on a router, the AS number will isolate all IGRP
activity within each AS number. Separate route tables will be built and
updates will be confined within the AS.

Route Tables After IGRP Is Configured

Figures 6-10, 6-11, and 6-12 show how the route tables look after IGRP has been
configured and the tables have normalized.

routeA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.10.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.10 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
I 200.1.1.8 [100/1] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1
I 192.168.20.0 /24 [100/1] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1
I 192.168.30.0 /24 [100/2] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1

Figure 6-10 Router A after IGRP is configured.

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routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.20.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
I 192.168.10.0 /24 [100/1]via 200.1.1.5, 00:00:05, Serial1
I 192.168.30.0 /24 [100/1]via 200.1.1.10, 00:00:05, Serial1

Figure 6-11 Router B after IGRP is configured.

routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.30.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
I 200.1.1.4 [100/1]via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0
I 192.168.20.0 /24 [100/1]via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0
I 192.168.10.0 /24 [100/2]via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0

Figure 6-12 Router C after IGRP is configured.

Common IGRP Commands

Here are examples of some of the more commonly used commands for config-
uring IGRP.
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Changing Default Timers

Most IGRP timers can be altered from their default settings. Care should be
taken when changing a timer and it is best to match any changes on all IGRP
routers in the system.
The format of the command is as follows:

routerX(config)#router igrp
routerX(config-router)#timers basic update invalid holddown flush x (1)

where:
(1) x = number of seconds
For example:

routerX(config)#router igrp
routerX(config-router)#timers basic 180 270 280 630 (2)

where:
(2) doubles the length of time between routing updates from 90 to 180
seconds and maintains all other timers at default.

Load Balancing—Changing the Default Number of Multiple Paths

IGRP defaults to load balancing up to four equal cost paths. This can be altered
with the following command:

routerX#config term
routerX(config)#router igrp
routerX(config-router)#maximum-paths x (1)

where:
(1) x = (1-6)

Load Balancing—Configuring Unequal Multipath Routing

Unequal multipath routing is configured by issuing the variance command,
which encompasses the range of metrics on the paths to be included for load
balancing the traffic to a specific network. The method for determining the
variance value was shown earlier. Here are the commands to configure a vari-
ance of 88 from the example:
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182 Chapter 6

routerX#config term
routerX(config)#router igrp 100
routerX(config-router)#variance 88
routerX(config-router)#exit

Configuring K Values for Metric Manipulation

routerX(config)#router igrp 100

routerX(config-router)#metric weights 0 1 1 1 1 1 (1)

where:
(1) shows default K values being assigned.

Enabling or Disabling Split Horizon

Split horizon is on by default for most configurations, but may be off by
default on serial interfaces and/or sub-interfaces. You can check the status of
split horizon on a particular interface with the show ip interface x statement.
For example, to see if split horizon is enabled on serial 0, execute the following:

routerX(config)#int s0
routerX(config-if)#show ip interface s0

Scan the output for the statement “Split horizon is enabled” or “Split hori-
zon is disabled.” Split horizon can be forcibly enabled or disabled on an inter-
face level with the following command:

routerX(config-if)#{no} ip split-horizon

Show Commands for IGRP

Here are a few of the common commands for displaying the state of a IGRP
router.

Showing Configuration
The following command shows all routing protocols, IGRP timers, filters,
redistribution, and summarization status:

routerA#Show ip protocols
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Showing the Route Table

The following command shows static, external, directly connected, and IGRP-
learned routes:

routerX#show ip route (shows all routes)

routerX#show ip route x.x.x.x (more detail for a single route)

Troubleshooting Commands
If you get into trouble, these commands can help get you out.

Showing IGRP Events

Use the following command to show IGRP events:

routerX#debug ip eigrp events (use sparingly – consumes resources)

Showing Debug Status

Use the following command to show the debugging status:

routerX#show debug

Canceling the Debug

Use the following command to cancel the debugging process:

routerX#undebug all
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Notes

1. Note that in the formula 10,000,000 is divided by the bandwidth in

order to generate an inverse number scaled by a factor of 10e 10. The
delay value is divided by 10 to convert microseconds to milliseconds.
2. Regardless of the routing protocol employing equal cost load balancing,
traffic is not always split perfectly across the multiple paths. For exam-
ple, some router vendors will direct all traffic for a particular TCP ses-
sion along a single path—otherwise performance might actually be
degraded.
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CHAPTER

7
EIGRP

Overview
EIGRP stands for Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol. It is a contem-
porary, widely implemented routing protocol with full support for classlessly
addressed networks. Table 7-1 shows the basic characteristics of EIGRP.

Table 7-1 Routing Characteristics of EIGRP

Metric Bandwidth + delay

Interior or Exterior? Interior

Distance vector or Link-state? Hybrid

Singlepath or Multipath? Multipath

Broadcast or Multicast? Multicast and unicast

Flat or Hierarchical? Flat

Classful or Classless? Classless

185
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This chapter covers the following EIGRP topics:

Advantages of using EIGRP 186
Disadvantages of using EIGRP 187
EIGRP background 187
EIGRP terminology 187
How EIGRP works 191
EIGRP architecture 191
How EIGRP addresses distance vector protocol issues 192
Core communications—packet types, timers, multicasts, and RTP 193
EIGRP tables 194
EIGRP metrics 196
Populating the topology table and route table 198
Stuck in Active routes 205
DUAL prevents a routing-loop 206
Load balancing 207
Default routing 208
Redistribution 208
Route summarization 208
Command reference 208

Advantages of Using EIGRP

■■ Classless protocol—full support for classless addressing

■■ Scalable protocol—can be used on large networks
■■ Supports multiple networking protocols—single routing protocol solu-
tion for IP, IPX, and Appletalk
■■ Optimized for minimum bandwidth use
■■ No hop count limitation
■■ Fast convergence
■■ Guaranteed loop-free routes
■■ Equal and unequal cost multipath routing
■■ Summarization configurable at the bit boundary
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EIGRP 187

■■ Similar metrics to IGRP—simplifies migrating from IGRP to EIGRP

■■ Communication among routers sent via unicasts and multicasts
■■ Optional authentication of routing packets (MD5 encryption with
IOS 11.3 and higher)

Disadvantages of Using EIGRP

■■ Proprietary to Cisco IOS—must employ all Cisco routers to avoid hav-

ing to run multiple interior routing protocols
■■ Flat protocol—cannot be configured into areas as OSPF can (this can be
mitigated to some degree by running multiple instances of EIGRP)

EIGRP Background
EIGRP was released in the early 1990s by Cisco Systems, subsequent to releas-
ing IGRP. EIGRP was developed to address problems inherent to distance
vector routing protocols such as RIP and IGRP. Like IGRP, EIGRP is propri-
etary to Cisco and is only available on Cisco routers. EIGRP has similarities to
IGRP only in that it uses a very similar metric. Cisco calls EIGRP an advanced
distance vector routing protocol because EIGRP is actually a hybrid of distance
vector and link-state technologies—incorporating features of each design.
EIGRP is a classless routing protocol and therefore fully supports CIDR nota-
tion, subnetting, VLSMs, and even discontiguous networks. EIGRP and OSPF
are the two widely accepted interior IP routing protocols for large networks.

EIGRP Terminology
There are a number of terms associated with the operation of EIGRP and its
routing engine, DUAL. One potential roadblock to understanding the protocol
is that its associated terminology is not always intuitive. For example, the cur-
rently installed route in the route table is known as the successor. Another
example is when a path to a network is no longer functioning, the route
becomes active. There are good reasons for the use of these terms, but they tend
to be counterintuitive until fully understood. The core terms will be intro-
duced now so that you will have some familiarity with them when you
encounter them later.
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Neighbor
The term neighbor has a more specific meaning with EIGRP than with RIP and
IGRP. Any router sharing a network link with another router is potentially a
neighbor. But to actually qualify as a neighbor, routers sharing a network link
must meet certain criteria and establish a neighbor relationship before
exchanging routing information.

Neighbor Discovery and Recovery

These terms specify the process of establishing and tearing down neighbor
relationships. Establishing, maintaining, terminating, and re-establishing
neighbor relationships are based on the exchange of Hello packets in a timely
manner. Neighbor relationships are critical to EIGRP because without them
routers don’t exchange routing information.

Packet Types
There are five types of packets used in EIGRP1:
■■ Hello packets: Exchanged between routers and used to discover and
maintain neighbors.
■■ Update packets: This is the main packet type used to exchange routing
information. The data stored in the topology table (defined shortly) is
what is passed in an update packet. Update packets are sent initially
when a neighbor relationship is established and then periodically when
there is a change in the status of a link that affects routing.
■■ Query packets: Initiated by a router to its neighbors when it loses a
route. The query packet asks if the neighbor knows of a path to the lost
route.
■■ Reply packets: Used to respond to a query.
■■ ACK packet: A Hello packet with no data; used to acknowledge pack-
ets sent with the Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP).

Hold-Time
This is the time interval to wait for receiving Hello packets from an established
neighbor. Hello packets must be periodically exchanged between neighboring
routers. If a router stops receiving either Hello packets or any other type of
EIGRP packets the hold-time timer expires and the neighbor relationship ter-
minates. The router must then find new routes to networks that were previ-
ously reachable through the non-responsive neighbor.
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Neighbor Table
This is a separate table used to maintain the list of known neighbors.

Topology Table
This is a separate table that lists all qualified routes. (Qualified routes are
known as feasible successors.)

Route Table
Also known as a forwarding table, this is a separate table that lists the actual
routes used to forward packets. The route table is built from the topology
table.

Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)

EIRGP has its own mechanism for reliable delivery of packets, when required.
RTP is used in lieu of TCP.

Retransmission Timeout (RTO)

This timer establishes how long a router should wait for acknowledgements to
packets sent with RTP protocol.

Smooth Round Trip Time (SRRT)

This timer establishes the average time a router waits for acknowledgements
to packets sent with RTP protocol. It is used to calculate the Retransmission
Timeout (RTO).

Reported Distance (RD)

This is also known as advertised distance (AD). When advertising a route, this
is the metric of the route from the reporting neighbor to the destination network.

Feasible Distance (FD)

This is the overall metric from the current router to the destination network. It
includes the metric of the current router to the reporting router, added to the
reported distance value received from the reporting router.
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Feasibility Condition (FC)

This is a route whose reported distance to a network is less than the feasible
distance of the current route installed in the route table. Such a route has met
the “feasibility condition” and is either installed into the route table or kept as
a standby route.

Successor
The route with the lowest metric to a destination network (lowest feasible dis-
tance) is known as a successor and is installed in the route table. (There can be
more than one successor route if multipathing is enabled.)

Feasible Successor (FS)

A route that meets the feasibility condition, but is being kept as a backup route
(because a route with a lower metric that met the feasibility condition was
installed instead), is referred to as a feasible successor. Feasible successors are
maintained in the topology table and installed in the route table if the succes-
sor route fails.

Diffusing Update ALgorithm (DUAL)

DUAL is the algorithm that EIGRP uses to perform its route calculations.
Because EIGRP is basically a distance vector routing protocol, it’s prone to
routing-loops. DUAL assures “100 percent loop-free routes at every instant”
by performing a feasibility test on advertised routes before installing them.
This will be explained in detail later.
Some rather complex calculations must be performed by DUAL to assure
loop-free routes. This tends to shift resource demands away from network
bandwidth and onto a router’s CPU and memory. To mitigate this factor,
DUAL distributes the processing among routers using diffused computations
(the traffic of course uses bandwidth). Later examples will demonstrate how
DUAL behaves in this regard.

DUAL Finite State Machine

A finite state machine is a computer model that defines specific (finite) states,
within which, specific input and/or actions occur, and where specific condi-
tions are met to transition from one state to another. DUAL is built on such a
model.
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Passive and Active Route States

The normal condition of an operational route is known as passive. At this time,
the router is not seeking to replace a lost route (no diffusing computations are
being generated). When the router becomes aware that a route in the route table
has become invalid, DUAL is run on the topology table, and a feasible succes-
sor is searched for. If no feasible successor is found, the route goes into active
state, and DUAL initiates a diffusing computation by sending query packets to
other routers in an attempt to find a replacement path to the network.

Stuck in Active (SIA)

If replies to queries regarding an active route are not received in a timely man-
ner, the route is considered stuck in active.

How EIGRP Works

EIGRP shares similar metrics with its predecessor, IGRP, and it uses distance
vector methods of sharing routing information, but its architecture is different
in most other ways. The following sections describe the behavior of Cisco’s
flagship interior routing protocol.

EIGRP Architecture
EIGRP has a clever design for speeding convergence, eliminating routing-
loops, and minimizing the use of network bandwidth and router resources.
Although an EIGRP router does not transmit a router’s links and its state (as
OSPF does), it makes the best of the information it does learn from its neigh-
bors. EIGRP keeps all information about qualified routes—routes that meet
what is known as a feasibility condition—in a topology table. A feasibility
condition is a means test (issued by DUAL) to insure a route is loop-free. Only
routes meeting the feasibility condition are accepted. Once the topology table
is populated, DUAL selects routes from the topology table for installation into
the route table, based upon the metric values of the routes.
Routing updates are sent only when a router detects a change for a network
it is aware of. When a route fails, a replacement route can often be found locally
in the router’s topology table. EIGRP inter-router communications are kept to
a minimum this way. When a replacement route cannot be located locally, the
router proactively interrogates its neighbors to see if they are aware of a
replacement route.
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Small Hello packets are exchanged between routers to establish and main-
tain neighbor relationships. Failure to receive Hello packets in a timely man-
ner gives routers early notification when another router (or link to a router)
has failed, so that action can be taken to find alternative paths around the fail-
ure. On a stable network, Hello packets are the only traffic generated by EIGRP.
The proprietary Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) also speeds convergence
by creating time frames for responses to updates and queries. RTP allows for
assured updates (each routing update is acknowledged), which mitigates the
need to transmit the entire route table periodically.
Finally, the fact that EIGRP supports multiple routed protocols potentially
makes it a single routing protocol solution (EIGRP can ride on IP, IPX, and
Appletalk/RTMP packets, thus providing routes to IP networks, NetWare net-
works, and Appletalk networks).
Now let’s take a look at what makes all this wonderfulness possible.

How EIGRP Addresses Distance Vector Protocol Issues

Although EIGRP incorporates features of both distance vector and link-state
routing protocols in its architecture, EIGRP is primarily a distance vector pro-
tocol. As with RIP and IGRP, EIGRP learns about routes from neighbors adver-
tising a distance to the route (routing by rumor). The designers of the protocol,
however, in order to speed convergence and eliminate the propensity toward
routing-loops, made key changes to the traditional distance vector architecture
by borrowing a few tricks from its link-state brethren.
To begin with, EIGRP does not periodically transmit the entire route table to
its neighbors. In fact, the only time the entire route table is ever transmitted is
when two routers initially exchange their routing information upon forming a
neighbor relationship. After that, only incremental changes regarding affected
routes are transmitted. This greatly reduces the bandwidth consumed by rout-
ing updates and is similar to the approach taken by link-state protocols.
Also, recall that traditional distance vector routing protocols have fairly
high settings on the timers that time out routes. Lower settings on these timers
improves convergence time but increases bandwidth usage. But in the case of
EIGRP, the significant amount of bandwidth saved by not periodically trans-
mitting the entire route table allows the protocol to spend a little bandwidth by
timing out routes more quickly. This is another feature attributed to link-state
protocols and helps EIGRP achieve the goal of quicker convergence when a
change occurs.
To achieve the goal of eliminating routing-loops, EIGRP dropped the tradi-
tional Ford-Bellman algorithm in favor of an algorithm that takes a radically
different approach to avoiding loops. Although certain traditional distance
vector-loop avoidance mechanisms such as split-horizon and route poisoning
are still employed, EIGRP relies on the Diffusing Update ALgorithm (DUAL)
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EIGRP 193

to guarantee loop-free routes. Through rigid inspection of candidate routes, a

topology table that lists backups to routes already installed in the route table,
and a procedure for interrogating other routers to find lost routes to a network,
DUAL not only furthers the cause of quick convergence, the algorithm
promises “100 percent loop-free routes at every instant.”

Core Communications—Packet Types, Timers, Multicasts, and RTP

Unlike RIP and IGRP, which simply accept any routes they hear of from other
routers, EIGRP only considers routes learned from routers known to it.
Because EIGRP does not blindly broadcast routing updates, a method is
needed to discover other routers sharing the same network links and to estab-
lish neighbor relationships2 with them. Neighbors are discovered through the
multicasting of Hello packets that are heard by other EIGRP routers sharing
the same network link.
Hello packets contain the IP address of the interface of the sending router.
They are transmitted periodically. On high-speed links (greater than T1
speeds), Hellos are sent every 5 seconds, whereas low-speed links (T1 speeds or
less) send Hellos every 60 seconds. Hello packets are multicast on address
224.0.0.10. Using multicasts as opposed to broadcasts keeps other network
devices from having to waste resources to see if the packet is intended for them.
An interruption of the stream of Hello packets alerts a router to the possible loss
of a neighbor (and of course the loss of all routes through that neighbor).
A hold-time timer is used by EIGRP to maintain neighbor relationships. This
timer tracks expected Hello packets from established neighbors. By default,
the hold-time is three times the Hello interval (either 15 or 180 seconds). Each
reception of a Hello packet resets the timer.3 If the hold-time timer expires, the
neighbor is presumed to be dead and the relationship is terminated. A new
path must be found for any routes that forwarded packets through the defunct
neighbor as the next hop to the destination network.
Routing updates are sent in update packets. Updates are sent when the neigh-
bor relationship is first established and later when a change occurs that affects
routing.
Routers sometimes make inquiries to other routers when trying to reestab-
lish a lost route. Such inquiries are in the form of query packets and the replies
are in the form of reply packets. This behavior is pivotal to the operation of
EIGRP and DUAL. Not all advertised routes are accepted by an EIGRP router.
Routes that don’t meet a feasibility condition are rejected and not installed into
the topology table.4 Under certain conditions, queries will be made to see if
other routers know of the rejected routes.
EIGRP has the capability to use reliable communication when necessary. It
has its own reliable protocol, the Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP). RTP allows
for assured delivery of packets in proper sequence. The choice of whether to
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194 Chapter 7

use reliable communication is more a function of the network type than of the
nature of the communication. RTP, therefore, may be utilized for any packet
type (Hello packets, update packets, and so on). An ACK packet (which is sim-
ply an empty Hello packet except for a sequence number) is used to acknowl-
edge an RTP packet.
Two timers in addition to the hold-time timer are used with EIGRP. A smooth
round trip time (SRRT) timer is used to establish the average amount of time for
RTP packets to be acknowledged. That information is used by the retransmis-
sion timeout (RTO) timer to inform the router when an RTP packet has not been
acknowledged in a reasonable time frame.

EIGRP Tables
At the core of EIGRP are the tables maintained by the protocol on each router.
EIGRP maintains three separate tables that facilitate the learning, use, and
maintenance of routes to networks.

Neighbor Table
The neighbor table is the first table built when an EIGRP router is powered up.
The neighbor table lists all known neighbors the router is aware of.
Hello packets are used to establish and maintain neighbors. When a router
first receives a Hello packet it responds with an update packet listing its
directly connected networks. The neighbor receiving the route update recipro-
cates with its directly connected routes.
The following information is tracked in the neighbor table:
■■ The IP address of the neighbor
■■ The interface the neighbor was learned through
■■ The hold-time for the neighbor—a timer that tracks the reception of
Hello packets
■■ The uptime for the neighbor—how long the neighbor relationship has
existed
■■ The number of Hello packets in the queue, which can be used to spot
network congestion
■■ If the RTP has been used to transmit a Hello packet:
■■ Smooth Round Trip timer (SRRT)
■■ Retransmission (RTO)
■■ A queue indicating the number of reliably sent packets waiting
a reply
■■ The sequence number of the last acknowledged packet
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Topology Table
The topology table contains all qualified routes to networks; routes that have
met the so-called feasibility condition. Initially the topology table contains
only the router’s directly connected networks. As routing updates arrive from
established neighbors, routes that meet the feasibility condition are added to
the topology table. In essence, when routers send update packets to their
neighbors they are exchanging the contents of their topology tables.
The topology table is an example of how EIGRP differs from other distance
vector routing protocols. RIP, for example, selects the best route it hears of (the
lowest metric) and discards information about other routes to the same desti-
nation. If RIP loses the path to the route it selected as the best, it must first time
out the route, and then wait for a routing update from a neighbor, in hopes of
finding a new path to the network. EIGRP dramatically improves convergence
by keeping track of every known route that meets the feasibility condition.
When a fault occurs, EIGRP can often converge instantly if a backup route is
located in its topology table.
The topology table keeps track of the following information for each route:
■■ The minimum bandwidth of all links to the destination network
■■ Total delay (the sum of all delays on all outgoing router interfaces along
the path to the destination network)
■■ Path reliability (a dynamically assigned value of the overall reliability
of the path—not used in metric by default)
■■ Path loading (a dynamically assigned value of the current load on the
path—not used in metric by default)
■■ The minimum MTU (The routers will not use an MTU larger than the
minimum specified size. This prevents fragmentation of update packets
and further speeds convergence.)

LONG LIVE RIP?

We don’t want to paint too bleak a picture of traditional distance vector

protocols. Keep in mind that the Cisco implementation of RIP and IGRP will
install up to six equal cost routes in the route table. And IGRP will even keep
up to six unequal cost routes if the variance command is issued.
Six redundant paths may seem like a lot, but on larger networks, it is not
unusual to have even more than six paths to the same network. That is where
EIGRP starts to show off its scalability features by keeping all qualifying routes
in the topology table.
Even so, Cisco continues to improve its legacy routing protocols. As of IOS
versions 12.0T and 12.1, RIP maintains a database of learned routes that it can
quickly install in the route table if needed.
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■■ The reported distance of the route

■■ The feasible distance of the route
■■ The route source (static, internal, external, and so on)
■■ The IP address of the destination network

Route Table
The route table, as with any other routing protocol, contains the actual routes
used to forward traffic. (See command reference at the end of the chapter for
the forms of the show ip route command that shows EIGRP specific data.)
Remember that we are still discussing EIGRP architecture. A later example
will show the actual population of these tables, and the actual router output
for each table will be explained at that time.

EIGRP Metrics
EIGRP metrics are almost the same as the metrics for IGRP, which in its sim-
plest form, is minimum bandwidth + the sum of delays (see Table 7-2). The
only difference in EIGRP is that the metric is scaled up by multiplying it by
256. This is done simply to add granularity to the metric. However, unlike
IGRP, a route’s metrics are first applied to qualify it for inclusion into the topol-
ogy table (example to follow). Later, the metrics are applied again when the
route is considered for installation into routing table.

NOT ALL TOPOLOGY TABLES ARE CREATED EQUAL

EIGRP has a topology table. Pure link-state routing protocols such as OSPF have
topology tables. Are they both the same? A comparison of EIGRP’s and OSPF’s
topology tables, described in this chapter and the next, will reveal that the
answer to this question is a resounding “No.”
OSPF builds its topology table through each router reporting its directly
connected networks. The topology table in OSPF is a composite listing of all
those routers and their attached links. This gives OSPF an actual map of the
network topology (which is how OSPF avoids the bad routing information that
leads to routing-loops).
The topology table in EIGRP is quite different. It is not a map. It is mostly a
listing of distances and vectors, and metrics of qualified routes that are
available to be installed into the route table if the installed route fails. So even
though it’s called a “topology table,” don’t assume that EIGRP routers end up
with a topology map of the network in the way that link-state protocols like
OSPF do.
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Table 7-2 Assignments for Bandwidth and Delay Values (Same as IGRP)

BANDWIDTH DELAY
LINK TYPE (IN KBPS) (IN MICRO-SECONDS)

Ethernet 10,000 1000

Fast Ethernet 100,000 100

Gigabit Ethernet 1,000,000 10

FDDI 100,000 100

Token Ring (16 Mbps) 16,000 630

T1 1544 20,000

Take the example of a route passing through two WAN links; one link is
FDDI and one link is T1. The algorithm first divides 10,000,000 by the slowest
link in the path, then adds the result to the sum of the delay values for each
link, and divides by 10 (to convert microseconds to milliseconds). The result is
then multiplied by 256. The slowest link in this example is the T1 link, so the
formula looks like what is portrayed in Figure 7-1.
As with IGRP, other metrics such as load and reliability can be added
by manipulating the K values. The procedures are shown in Chapter 6 on
page 172, however Cisco recommends that the default metric be used.

Calculating a Route’s Metric

When a route is learned from a neighbor, it includes the metric the neighbor
had calculated for the route using the formula shown in Figure 7-1. The value
is the distance from the neighbor to the destination network. The router learn-
ing of the route refers to this value as the reported distance (also known as the
advertised distance). The router must then calculate a second metric that
includes the overall distance from itself to the destination network. This is
known as the feasible distance.

((10,000,000 / Bandwidth) + ((sum of delays) /10)) *256

((10,000,000/1,544) + ((20,000+100) /10)) *256
(6,477 + 2,010) * 256
8,487 * 256
2,172,591
Figure 7-1 Calculating a metric in EIGRP.
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Populating the Topology Table and Route Table

The initial population of a route into the topology and route tables is quite dif-
ferent from subsequent additions of routes already installed. When a neighbor
advertises a route to a network that the receiving router does not already have
an entry for, the route is immediately added without question to both the
topology and route tables. Any route installed into the route table is referred to
as the successor. Successors are used to forward packets.

N OT E The term “successor” may seem counterintuitive because it portends

that the specified route would take over in case the primary route fails. Rather,
the successor route is the primary route. The term refers to the fact that the
entry in the table specifies the next “successive” router in the path.

Once a successor for a route has initially been chosen, additional routes to
the same network must qualify for inclusion into both the topology table and
the route table, by passing a feasibility condition test issued by DUAL, to be
sure the route is not looped. We’re fully into algorithm country now and the
DUAL evaluates newly learned routes with the following basic equation:
reported distance < feasible distance

If the advertised route’s reported distance is less than the feasible distance of the
successor, the route has met a feasibility condition. It qualifies! The route is guar-
anteed to be loop-free. The route will either be kept in the topology table as a
feasible successor—meaning it is a backup route if the successor fails, or if the
route’s feasible distance is less than the feasible distance of the successor route,
it will replace the successor.5
OK. What exactly does that mean? How does the fact that the reported dis-
tance being less than the feasible distance guarantee the route is not looped?
Quite simply, any advertised route that has a larger reported metric value than
the metric of the route currently in use, might possibly include the current
router in the path; otherwise known as a routing-loop. On the other hand, if the
metric from the reporting neighbor to the destination network is less then the
metric from the current router to the destination network, the current router
could not possibly be included in the advertised route—the route is guaran-
teed not to be looped.

WHY ISN’T THE FEASIBILITY TEST APPLIED TO THE FIRST ROUTE

INSTALLED

If a router does not already have an entry for a route to a particular network, it
can’t have been advertising the route. If the router has not been advertising the
route, there is little chance that it will learn of a route to the network that leads
back through itself.
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The best way to understand this concept is by demonstrating it. An example

will first be used to describe the neighbor, topology, and route tables of a con-
verged network, followed by a series of examples illustrating how DUAL eval-
uates newly learned routes.

Example 1—A Closer Look at the Neighbor, Topology, and

Route Tables
In the Figure 7-2, router A has only one neighbor: router B. This is reflected
in the neighbor table, which shows router B’s interface address of 200.1.1.6
(Figure 7-3). It should not be difficult to extrapolate that router B’s and router
C’s neighbor table would respectively show two entries (A and C), and one
entry (B).
Working from left to right, the neighbor table shows the following:
■■ H is a value indicating the order neighbors were learned in.
■■ Address is the IP address of the neighbor’s interface.
■■ Interface is the local interface the neighbor was learned through.
■■ Hold is the all-important hold-time timer. The hold-time timer deter-
mines how long the router should wait to receive the next Hello packet
from the neighbor. Since EIGRP does not implement periodic routing
updates, it cannot timeout routes as pure distance vector protocols do.
Instead, EIGRP times out neighbors. When neighbors send Hello pack-
ets, a value for the hold-time is included. The receiving router resets the
hold-time to that value. If the timer expires before receiving another
Hello packet, EIGRP considers the neighbor (and the routes through it)
dead. The expired neighbor is removed from the neighbor table, the
associated routes are removed from the route table, and a routing
update regarding any dead routes is sent to any other neighbors known
to the router. The router then starts the process of discovering new
paths for the lost routes.6 By default, the hold-time is three times the
Hello interval (5 seconds on low bandwidth networks and 60 seconds
on high bandwidth networks), but this value can be altered (see the
command reference at the end of the chapter). Because the value of the
EIGRP hold-time is so much shorter than typical distance vector timers,
the protocol times out routes much faster and convergence is improved.
■■ Uptime is the amount of time the neighbor relationship has existed.
■■ SRRT is the smooth round trip time. It indicates the average time it
takes a packet to be sent and acknowledged when the RTP is used.
■■ RTO is the roundtrip timeout. This timer establishes how long the
router will wait for the acknowledgement of a packet sent with RTP.
The value of this timer is based on the SRRT.
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200 Chapter 7

■■ Q is the number of packets sent with RTP that are waiting acknowl-
edgement. A growing Q value indicates trouble on the network.
■■ SEQ NUM indicates the sequence number of the last received Update,
Query, or Reply packet. The RTP tracks the numbers to insure proper
sequencing of received packets.
Now the topology table will be examined. The topology table in Figure 7-4
shows three networks. Note that each entry is prefaced with a P, indicating the
route is in a passive state, meaning the router believes it has at least one stable
route to the network.

Network 1
192.168.1.0/24
E0 E0 E1 E0 E1
A 200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 B 200.1.1.9/30 200.1.1.10/30 C

Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet

100,000/100 100,000/100 100,000/100

Figure 7-2 Network model for initial population of topology and route tables.

routerA#show ip eigrp neighbors

IP-EIGRP neighbors for process 1

H Address Interface Hold Uptime SRTT RTO Q Seq

(sec) (ms) Cnt Num
0 200.1.1.6 et0 12 00:10:01 10 300 0 123

Figure 7-3 Output from router A when executing the show ip eigrp
neighbors command.

routerA#show ip eigrp topology

IP-EIGRP Topology Table for process 1

Codes: P – Passive, A – Active, U – Update, Q – Query, R – Reply, r – reply status

P 200.1.1.4/30, 1 successors, FD is 28,160

via Connected, Ethernet0

P 200.1.1.8/30, 1 successors, FD is 30,720

via 200.1.1.6 (30,720/28,160) , Ethernet0

P 192.168.1.0/24, 1 successors, FD is 33,280

via 200.1.1.6 (33,280/30,720) , Ethernet0

Figure 7-4 Output from router A when executing the show ip eigrp topology command.
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For each entry, the destination network is first listed, followed by the num-
ber of successor routes (the number of routes installed in the route table), fol-
lowed by the feasible distance (the metric from router A to the destination
network).
The second and any additional lines of the entry display all feasible succes-
sors for the route. These are routes that have met the feasibility condition
(reported distance < the feasible distance of the current successor). Each entry indi-
cates that either the route is directly connected or the next hop interface is dis-
played. If the route is not directly connected, the feasible distance and reported
distance are shown respectively in (). Finally, the local interface that packets
will exit from on their way to the destination network is displayed.
Let’s review the math for the metrics shown in Table 7-5. From router A’s
perspective, the reported distance for each route is shown is Figure 7-5.
Finally, let’s examine the route table (Figure 7-6).

1. 200.1.1.4 directly connected = 28,160 ((10,000,000/100,000) + (100/10)) *256

minimum bandwidth total delay

2. 200.1.1.8 via router B = 30,720 ((10,000,000/100,000) + (100+100/10)) *256

minimum bandwidth total delay

3. 192.168.1.0 via router B and C = 33,280 ((10,000,000/100,000) + (100+100+100/10)) *256

minimum bandwidth total delay
Figure 7-5 Metric calculations for example 1 routes.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

200.1.1.4 is subnetted, 2 subnets

C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
D 200.1.1.8 [90/30720] via 200.1.1.6, 00:10:01, Serial0
D 192.168.1.0 [90/33280] via 200.1.1.6, 00:10:01, Serial0

Figure 7-6 Results of the show ip route command on router A.

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Again, the two learned routes were installed without question because there
were no pre-existing routes to those networks. The next example demonstrates
what will happen when a second route to 192.168.1.0 is discovered.

Example 2—DUAL Evaluates a Newly Learned Route

The revised network model in Figure 7-7 reveals a new path to 192.168.1.0.
Router D has just come online. There is now a redundant path from router A
to 192.168.1.0. Let’s see how this change in the network will be handled. The
neighbor, topology, and route tables will be examined again. Figure 7-8 reflects
that router A and router D share a common network and have therefore
exchanged Hello packets, establishing a neighbor relationship.
Figure 7-9, however, shows that the topology table is unchanged. Where is
the new route? DUAL has rejected the route through router D as a suitable
path to 192.168.1.0 because the route did not meet the feasibility condition.
DUAL only accepts newly learned routes if the reported distance is less than
the feasible distance of the current successor. The feasible distance of the cur-
rent route to 192.168.1.0 is 30,720. The reported distance of the newly discov-
ered route is 284,160: ((10,000,000/10,000) + (100 + 1,000 /10)) * 256. The route
doesn’t qualify.

Network 1
192.168.1.0/24
E0 E0 E1 E0 E1
A 200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 B 200.1.1.9/30 200.1.1.10/30 C
S0 E2
Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet
100,000/100 100,000/100 100,000/100

200.1.1.13/30
200.1.1.18/30

S0 E0
200.1.1.14/30 D 200.1.1.17/30

T1 Ethernet
1,544/20,000 10,000/1000

Figure 7-7 A new router has been added to the network.

routerA#show ip eigrp neighbors

IP-EIGRP neighbors for process 1

H Address Interface Hold Uptime SRTT RTO Q Seq

(sec) (ms) Cnt Num
0 200.1.1.6 et0 12 00:10:01 10 200 0 123
1 200.1.1.14 Se0 10 00:01:01 30 300 0 101

Figure 7-8 Router D shows up as a new entry in the neighbor table.

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routerA#show ip eigrp topology

IP-EIGRP Topology Table for process 1

Codes: P – Passive, A – Active, U – Update, Q – Query, R – Reply, r – reply status

P 200.1.1.4/30, 1 successors, FD is 28,160

via Connected, Ethernet0

P 200.1.1.8/30, 1 successors, FD is 30,720

via 200.1.1.6 (30,720/28,160)

P 192.168.1.0/24, 1 successors, FD is 33,280

via 200.1.1.6 (33,280/30,720)

Figure 7-9 The topology table is unchanged despite the new path to the 192.168.1.0
via router D.

Translated into English, DUAL is saying:

Dear advertised route,

The distance you are reporting from yourself to the network you are advertising
must be less than the distance I currently have from myself to the same network. Oth-
erwise, we can’t have a relationship, at least right now.
Love,
DUAL

Why is DUAL so finicky? Remember that a reported distance for a route

larger than the current feasible distance for a route to the same network flags
the proposed route as possibly looped. But if you consider what comprises the
default metric in EIGRP—bandwidth and delay—an advertised route with a
metric larger than the current feasible distance is entirely possible, depending
on the speed of the links. In the case of example 2, the route is valid—it’s just
that the path through the T1 links dramatically raised its metric. But DUAL
takes a very conservative stance on the matter. Indeed, a route that is loop-free,
and has simply committed the sin of having a larger metric, may be barred
(at least initially) from the topology and route tables. In the next example,
DUAL will be forced to reconsider the rejected route for admission into the
route table.

Example 3—Installing a Previously Rejected Route

In Figure 7-10, the successor for 192.168.1.0 has failed. Let’s see how the failure
is handled by router A and what action is taken to find a new route.
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Network 1
192.168.1.0/24
E0 E0 E1 E0 E1
A 200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 B 200.1.1.9/30 200.1.1.10/30 C
S0 E2
Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet
100,000/100 Fast Ethernet
100,000/100 100,000/100

200.1.1.13/30 200.1.1.18/30

S0 E0
200.1.1.14/30 D 200.1.1.17/30

T1 Ethernet
1,544/20,000 10,000/1,000

Figure 7-10 The successor for the 192.168.1.0 has failed.

After about 15 seconds, router B’s hold-time timer expires waiting for Hello
packets from router C. Among several actions that router B will take, it will
poison the route to the 192.168.1.0 by sending an update packet to router A
with the hop count set to infinity.7
Upon receiving the update regarding the failed route, router A will immedi-
ately remove the route to the 192.168.1.0 from the route table. Router A then
uses a local computation to examine its topology table for a feasible successor.
Finding no feasible successors to promote to successor, DUAL changes the
state of the route from passive (“I can handle this myself”) to active (“I need
help finding a path to the network”). A route becomes active when a router
has exhausted the possibility of locating a replacement route locally and must turn to
its neighbors.
In active mode, DUAL commences a diffusing computation whereby it will
query its neighbors for a path to the lost network (the idea of having other
routers spend CPU time helping to find a replacement route is where the
diffuse comes from in Diffusing Update ALgorithm). Up until now, only
Hello packets and update packets have been sent between neighbors. Now a
query packet is sent to neighbors asking if they have a route to the 192.168.1.0.
Query packets are always sent with the RTP protocol because replies to the
query are required, and therefore time-sensitive.
Router D receives the query from router A. Router D has one successor to
the 192.168.1.0. It has no feasible successors, because the path to the 192.168.1.0
through router A and B did not meet the feasibility condition. Router D replies
to the query with the information about the successor route, including its
reported distance of 284,160.
Router A receives the update, and because there is no current successor to
compare to, it immediately installs the route in the topology table and route
table. Router A now has a successor route to the 192.168.1.0.
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Stuck in Active (SIA) Routes

If router D had found no path to the 192.168.1.0, it too would have initiated a
diffusing query to its neighbors. Every neighbor that receives a query either
responds immediately with a path to the requested network or in turn sends
queries to its neighbors before replying. Every router must ultimately reply to
a query however, even if it takes time to hear back from the neighbors it
queried, some of whom have queried their neighbors for a path, and so on. At
the end of the query process either a new path to the network has been dis-
covered—in which case the route returns to passive state—or it is determined
by all routers in the query range that there is no path to the network and the
route is dropped.8
But a query can only go on for so long. For each router that initiates a query,
a Stuck in Active (SIA) timer begins to run. If the timer expires, the route is
considered SIA. An SIA route is trouble for a network and should rarely occur
in a well designed, well maintained system. If a router does not receive a reply
to its query, unnecessary network delays may be occurring. The problem of
course needs to be tracked down and corrected. The issue may stem from the
way EIGRP has been implemented, network design issues, or simply a tempo-
rary outage.
If an SIA event is due to the configuration of EIGRP, it is likely the range of
the query is too broad for the network in question. In other words, the query is
being relayed through too many routers, delaying the reply. Only routers that
are likely to have a path to the network in question should be queried.
Query ranges are bounded by the following:
■■ The edge of network is reached
■■ A distribution list forcibly limits the query range
■■ A route summarization boundary is reached, whereby queries do not
extend to routers that have received only a summary address for the
network in question
■■ Queries do not extend beyond the autonomous number of the EIGRP
process for the router that generated the query
As you can see, there are a number of methods for restricting the range of a
query. Depending on the network configuration, one or more of the aforemen-
tioned methods will provide an appropriate solution.
On the other hand, if the issue is with the network itself, the source of the
problem could be anything from congestion on one or more links to temporary
outages. Anything that delays general network traffic could be the cause of an
SIA route.
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The default setting for the SIA timer is 3 minutes. This can be altered with
the timers active-time command (see the command reference at the end of this
chapter).

DUAL Prevents a Routing-Loop

In example 2, a perfectly valid route from router A through router D was ini-
tially rejected for not meeting the feasibility condition. In this example, DUAL
will catch a looped route red-handed and prevent it from being installed.

Example 4—Preventing a Routing-Loop

Normal Operation of This Network

This example focuses on routers B and D. One thing that needs to be avoided in
this model (see Figure 7-11) is having any router accept a path to the 192.168.1.0
that leads through router D. Router A has a much better path to the destination
network directly through router B. And if router B were to forward all packets
bound for the destination network through router D, the packets would never
reach the 192.168.1.0 because there would be a routing-loop.
First, the metrics for the routes will be calculated and then the routing-loop
scenario will be described. Table 7-3 shows the metrics for the routes.

Table 7-3 Route Metrics from Each Router in Example 4 to 192.168.1.0

REPORTED FEASIBLE
PATH DISTANCE DISTANCE

C → 192.168.1.0 n/a 28,160

B → 192.168.1.0 via C 28,160 30,720

A → 192.168.1.0 via B and C 28,160 33,280

D → 192.168.1.0 via B and C 281,600 286,720

Creation of a Routing-Loop
Let’s say router B sends update packets to its neighbors advertising a route to
the 192.168.1.0 through router C. Router A and router D learn about the route.
Focus on router D. Router D now wants to tell its neighbors about the route.
Router D will advertise the route to router A, but router A will likely already
know about the route from router B and reject the offering from router D
because the reported distance from router D of 286,720 is not less than router
A’s current feasible distance of 33,280 to the same network through B.9
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Network 1
192.168.1.0/24
E0 E0 E1 E0 E1
A 200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 B 200.1.1.9/30 200.1.1.10/30 C
S0 200.1.1.18/30 E2
Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet
100,000/100 100,000/100 100,000/100

200.1.1.13/30

200.1.1.17/30 E0

S0
200.1.1.14/30 D

T1 Ethernet
1,544/20,000 10,000/1,000

Figure 7-11 Network model prone to incurring a routing-loop.

Would router D try to advertise the route back to B? Normally no, thanks to
the split-horizon rule, but there are some scenarios where it would, which is
one reason DUAL is around. DUAL does not assume split-horizon is always
active.
One possible issue related to split-horizon is that it may have been disabled.
Split-horizon can either be manually disabled, or in the case of certain point-
to-point or multi-point configurations with sub-interfaces configured, split-
horizon would be off by default. In such cases, router D would go ahead and
advertise the network back to router B. DUAL would show its stuff here by
rejecting the route—the reported distance of 286,720 would not be less than
router B’s feasible distance of 30,720 to the same network. In this case, the sus-
picion raised by a higher reported metric would be justified.
Another factor that could cause router D to advertise the 192.168.1.0 to
router B is if a network problem had prevented router D from learning about
the 192.168.1.0 from router B in the first place. Remember that EIGRP does not
periodically advertise all networks in routing updates. Only changes to routes
are advertised. If a network problem had prevented router D from receiving
the update packet regarding the 192.168.1.0 from router B, it would likely
advertise the route to router B after it learned it from A, thus potentially creat-
ing a routing-loop. Again, DUAL would put a stop to such nonsense. A looped
route will always have a larger reported distance than the receiving router’s current
feasible distance to the network, because the route includes a path through the router
receiving the advertisement. This is how DUAL achieves 100 percent loop-free
routes.

Load Balancing
EIGRP handles both equal and unequal cost load balancing in the same man-
ner as IGRP. The command reference at the end of this chapter has a brief
example. Refer to Chapter 6, page 173, for details.
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208 Chapter 7

Default Routing
Default routing is covered in Chapter 10. Differences pertaining specifically to
IGRP are noted here.
EIGRP supports both forms of configuring default routing via the ip route
and ip default-network commands.

Redistribution
EIGRP is capable of including static and externally learned routes in its
updates, via redistribution. The general principals of redistribution are cov-
ered in Chapter 10. Redistribution is OFF by default in EIGRP with one excep-
tion. EIGRP and IGRP, which have similar metrics, automatically distribute
routes to each other when both routing protocols are running on the same
router—and both protocols are using the same autonomous system number.
The one dissimilarity between the protocols, the metric multiplier of 256, is
automatically adjusted when routes are redistributed.

Route Summarization
EIGRP excels at route summarization by not only allowing the disabling of
auto-summarization and configuration of manual summarization, but sum-
marization can be performed at any bit boundary—the key to support for
discontiguous networks. The topic of summarization is covered in detail in
Chapter 4.

Command Reference—EIGRP
Figure 7-12 provides a network model for the configuration of EIGRP. The
examples will cover configuring EIGRP on a Cisco router.

River City Atlantic City Jersey City

192.168.10.0/24 192.168.20.0/24 192.168.30.0/24

E0 E0 E0
S1 (56K) S1 (T1)
S0 S0
A
200.1.1.5/30 B
200.1.1.9/30 C
200.1.1.6/30 200.1.1.10/30
Figure 7-12 Example network for commands.
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EIGRP 209

Initial Configuration
An initial configuration of the routers will be performed, and the route tables
will be shown before the EIGRP routing protocol is configured.

Configuring the IP Addresses

routerA#configure terminal
routerA(config)#interface fastethernet 0 (1)
routerA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 (2)
routerA(config-if)#exit (3)
routerA(config)#interface serial 1 (4)
routerA(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.4 255.255.255.252 (5)
routerA(config-if)#bandwidth 56 (6)
routerA(config-if)#exit
routerA(config)#

routerB#configure terminal
routerB(config)#interface fastethernet 0
routerB(config-if)#ip address 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#interface serial 0
routerB(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.4 255.255.255.252 (7)
routerB(config-if)#bandwidth 56
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#interface serial 1
routerB(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.8 255.255.255.252 (8)
routerB(config-if)#bandwidth 1544
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#

routerC#configure terminal
routerC(config)#interface fastethernet 0
routerC(config-if)#ip address 192.168.30.0 255.255.255.0
routerC(config-if)#exit
routerC(config)#interface serial 0
routerC(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.8 255.255.255.252
routerC(config-if)#bandwidth 1544
routerC(config-if)#exit
routerC(config)#

(1) changes to interface E0.

(2) configures the address with a /24 prefix.
(3) exits interface mode back to global config mode.
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210 Chapter 7

(4) changes to interface S1.

(5) configures the address with a /30 prefix.
(6) sets the bandwidth to the actual speed of the interface.
(7) is the first possible subnet of the 200.1.1.0 /30.
(8) is the next possible subnet of the 200.1.1.0 /30.

Route Tables Before EIGRP Is Configured

Figures 7-13, 7-14, and 7-15 reflect the state of the route tables before EIGRP is
configured.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.10.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1

Figure 7-13 Router A – before EIGRP is configured.

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.20.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1

Figure 7-14 Router B – before EIGRP is configured.

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EIGRP 211

routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.30.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0

Figure 7-15 Router C – before EIGRP is configured.

Configuring EIGRP

routerA(config)#router eigrp 100 (1)

routerA(config-router)#network 192.168.10.0 (2)
routerA(config-router)#network 200.1.1.4 (3)
routerA(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0 (4)
routerA(config-router)#exit

routerB#config-term
routerB(config)#router eigrp 100
routerB(config-router)#network 192.168.20.0
routerB(config-router)#network 200.1.1.4
routerB(config-router)#network 200.1.1.8
routerB(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0
routerB(config-router)#exit
routerB(config)#int s1
routerB(config-if)#bandwidth 56
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#

routerC#config-term
routerC(config)#router iegrp 100
routerC(config-router)#network 192.168.30.0
routerC(config-router)#network 200.1.1.8
routerC(config-router)#passive-interface fastethernet 0
routerC(config-router)#exit
routerC(config)#
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(1) enables EIGRP on this router with an AS number of 100 (router no

eigrp disables EIGRP).
(2) includes the network in EIGRP advertisements. All interfaces with an
address configured within the range of this address will send and
receive routing updates.
(3) includes the network in EIGRP advertisements. All interfaces with an
address configured within the range of this address will send and
receive routing updates.
(4) suppresses Hello packets on this interface.

Route Tables After EIGRP Is Configured

Figures 7-16, 7-17, and 7-18 show how the route tables look after IGRP has
been configured and the tables have normalized.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.10.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
D 200.1.1.8 [90/1] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1
D 192.168.20.0 /24 [90/1] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1
D 192.168.30.0 /24 [90/2] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:05, Serial1

Figure 7-16 Router A after EIGRP is configured.

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EIGRP 213

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.20.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial1
D 192.168.10.0 /24 [90/1] via 200.1.1.5, 00:00:05, Serial1
D 192.168.30.0 /24 [90/1] via 200.1.1.10, 00:00:05, Serial1

Figure 7-17 Router B – after EIGRP is configured.

routerC#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.30.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 2 subnets
C 200.1.1.8 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
D 200.1.1.4 [90/1] via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0
D 192.168.20.0 /24 [90/1] via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0
D 192.168.10.0 /24 [90/2] via 200.1.1.9, 00:00:05, Serial0

Figure 7-18 Router C – after EIGRP is configured.

Common EIGRP Commands

Here are examples of some of the more commonly used commands for config-
uring EIGRP.
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214 Chapter 7

Load Balancing—Changing the Default Number of Multiple Paths

EIGRP defaults to load balancing up to four equal cost paths. This can be
altered with the following command:

routerX#config term
routerX(config)#router eigrp
routerX(config-router)#maximum-paths x (1)

where:
(1) x = (1-6)

Load Balancing—Configuring Unequal Multipath Routing

Unequal multipath routing is configured by issuing the variance command,
which encompasses the range of metrics on the paths to be included for load
balancing the traffic to a specific network. The method for determining the
variance value was shown on page 173. Here are the commands to configure a
variance of 88 from the example:

routerX#config term
routerX(config)#router iegrp 100
routerX(config-router)#variance 88
routerX(config-router)#exit

Configuring K Values for Metric Manipulation

Cisco does not recommend altering K values. However, in a white paper on
EIGRP, Cisco recommends that if K values must be altered, you should manip-
ulate the delay value rather then the bandwidth value to avoid routing-loops:

routerX(config)#router eigrp 100

routerX(config-router)#metric weights 0 1 1 1 1 1 (1)

where:
(1) shows default K values being assigned.
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EIGRP 215

Enabling and Disabling Split Horizon

Split horizon is on by default for most configurations, but may be off by
default on serial interfaces and/or sub-interfaces. You can check the status of
split horizon on a particular interface with the show ip interface x command.
For example, to see if split horizon is enabled on serial 0, execute the following:

routerX(config)#int s0
routerX(config-if)#show ip interface s0

Scan the output for the statement “Split horizon is enabled” or “Split hori-
zon is disabled.” Split horizon can be forcibly enabled or disabled on an inter-
face level with the following command:

routerX(config-if)#{no} ip split-horizon

Configuring Summarization
Auto-summarization is ON by default. Configuration commands for disabling
auto-summarization and/or configuring manual summarization are given in
Chapter 4, starting on page 130. As with IGRP, manual summarization is con-
figured at the interface level. The following example summarizes address
range 150.1.0.0–150.1.4.0 as 150.1.0.0:

routerX(config)#int serial 0/0

routerX(config-router)#no auto-summary
routerX(config-if)#ip summary-address eigrp 1 150.1.1.0 255.255.252.0

Configuring for IP Classless Feature

The ip classless command is explained in Chapter 10. The command should
be executed if default routing is configured. The command to enable classless
routing is the same for all routing protocols:

routerX(config)#router eigrp
routerX(config-router)#ip classless

As of Cisco IOS 12.1, classless routing is enabled by default.

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Inhibiting Hello Packets from Being Sent Out a Specific Interface

When a network is added to EIGRP with the network x.x.x.x command,
EIGRP will send Hello packets out all interfaces with addresses configured
within the range of the specified address. If one or more of these interfaces are
stub networks (no other router on the link), Hello packets will be sent out
unnecessarily. The passive-interface command prevents the Hello packets
from being sent out the interface specified in the command:

routerA(config-router)#passive-interface ethernet 0 (1)

routerA(config-router)#exit
routerA(config)#

where:
(1) disables sending routing updates through this interface.

Changing the Hello Interval for Outgoing Hello Packets

routerX(config)#router eigrp
routerX(config-router)#ip Hello-interval eigrp x

The default Hello interval is 5 seconds for bandwidth links greater than T1.
Less than T1 default interval is 60 seconds. The hold-time timer must be
altered if the Hello interval is altered to maintain a 3:1 ratio of hold-time to
Hello interval.

Changing the Hold-Time Timer for Timing Out Neighbors

routerX(config)#router eigrp
routerX(config-router)#ip hold-time eigrp x

Changing the Maximum Amount of Bandwidth Used

by EIGRP Packets

routerX(config)#router eigrp

routerX(config-router)#ip bandwidth-percent eigrp x (1)

(1) The default bandwidth usage by EIGRP is 50 percent.

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Changing How Long EIGRP Waits for a Reply to a Query Packet

routerX(config)#router eigrp
routerX(config-router)#timers active-time x (1)

(1)The default timeout is 3 minutes in later IOS releases.

Show Commands for EIGRP

Here are a few of the common commands for displaying the state of an EIGRP
router.

Showing the Configuration

The following command shows all routing protocols, EIGRP timers, filters,
redistribution, version, and summarization status:

routerX#show ip protocols

Showing the Route Table

The following command shows static, external, directly connected, and
EIGRP-learned routes:

routerX#show ip route (shows all routes)

routerX#show ip route x.x.x.x (more detail for a single route)

Showing the Neighbor Table

The following command shows the neighbor table:

routerX#show ip eirgp neighbor

Showing the Topology Table

The following command shows the topology table:

routerX#show ip eirgp topology

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218 Chapter 7

Troubleshooting Commands
If you get into trouble, these commands can help get you out.

Tracking EIGRP Packets

Use the following command to track EIGRP packets:

routerX#(un) debug eigrp packets (1)

where:
(1) The command debug eigrp packets is used to see options for filter-
ing out specific packet types.

Tracking EIGRP Packets to and from All Neighbors

Use the following command to track EIGRP packets to and from all neighbors:

routerX#(un) debug eigrp packets

routerX#(un) debug eigrp neighbor

Tracking EIGRP Packets to and from One Neighbor

Use the following command to track EIGRP packets to and from just one
neighbor:

routerX#(un) debug eigrp packets

routerX#(un) debug eigrp neighbor as-number interface-addresss-of-

neighbor (1)

where:
(1) restricts the debug command to EIGRP packets concerning the speci-
fied neighbor.

Showing the Debug Status

Use the following command to show the debugging status:

routerX#show debug
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Canceling the Debug

Use the following command to cancel the debugging process:

routerX#undebug all
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220 Chapter 7

Notes

1. Technically there are six packet types. The sixth packet type relates to
Novell IPX, which is not covered here.
2. To be recognized as neighbors, routers sharing the same link must be
configured with the same autonomous system (AS) number, and their
configured timer settings must be identical.
3. Later versions of the IOS reset the hold-time timer upon receipt of any
type of EIGRP packet from a neighbor.
4. Routes not meeting the feasibility condition are actually installed into
the topology table, but they are hidden. This improves performance if
the route is later accepted.
5. Up to six routes to the same network can be installed into the route
table if their metric is equal. Additionally, EIGRP, like IGRP, supports
unequal-cost multipath routing through the use of the variance com-
mand. The variance command was explained on page 173.
6. The receipt of any EIGRP packet resets the hold-time timer in later IOS
versions.
7. Although hop count is not used in a route’s metric, there is a field for
hop count in the packet structure of update packets.
8. If the route is dropped, once the broken link is repaired, routers B and C
will “discover” the route and the route will again be propagated
throughout the network.
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CHAPTER

8
OSPF

Overview
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is the defacto open standard routing protocol
for large networks. Table 8-1 shows the basic characteristics of OSPF.

Table 8-1 Routing Characteristics of OSPF

Metric Cost

Interior or Exterior? Interior

Distance vector or Link-state? Link-state

Singlepath or Multipath? Multipath

Broadcast or Multicast? Multicast

Flat or Hierarchical? Hierarchical

Classful or Classless? Classless

221
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222 Chapter 8

This chapter covers the following OSPF topics:

Advantages of using OSPF 222
Disadvantages of using OSPF 223
OSPF Background 223
Our approach to explaining OSPF 224
Introduction to OSPF 224
OSPF terminology 233
OSPF Operation Part 1 – The Building Blocks 245
OSPF and Network Types 245
OSPF areas 251
OSPF operation in a single area 252
OSPF operation in a multiple area system 268
OSPF metrics and population of route tables 284
Route summarization 291
Redistribution 294
Default routing 295
OSPF Operation Part 2 – Tying It All Together 301
Designing OSPF networks 301
Command reference 309

Advantages of Using OSPF

■■ Widely supported open standard—runs on most platforms

■■ Classless protocol—full support for classless addressing and therefore
classless routing
■■ Scalable protocol—can be used on very large networks
■■ Extensible—periodically updated via RFCs to keep pace with evolution
of the Internet
■■ Highly configurable to manage bandwidth utilized by routing protocol
traffic
■■ No hop count limitation
■■ Fast convergence with small routing updates
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OSPF 223

■■ Not prone to routing loops

■■ Routing traffic sent via multicasts
■■ Optional authentication of routing packets—prevents rogue routers
from advertising unauthorized routes

Disadvantages of Using OSPF

■■ Perceived as relatively complex to configure (not necessarily true)

■■ Runs over IP only
■■ Does not support unequal cost multipath routing (can be mitigated
through metric manipulation)
■■ Summarizes routes at area borders only
■■ May require renumbering of network in order to obtain desired sum-
marization of routes

OSPF Background
OSPF, like IGRP and EIGRP, was developed to overcome the shortfalls of RIP.
RIP’s relatively slow convergence, tendency to create routing loops, 15 hop
count limitation, and RIPv1’s lack of support for CIDR made it untenable for
larger networks. Most of the development of routing protocols designed to
replace RIP was done in the late ‘80s and early ‘90s. Although RIPv2 and IGRP
improved somewhat on RIPv1, large networks (over 50 routers for example)
needed a more scalable solution for propagating and maintaining routes.
While Cisco was developing its proprietary EIGRP protocol, an open stan-
dards committee (the IETF) developed OSPF. OSPF is mostly used on enter-
prise networks and some ISP backbones.1
Both EIGRP and OSPF are suitable for large networks but each protocol
approaches the problem of large-scale routing differently. EIGRP is a distance
vector protocol that uses some link-state methods and makes use of the Dif-
fusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to learn and maintain routes, whereas OSPF
employs strictly link-state methods and uses the Shortest Path First (SPF) algo-
rithm to learn and maintain its routes. (Chapter 4 explains how distance vec-
tor and link-state routing protocols function.)
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224 Chapter 8

Explaining OSPF
OSPF has a lot of terminology associated with it. Routing terminology is not
always intuitive, and the resulting “terminology fog” can often be a hindrance
rather than a facilitator to learning any technology. It would be a shame for this
to happen with OSPF, because although the protocol has a reputation for being
complex, it is in fact an efficient, elegant solution for populating route tables
with optimal paths to networks. Every feature built in to OSPF is there for a
good reason and the more you understand the why behind the architecture of
OSPF, the easier the protocol itself is to understand.
It’s easy to get into a chicken-or-egg thing when explaining OSPF, so after a
short introduction designed to give you an idea of how OSPF works and the
vision behind its architecture, OSPF terminology will be explained in brief.
From there, two passes will be made through the core material. In Part 1, the
building blocks of OSPF will be explained. You will learn about the different
network types the protocol runs on and the various elements of OSPF that
come into play in different network configurations. OSPF operation in both
single and multiple area configurations will be covered. In Part 2, all of the
building blocks will be tied together, providing specific examples of how to
implement OSPF in various network configurations. A command reference
with several example models follow. Although this approach gives rise to a
certain amount of redundancy, you want a little repetition with OSPF.

Introduction to OSPF
OSPF has evolved into the industry standard for larger networks requiring an
interior routing protocol, partially because it is built on open standards. OSPF
fully supports classless addressing and thus it supports subnetting, variable
subnetting (VLSMs), and CIDR. Unlike EIGRP, OSPF supports only one routed
protocol—IP. OSPF was designed from the beginning as an Internet rout-
ing protocol. OSPF has specific extensions for dealing with routes learned
from the pervasive routing protocol for handling interdomain routing on the
Internet: BGP.
Inherent to the design of OSPF is its ability to support a hierarchical routing
environment. An OSPF autonomous system can be divided into multiple areas
that share a controlled amount of routing information across their borders.
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OSPF 225

This approach has many advantages, among them a significant reduction in

the amount of network bandwidth consumed by routing updates. OSPF areas
are arranged into a two-level hierarchy whereby one or more areas attach to a
central backbone area.

N OT E It should be underscored that the term hierarchy does not imply that
areas occur within areas, within areas, and so on. Rather, it is a hub and spoke
design; an approach that mitigates the possibility of routing loops.

This hierarchical approach to managing routing updates goes hand-in-hand

with a hierarchical IP addressing scheme. OSPF is very strict about where
route summarization takes place. It therefore relies on a well-architected
addressing scheme—more so than any other interior routing protocol. Although
OSPF has a reputation for being difficult to configure, the real art to deploying
the protocol is in proper planning and design. You need to understand your
network well and have it properly addressed for an optimal implementation.
OSPF is a highly configurable routing protocol with a number of design ele-
ments that enable precise control over its operation. Much of the flexibility of
OSPF has to do with minimizing network traffic generated from routers talking to one
another. While the myriad number of configuration options may seem a bit
daunting at first, the payoff is in having a reliable network that is not bogged
down with routing updates clogging its pipes. Moreover, most OSPF parame-
ters can normally be left at the default settings.

How OSPF Works

This section is an overview of how OSPF functions. Details regarding these
concepts will be forthcoming in subsequent sections. The idea here is to give
you a big picture of how this routing protocol works. The devil in the details will
come later.

Initial Startup
OSPF initializes by first building neighbor relationships with routers sharing a
common network link. This is the same as with EIGRP. But that is where the
analogy ends. Unlike EIGRP, OSPF shares routing information only with cer-
tain neighbors. The neighbor relationship with a router must be upgraded to a
status known as adjacent before the exchange of routing information actually
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226 Chapter 8

takes place. This is one of many techniques employed to minimize routing

traffic. Also, OSPF, being a true link-state routing protocol, only shares infor-
mation about network links, not routes, with adjacent neighbors. Put another
way, rather than tell a neighboring router about all the networks it is aware of,
and how far away they are—as distance vector protocols do—an OSPF router
simply reports a variety of information about its own directly connected net-
works (its links). This link-state information is relayed to all routers in an area,
allowing each router to build a map of the local network topology when the
Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm is run.
Link-state information is stored in a database known, amazingly enough, as
the link-state database. Every router maintains its own link-state database.
When the network is converged, all routers in an area have the exact same
link-state database. As mentioned earlier, the link-state database is built by
each router advertising its links to adjacent neighboring routers, which in turn
forward the information to their adjacent neighboring routers. These adver-
tisements are called Link-State Advertisements or LSAs. The initial synchro-
nization of each router’s link-state database is done through an efficient
process whereby a subset of each LSA is sent to the adjacent router. The receiv-
ing router can request more information on each LSA as needed. Ultimately,
each router in an area becomes adjacent to at least one other router in the area,
and therefore every router receives the LSAs it needs to fully populate its link-
state database, run the SPF algorithm, and populate its route table. LSAs are
usually multicast to minimize the impact on non-interested hosts.
The process of forwarding LSAs to all routers is known as known as flood-
ing, a somewhat misleading term that portends that the router sourcing the
LSAs will somehow deluge the other routers with update packets. In fact,
flooding simply refers to getting a copy of the LSAs to all adjacent neighbors.
The process itself is quite orderly: the source router simply forwards LSAs to
its adjacent neighbors, who add the received LSAs to their local link-state
database, and forward the LSA to their adjacent neighbors, and so on.2 So in a
way, OSPF propagates routing information in a manner similar to a distance
vector protocol, except that the information is different—router IDs and the
state of their directly connected networks, as opposed to network destinations and
their distance (OSPF routers never transmit their route tables). The propagation
of LSAs even follows the split-horizon rule of not advertising routing informa-
tion (in this case, LSAs) out the interface it was received on.
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Running SPF
Once every router has a fully populated link-state database, the SPF algorithm
is run on each router to populate its route table. SPF first creates a shortest
path tree with the local router at the root of the tree. Performing this task on all
routers gives each router in the area a view of the network from its own per-
spective. Once the tree is built, a map of the area exists. The shortest path to
each network in the tree is calculated and the route table is populated. The
metric used by OSPF to determine the shortest path is cost, with cost being
unspecified by the RFC for OSPF. A popular implementation of OSPF is the
Cisco IOS, which defines cost as simply the bandwidth of the link. The speed
of a link is converted to a value ranging from 1 to 65535. The higher the band-
width, the lower the number. The exact formula will be shown when OSPF
metrics are covered on page 284. Figure 8-1 illustrates the network model used
for building the shortest path tree.
Figure 8-2 shows a simplified view of the link-state database on router A
before the SPF algorithm is run.
When the link-state database is complete, the SPF algorithm builds the
shortest path tree. Figure 8-3 shows router A’s tree.

192.168.1.0/24 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.3.0/24 192.168.4.0/24

200.1.1.4/30 200.1.1.8/30 200.1.1.12/30

E0 E0 E0 E0
S1 S1 S1
S0 S0 S0
A B C D
(T1) (T1) (T1)
S1 S1

(56K)

S0 S1
E (56K)

200.1.1.16/30 200.1.1.20/30

Figure 8-1 Network diagram for the OSPF example.

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228 Chapter 8

Router A is directly connected to network 192.168.1.0. The mask is /24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router A is directly connected to network 200.1.1.4. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 1.544mbp/s
Router A is directly connected to network 200.1.1.16. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 56kbp/s
Router B is directly connected to network 192.168.2.0. The mask is /24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router B is directly connected to network 200.1.1.4. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 1.544mbp/s
Router B is directly connected to network 200.1.1.8. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 1.544mbp/s
Router C is directly connected to network 192.168.3.0. The mask is /24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router C is directly connected to network 200.1.1.8. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 1.544mbp/s
Router C is directly connected to network 200.1.1.12. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 1.544mbp/s
Router D is directly connected to network 192.168.4.0. The mask is /24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router D is directly connected to network 200.1.1.12. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 1.544mbp/s
Router D is directly connected to network 200.1.1.20. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 56kbp/s
Router E is directly connected to network 200.1.1.16. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 56kbp/s
Router E is directly connected to network 200.1.1.20. The mask is /30. The bandwidth is 56kbp/s
Figure 8-2 Simplified view of the link-state database before SPF is run.

<root>
Router A
192.168.0.1 cost=1
200.1.1.4 cost=64
200.1.1.16 cost=1785

Router B Router E
192.168.0.2 cost=1 200.1.1.16 cost=1785
200.1.1.4 cost=64 200.1.1.20 cost=1785
200.1.1.8 cost=64

Router C Router D
192.168.0.3 cost=1 192.168.0.4 cost=1
200.1.1.8 cost=64 200.1.1.12 cost=64
200.1.1.12 cost=64 200.1.1.20 cost=1785

Router D Router C
192.168.0.4 cost=1 192.168.0.3 cost=1
200.1.1.12 cost=64 200.1.1.8 cost=64
200.1.1.20 cost=1785 200.1.1.12 cost=64

Router E Router B
200.1.1.16 cost=1785 192.168.0.2 cost=1
200.1.1.20 cost=1785 200.1.1.4 cost=64
200.1.1.8 cost=64

Figure 8-3 Simplified view of the shortest path tree created by the SPF algorithm.
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The SPF tree gives you an idea of how the network is viewed by router A.
For example, router A can see that there are two paths to the 192.168.0.4/24
subnet attached to router D. One path is via router E and the other is via
routers B and C. The bandwidth of the links have been converted to a cost
value so SPF can easily determine which path is better. It is now a straightfor-
ward process of calculating the shortest path to each network and populating
the route table as shown in Figure 8-4.
In the case of the path to the 192.168.0.4, the route through routers B and C
was chosen as the shortest (quickest) path and installed into the route table.
The path through the T1 links is far quicker than the path through the 56K
links, even though a greater number of routers are traversed. A more complete
form of this process will be illustrated after additional fundamentals of OSPF
have been covered. Figure 8-5 summarizes the steps required to initialize
OSPF and commence routing.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0 /24 is directly connected, Ethernet0

200.1.1.0 /30 is subnetted, 5 subnets
C 200.1.1.4 is directly connected, Serial0
C 200.1.1.16 is directly connected, Serial1
O 200.1.1.8 [110/128] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:10, Serial0
O 200.1.1.12 [110/192] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:10, Serial0
O 200.1.1.20 [110/256] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:10, Serial0
O 192.168.2.0 [110/74] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:12, Serial0
O 192.168.3.0 [110/138] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:12, Serial0
O 192.168.4.0 [110/202] via 200.1.1.6, 00:00:12, Serial0

Figure 8-4 Results of the show ip route command on router A after the route table is
populated from the SPF algorithm.
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Establish neighbors

Establish adjacencies with appropriate neighbors

and synchronize link-state databases

Run the SPF algorithm

Populate the route table

Commence routing

Figure 8-5 Summary of steps to initiate routing in an OSPF area.

Maintaining Routes
Once every router achieves a complete link-state database, runs the SPF algo-
rithm, and populates the route table, OSPF generates minimal network traffic.
Hello packets are sent periodically between neighboring routers to keep the
neighbor relationship alive (usually every 10 seconds). Additionally, a router’s
link-state database is re-flooded every 30 minutes. Even though LSAs are sent
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OSPF 231

reliably with OSPF’s proprietary mechanism for assured delivery, they are re-
sent periodically to be absolutely sure every router has a synchronized link-
state database. An accurate link-state database is critical to the proper
functioning of the SPF algorithm. If for some reason a router’s link-state data-
base becomes corrupt, this periodic flooding of LSAs insures that any issues
regarding the integrity of the database will be short-lived.

Network Failures
If a router or network link fails, the failure is detected through the loss of layer
2 data-link keep-alive packets. This will normally occur even before the loss of
Hello packets from an established neighbor is detected. In either case, the
router noticing the failure, after timing out the link and/or neighbor, will
notify adjacent neighbors that a change has occurred in the state of the link.
This information is propagated like any other update: an LSA is flooded
throughout the area. As each router receives the LSA, it updates its link-state
database, runs the SPF algorithm, and modifies the route table as needed. This
process happens fast, because the link is timed out quickly and the update
packet is small and confined within an area, giving OSPF the reputation for
quick convergence.

OSPF Areas
A fundamental design aspect of OSPF is that the autonomous system running
the protocol can be divided into multiple areas. What exactly does that mean?
Quite simply, this is one of OSPF’s many methods for controlling the traffic
generated by routing updates (LSAs).
The type of LSA discussed so far, the one used within an area, carries
enough detailed information about routers and their links to build the topol-
ogy map required by SPF. But this process takes up router resources and band-
width. As networks grow to incorporate multiple buildings, multiple cities, or
even multiple continents, the need for every router to have a detailed map of
the entire system is lessened. Why is that? Keep in mind that the SPF algorithm
only wants all that topology detail to choose the optimal path to a network. On
larger networks, not every router needs detailed information about every net-
work to choose the best path. This concept gave birth to the OSPF area. Areas
share routing information with each other, but only routes and their metrics—
not topology information. Figure 8-6 illustrates this principal.
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232 Chapter 8

OSPF area
Building A I am a border router. I am
sending small "summary" LSA's
about the networks in building A.
These LSAs are small because
they only include network routes
and their costs.

OSPF Area
Building B

Thank you! We don't need all the

topological data for those
networks. We will add the routes
to our route tables and forward
all packets destined for those
networks to the border router.
The border router has the
detailed information to optimally
route such packets into building A.

Figure 8-6 This network model makes a case for not propagating detailed route
information between buildings.

The networks in building A are separated from the networks in building B

by a single router bordering the buildings. Why should the routers in building
A need to know the path to each network in building B, when that task could
be handed off to the router bordering the two areas? After all, any packet
bound for building B will be sent to the border router anyway in this particu-
lar model. Therefore, only summary LSAs, listing minimal network informa-
tion will be exchanged between buildings.
Even in cases where there are two or more routers redundantly bridging
locations, only the routers bordering the locations need full information for
determining the best path to a network in the corresponding location. All that
the routers within an area require for optimal forwarding of packets bound for
other areas is the best border router to send the packets to. In OSPF, a border
router is a part of the area, so it’s naturally part of the topology map of each
area. Forwarding packets to the border router is therefore always optimal.
An additional benefit of dividing a system into areas is that routes learned
from another area are not required to have the SPF algorithm run on them.
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OSPF 233

After all, there is no topology information to act on. Rather, the route is con-
sidered for inclusion into the route table based simply on its metric. Obviously,
this method saves on the processing power required to run the SPF algorithm.
The fewer the SPF calculations, the faster routing commences. Areas are a win-
win feature of OSPF, provided care is taken that optimal routing is not
impinged.
Finally, the bandwidth savings of summary LSAs sent between areas is fur-
ther leveraged when route summarization is introduced. Aggregating many
subnets into a single network ID means fewer summary LSAs are required to
describe the networks within an area. Summary LSAs and route summariza-
tion go hand-in-hand because with OSPF summarization only occurs at the
border of an area (as it should). In other words, summarization is more an inte-
gral part of OSPF than with other routing protocols. The same can be said of
default routing, which OSPF also tasks border routers to handle. Route sum-
marization and default routing are not an after thought with OSPF. They need
to be considered as part of the overall design of the implementation process. It
is said that in real estate, it’s all about location, location, location. In OSPF, it’s
all about planning, planning, planning. Understand the concept of areas and
you are well on your way to successfully implementing a well-architected
OSPF system.

OSPF Terminology
Like EIGRP, OSPF has an abundant amount of terminology. Therefore, a first
pass will be made through the terms surrounding OSPF in order to familiarize
you with them and gain some perspective. These terms will be further defined
as needed later. This section can also serve later as an OSPF glossary of terms.

Important Networking Terminology

OSPF behaves differently on differing network types. Some network types
require special configuration. It is therefore important to be aware of the char-
acteristics of certain network types and that in some cases special configura-
tion may be required, especially on networks that don’t support multicasting.
Here are the key network types:
■■ Point-to-point: Only connects two devices—typically a serial link, with
one router on each end. Broadcasts and multicasts are supported.
■■ Broadcast, multi-access: A LAN, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, or
FDDI. Usually includes two or more routers attached to the same net-
work segment. Broadcasts and multicasts are supported.
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234 Chapter 8

■■ Non-broadcast, multi-access (NBMA): Physically a point-to-point con-

nection that may reach multiple destinations through a WAN cloud —
Frame Relay, ATM, SMDS, or X.25. Broadcasts and multicasts may not
be supported. Additional configuration may be required to facilitate
OSPF routing.
■■ Point-to-multipoint: A single physical interface with multiple logical
sub-interfaces, connecting multiple destinations through a WAN cloud —
Frame Relay, ATM, SMDS, or X.25. Broadcasts and multicasts may not
be supported.
■■ Demand circuits: Such “dial-on-demand” networks inhibit the periodic
routing traffic generated by OSPF and require special consideration.

Important OSPF Terminology

The remainder of this section lists most common OSPF terminology.

OSPF Tables and Databases

OSPF uses three main tables and databases3:
■■ Neighbor table: Contains the list of all known routing neighbors and
various information regarding the neighbors.
■■ Link-state database (also known as a topology database): Contains all
links (networks) in the area and their states. When first initialized, a
router is only aware of its directly connected links. As new links are
learned from neighboring routers the link-state database grows, expos-
ing the topology of the network.
■■ Route table (also known as a forwarding database): Contains the
routes used to forward traffic. It is populated from the link-state data-
base after the SPF algorithm has run.

Hello Packets
This is one of five packet types unique to OSPF. Hello packets are sent out all
OSPF enabled interfaces of a router running the OSPF process. They are used
to identify neighboring routers with at least one interface on the same subnet.
Hello packets are multicast to multicast address 224.0.0.5 (known as All-
SPFRouters). Hello packets also act as keep-alives between neighboring
routers.
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Neighbor
Routers sharing a common network link and exchanging Hello packets
become neighbors. Certain OSPF configuration parameters on each router
interface must match for two routers to become neighbors.

Adjacency
An adjacency is a status established between neighboring routers to enable
actual routing information to be exchanged (link-state databases are shared).
This additional relationship between routers helps minimize the amount of
traffic generated by routing updates.

Designated Router and Backup Designated Router

On broadcast, multi-access media, a single router is designated to send routing
updates (LSAs) to all other routers. Routers sharing the same segment (subnet)
become adjacent only with the Designated Router (DR) and Backup Desig-
nated Router (BDR), and share their link-state database only with the DR and
BDR. This is done by transmitting the link-state information to multicast
address 224.0.0.6 (AllDRouters). The DR then transmits the completed link-
state database to all routers on the subnet. Subsequent updates regarding links
are handled in the same manner.
The BDR takes over if the DR goes down. The routers on the segment elect
the DR and BDR.

DRother
DRother defines all routers sharing the segment that are not the DR or BDR.
This is terminology in keeping with describing all OSPF routers, regardless of
whether they are DRs or not (AllSPFRouters), and describing DRs just desig-
nated and BDRs (AllDRouters).

Hello Protocol
The Hello protocol uses Hello packets to establish neighbors and adjacencies,
and handles the election of the DR and BDR.

Router Priority
Router priority, which can be manually configured, dictates which routers are
eligible to become DR and BDR. The higher the router priority the more likely
a router will win an election to become DR or BDR.
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Router ID
The router ID uniquely identifies each OSPF router. The highest IP address on
the router becomes the router ID. If a loopback address has been configured, it
becomes the router ID regardless of numerical precedence.

Router States
OSPF, like other routing protocols such as EIGRP and BGP, uses a finite state
machine.4 OSPF routers transition through various states as neighbor and adja-
cency relationships are formed with other routers.

Down State
This is one of three states used to form a neighbor relationship between two
routers. The down state is the initial state when the router is initialized. The
router is sending Hello packets but has not received a reply from any potential
neighbors.

Init State
The init state occurs when router X receives a Hello packet from router Y, but
the packet does not yet contain router X’s Router ID. This is also known as a 1-
way state.

2-Way State
This is the third and final state for establishing a neighbor relationship. It
occurs when router X receives a Hello packet from router Y, and the packet
contains router X’s router ID. At this point, a neighbor relationship has been
established. This is also the starting point for establishing adjacencies between
routers.

Attempt State
This state only applies to network types with manually configured neighbors
(for example, non-broadcast, multi-access networks). If a router loses contact
with an established neighbor (loss of Hello packets), it will enter the attempt
state. In the attempt state, periodic Hello packets are sent at the poll-interval
(defaults to 120 seconds) rather than the Hello-interval (defaults to 60 seconds
on NBMA networks). This reduced rate conserves bandwidth but still allows
the neighbor relationship to be re-established.

Exstart State
In this state, link-state databases are exchanged between pairs of adjacent
routers. The router with the highest interface address becomes the master and
will initiate the exchange (if a DR exists, it always becomes a master). The
other router becomes the slave.
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Exchange State
The router designated master begins sending DataBase Description (DBD)
packets, which describe an LSA, to the slave. Upon completion, the slave reci-
procates to the master.

Loading State
This state is only entered when a router must request, or is waiting for, addi-
tional information from another router after the initial exchange of database
description packets.

Full State
When a router’s link-state database is fully synchronized, it is in the full state.
Upon reaching this state, the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm is run on the
link-state database (topology table), the route table is built, and the routing of
network packets commences.

Flooding
This term is used to describe the transmission of routing update packets
throughout an area. Routing updates are multicast and relayed by each adja-
cent router throughout the area so that all adjacent routers in the area receive
the update. Flooding is done reliably, with an acknowledgement received for
each LSA sent.

Areas
An area in OSPF is a logical grouping of routers that share the exact same link-
state database. Areas are one of several mechanisms for controlling the
resources consumed by routing updates. It is not necessary for all routers in an
autonomous system to receive detailed link-state information from all other
routers in the system, and areas provide a means to limit such traffic. OSPF
allows for several types of areas, depending on the network configuration.

Backbone Area
This is the only mandatory area in an OSPF network. The backbone area is
always designated area 0 (or 0.0.0.0.). There can be one, and only one area 0.
Normally, all other areas connect to area 0 and pass routing traffic bound for
other areas through area 0. As with all area types, link-state advertisements are
summarized before being advertised to other areas.

Standard Areas
A standard area is similar to the backbone area in terms of the amount of rout-
ing information circulated. Full routing information is shared between a stan-
dard area and area 0 (but not topology information). A standard area is often
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238 Chapter 8

distinguished by the fact that it has multiple gateways (internal and/or exter-
nal) that connect to area 0 and possibly connects directly to other autonomous
systems.

Stub Areas
Stub areas generally have only one or a small number of gateways connecting
their networks to area 0. Stub areas usually have no direct connection to other
autonomous systems except through the backbone (area 0). Because of this,
certain types of routing information can be summarized at the border, and
bandwidth can be saved. Two stub area types are specified in the RFC for
OSPF, with a third type proprietary to Cisco routers.

Stub Area
Stub areas (also referred to as standard stub areas) receive only a subset of rout-
ing information from area 0. External routes (routes outside the OSPF system)
are not propagated into a stub area. Instead, a default route is injected. All traf-
fic bound for destinations outside the system use the default route that points
to a router bordering the stub area and area 0.

Totally Stubby Areas

This is a vendor-specific implementation (Cisco) not specified by the RFCs
covering OSPF. A totally stubby area takes the concept of a standard stub area
one step further by propagating only a default route into the totally stubby
area. Not only are external routes represented as a default route, but inter-area
routes (routes from other OSPF areas within the system) are as well. This is
a resource-saving measure when a stub area is connected to the backbone
through only a single router. The routers within the area are populated with
only intra-area routes, and simply forward all inter-area and external traffic to
a default route pointing to a border router. As is the case with any stub area,
the border router has a more complete route table and carries out optimal rout-
ing from there.

Not-So-Stubby Areas (NSSA)

This area type allows for routers within the stub area to connect directly to
other autonomous systems. In this case, external routes learned from such
directly connected routers can be propagated throughout the NSSA, so routers
within the area can access external networks without going through the back-
bone. Many other options for handling the external routes learned by the
NSSA are available as well.

Partitioned Area
A partitioned area is not an area type. A partitioned area occurs when a failed
link causes one or more routers within an area to lose communication with one
or more routers within the same area.
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OSPF 239

Isolated Area
An isolated area occurs when one or more routers within an area are unable to
find a path to the backbone.

Virtual Links
Ideally, all OSPF areas should connect to area 0 directly. Virtual links allow an
area to instead connect to area 0 via another area. Virtual links can also be used
to repair a partitioned area until the links come back up.

Transit Area
This is not a specific area type, but rather a characteristic of the area when con-
figured to participate in a virtual link, in which case traffic just passes through
the area on the way to another area (as defined in the RFC specifying the oper-
ation of OSPF). In other contexts, the backbone area can be thought of as a tran-
sit area since in normal operation traffic passes from one area to another area
via area 0, without a virtual link.

Router Types
Router types go hand-in-hand with area types and are matched to the role they
play within the area.

Internal Router
An internal router has all interfaces contained within a single area and does
not connect to any other areas.

Area Border Router (ABR)

An ABR connects at least two areas. It maintains a separate link-state database
for each area it connects to. Link-state summarization and route summariza-
tion occur at border routers.

Backbone Router
This is a router that has at least one interface in area 0. A backbone router that
also has an interface in another area is also considered an ABR.

Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR)

An ASBR has at least one interface connecting to another autonomous system
(or redistributes a static route). It is through ASBRs that external routes are
learned and redistributed into the OSPF system.
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OSPF Packet Types

OSPF packets are used for router-to-router communication in an OSPF system.
Five types of packets are commonly used (not to be confused with the 11 types
of link-state advertisement packets).

Hello Packet—Type 1 OSPF Packet

As described earlier, this packet type builds and maintains neighbor
relationships.

Database Description Packet—Type 2 OSPF Packet

This packet type is circulated when two routers are initially exchanging their
link-state databases. It contains enough information to identify an LSA, but
does not hold the actual link information.

Link-State Request (LSR)—Type 3 OSPF Packet

This packet type is used to request complete information about a link learned
from another router. If the receiving router does not already have the complete
LSA, or if the current LSA has an older time stamp than the LSA advertised by
the database description packet, an LSR is sent to the advertising router asking
that the complete LSA be sent.

Link-State Update (LSUs)—Type 4 OSPF Packet

Link-state update packets are used to send any of 11 types of Link-State
Advertisements (LSAs). LSAs are used by a router to transmit pieces of its
link-state database. Only the six commonly used LSA types are described in
this book.5

Router LSA—Type 1
This packet type is generated by all routers. It describes the routers’ links and
their states. The router LSA is flooded to all adjacent neighbors within an area
on multicast address 224.0.0.5.

Network LSA—Type 2
This is generated only by DRs. This type of LSA describes the number of
routers attached to the subnet the DR serves and also contains the subnet mask
for the subnet.

Summary LSA (or Network Summary LSA)—Type 3

Summary LSAs are generated only by Area Border Routers (ABR). They are
used to summarize the network links for the area, and contain only a subset of
the information that LSA type 1 packets carry. These summary LSAs are trans-
mitted from non-zero areas into area 0, which in turn propagates the collective
summary information to all other areas.
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ASBR Summary LSA—Type 4

ASBR summary LSAs are generated only by Area Border Routers (ABR). They
are similar to type 3 LSAs except that the packet advertises an Autonomous
System Boundary Router (ASBR) rather than a network.

External LSA (or Autonomous System External LSA)—Type 5

These LSAs are generated only by Autonomous System Boundary Routers
(ASBR). They are used to advertise routes learned from outside the OSPF
autonomous system (external routes). They can optionally advertise a default
route in lieu of advertising each external route and can also perform route
summarization on external routes.

NSSA External LSA—Type 7

This LSA is generated only by Autonomous System Boundary Routers within
a not-so-stubby area. This special LSA type is similar to a type 5 LSA, except
that the routers in the NSSA area, which don’t listen to type 5 LSAs, will
process type 7 LSAs, allowing the routers to learn of external networks from a
locally attached ASBR.

Link-State Acknowledgement—Type 5 OSPF Packet

Link-state advertisements sent in response to a link-state request are sent reli-
ably with the OSPF Hello protocol. The link-state acknowledgement packet
acknowledges receipt of an OSPF packet.

Segment
The term “segment” has a flexible definition in general networking. In discus-
sions of OSPF, a segment usually refers to a multi-access network identified by
a unique IP network number.

External Route Type-1 (E1) and Type-2 (E2)

This has to do with how a metric is calculated for an external route. Type-1
routes include both the cost of the externally learned route (assigned at the
ASBR), plus the cost of forwarding the packet from an internal router to the
ASBR. Type-2 routes include only the cost of the route assigned at the ASBR.

OSPF Timers
OSPF does not employ the timers associated with distance vector protocols,
but the protocol does use a number of timers related to neighbor maintenance,
link-state updates, and route flapping. Some of the more commonly referenced
timers are listed here. See the current OSPF RFC (2328) for a complete list.
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242 Chapter 8

Hello-Interval
This timer specifies how often a router sends a Hello packet. The default
period is 10 seconds on broadcast multi-access networks and 60 seconds on
non-broadcast, multi-access networks. The Hello interval value is included in
a router’s Hello packet. This timer must be set to the same value on routers that
want to become neighbors.

RouterDeadInterval
Hello packets include a value for a field called RouterDeadInterval, which
specifies how long a router should wait to receive a Hello packet from an
established neighbor. If continuous Hello packets are not received, the neigh-
bor relationship is terminated. The default value of RouterDeadInterval is 4
times the Hello interval. The value of RouterDeadInterval must be set the same for
two routers to become neighbors.

SPF Hold-Time
This specifies how long a router should wait after calculating the route table
before it will calculate the route table again. This prevents overloading router
resources due to route flapping (a route constantly going up and down). The
default value for the SPF hold-time is 10 seconds.

LsAge and MaxAge Timers

After routers become adjacent, each router transmits an LSA every 30 minutes
for every entry in its link-state database. This is done to be absolutely sure that
all routers in an area have identical link-state databases. A field for each LSA
known as LsAge tracks the age of an LSA. When LsAge reaches an age of 30
minutes, the LSA is refreshed and flooded again. If somehow an LSA reaches
an age of 1 hour (known as MaxAge), it’s deemed invalid and is flushed from
the database.

Poll-Interval
Applies only to non-broadcast network types. Specifies how often a router
should poll (send a Hello packet to) a neighbor that has transitioned from a
status of at least 2-way to a status of attempt. The default poll-interval is 120
seconds. This is used to reduce network traffic generated by Hello packets
while attempting to reestablish a lost neighbor relationship.

LSA Retransmit-Interval
LSAs sent in response to a link-state request are sent reliably. If an acknowl-
edgement for the packet is not received, the LSA is retransmitted. The LSA
retransmit-interval specifies how often the LSA is retransmitted. When LSAs
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OSPF 243

are retransmitted, they are sent unicast to the host that has not acknowledged
the transmission.

Wait Timer
This timer applies only to network types that elect a DR and BDR. It specifies
how long a router should wait to see a DR and BDR listed in a neighbor’s
Hello packet before forcing an election of a DR or BDR. It defaults to the same
value as the RouterDeadInterval timer.

InfTransDelay or Transmit Delay

The age of LSAs are tracked so that routers can discern which LSAs have
newer information if the router receives multiple LSAs regarding the same
link. The transmit delay timer assists this process by incrementing the age of
an LSA as it exits an interface. It is an estimate of the amount of time it takes
the LSA to traverse the link connected to the interface (LSAs also age while
held in each router’s database). The default setting for the InfTransDelay timer
is 1 second.

RxmtInterval
This is the amount of time a router waits before retransmitting a database
description packet. It relates to the synchronizing of link-state databases.

Watch Out for the “Type” Trap

Many OSPF features are categorized by “type.” Don’t get confused over these
various terms. They are summarized here to help you keep them straight. All
types are described in detail later in the chapter. With that said, here is a brief
description of the OSPF feature types:
■■ Media and network types: OSPF behaves differently on different net-
work types. It distinguishes among five types of networks: broad-
cast/multi-access; non-broadcast/multi-access (NBMA); point-to-point;
point-to-multipoint; demand circuits.
■■ Database types: OSPF tracks routing information in three types of data-
bases (tables): neighbor table, which tracks known routing neighbors;
link-state database, which tracks network links; and route table, which
maintains the list of active routes.
■■ OSPF packet types: Five different packet types are used for varying
purposes with one of the types handling Hellos between neighbors, and
the other four having to do with sharing link-state data. The five types
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244 Chapter 8

are: Hello packets; Database Description packets; Link-State Request

packets; Link-State Update packets (with 11 sub-types); Link State
Acknowledgement packets.
■■ LSU/LSA packet types: There are a total of 11 types (subtypes if you
will) of Link-State Update (LSU) packets, all which take the form of
Link State Advertisements (LSAs). Only six of these types are in com-
mon use: router LSAs; network LSAs; summary LSAs; ABR summary
LSAs; external LSAs; and not-so-stubby external LSAs. LSAs are carried
in type 4 OSPF packets.
■■ Area types: OSPF defines four different area types, which are used
mainly to minimize routing traffic. The four area types accommodate
the varying amount of routing information an area requires depending
on its connectivity to other areas. The types are: backbone area, stan-
dard area, stub area, and not-so-stubby area. Cisco defines a fifth type,
the totally stubby area.
■■ Router types: Router types are categorized according to the function
they perform. They are: internal router, Area Border Router (ABR),
backbone router, Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR).
■■ Destination types (sometimes called route types): A destination type
simply denotes whether the IP address of a route refers to an actual net-
work or a router. This information is used by the SPF algorithm for
determining the shortest path to each network.
■■ Link types: OSPF likes to know what an advertised link is connecting
to, i.e. another router, a stub network, and so on. Four different types of
links are recognized. They are identified and described on page 267.
■■ Path types: OSPF distinguishes among six different path types, which
are displayed in the route table adjacent to the routing entry descrip-
tions: intra-area (O), inter-area (IA), external type 1 (E1) or type 2 (E2)
paths, and NSSA type 1 (N1) or type 2 (N2). Intra-area routing is rout-
ing within an area, whereas inter-area routing is routing between areas.
The two types of external routes, E1 and E2, refer to external networks
and were defined earlier in this section. Finally, NSSA path types refer
to external networks learned by not-so-stubby areas. The corresponding
NSSA E1 and E2 types are defined the same as external E1 and E2
types. Figure 8-7 shows these path types in the router output.
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OSPF 245

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2,
E1 – OSPF external type 1, E2 – OSPF external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

192.168.1.0 is subnetted, 3 subnets

C 192.168.1.0 is directly connected, serial0
C 192.168.4.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
O 192.168.8.0/30 [110/40] via 192.168.4.1, 00:00:38, Ethernet0
O E1 170.2.2.4/30 [110/90] via 192.168.1.1, 00:00:30, Serial0
O E2 170.2.2.8/30 [110/90] via 192.168.1.1, 00:00:30, Serial0
O IA 192.168.12.0/30 [110/220] via 192.168.4.1, 00:00:38, Ethernet0

Figure 8-7 The various types of OSPF path types are indicated in the output of a route
table.

OSPF Operation, Part 1: The Building Blocks

With an overview of OSPF, and a first look at OSPF terminology under your
belt, we now approach the intimate operation of the protocol. The first order of
business is to examine the network types that OSPF runs on and how the pro-
tocol behaves on different types of networks. Then the actual operation of
OSPF in a single area configuration will be covered, followed by operation in
a multiple area environment. As has been the convention throughout the dis-
cussion of routing protocols, most of the actual configuration commands and
the associated router outputs will be listed at the end of the chapter.

OSPF and Network Types

OSPF cares about what type of network it runs on for two primary reasons. For
one thing, OSPF uses multicasts to communicate routing information among
routers. A key distinction regarding various network types is whether broad-
casts and its variant, multicasts, are supported. Some types of networks sup-
port only unicast traffic. This is often true for certain multi-access WAN based
architectures that operate through a WAN “cloud,” otherwise known as an
NBMA (Non-Broadcast, multi-Access) network. Since OSPF uses multicasting
by default, special configuration is required when running on non-broadcast
media. For example, routing neighbors may need to be manually configured,
because they won’t discover each other automatically.
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Second, OSPF cares whether the network type is multi-access or not. This
second consideration is strictly for running the OSPF protocol efficiently. On a
multi-access network, the possibility exists for many routers to have an inter-
face sharing a single network segment (subnet). In that case, rather than have
every router forward its link-state database to every other router on the seg-
ment, it’s mathematically more economical to elect a single router to receive all
LSAs from all attached routers, and then transmit the completed link-state
database back to all attached routers. The router chosen to act as the reception
point for the segment’s router LSAs is known as the Designated Router (DR).
The DR has a deputy known as the Backup Designated Router (BDR). The
BDR takes over if the DR fails. When a DR and BDR are elected, all routers on
the segment form an adjacency with the DR and the BDR and forward their
link-state databases to the DR and BDR. The DR then forwards the completed
link-state database back to each router on the segment. The greater the number
of routers sharing the segment, the more efficient this method is. Point-to-
point networks on the other hand, only have two routers on a segment, so a
DR is not required.
For the DR concept to work, the DR and BDR must have direct access to each
router on the segment. It is by design that the DR and BDR be able to transmit
link-state information directly. The routing data cannot be passed indirectly to
the target routers through another router. This is not a problem on broadcast
based multi-access media such as Ethernet or Token Ring. But care must be
taken when a designated router is elected in a non-broadcast, multi-access envi-
ronment (NBMA) like some Frame Relay or ATM implementations. Why? As
the examples that follow illustrate, a DR or BDR may or may not have direct
access to all routers on the subnet, due to the underlying WAN topology. If the
network is not configured in a manner that allows for a DR and BDR to
directly reach every router on the segment, it may be wiser to not use a DR/
BDR configuration and pay the price of incurring a bit more routing traffic.

Network Types
Four unique network types (data-link media) exist from OSPF’s point of view,
with additional variants for one of the types. In many cases, OSPF will auto-
matically detect the network type and configure itself accordingly. At other
times, the network type must be set manually with the ip ospf network
command.6

Broadcast, Multi-access Networks

This refers to a LAN, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI; may include mul-
tiple routers attached to the same network segment; broadcasts and multicasts
are supported. Figure 8-8 denotes a broadcast, multi-access network. This type
of network will elect a DR and a BDR.
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192.168.0.1/24 192.168.0.2/24 192.168.0.3/24

192.168.0.4/24 192.168.0.5/24

Figure 8-8 A broadcast, multi-access network. A DR will handle synchronizing the link-
state databases.

This very common type of network will be automatically detected by OSPF

as broadcast. Neighbor relationships will be automatically formed, and a DR
and aBDR will be elected. Adjacencies will be formed between the DR and
BDR and all other routers on the segment.

Point-to-Point
In this case, there are only two devices on the subnet (see Figure 8-9). These
devices are typically a serial link with PPP or HDLC encapsulation and one
router on each end of the link. Broadcasts and multicasts are supported. No
DR will be elected.
Point-to-point networks are a common WAN type used for serial links and
will run over media such as a fractional T1 line. Such a network type will have
one router attached to each end of the line. OSPF will recognize this network
type as point-to-point, and because this network type supports broadcasts, a
neighbor relationship between the two routers will be automatically formed.
Since there are only two routers on this type of network, no DR or BDR will be
elected. Instead, the two routers will form a neighborhood relationship, imme-
diately upgrade it to adjacent, and multicast their link-state databases to each
other on multicast address 224.0.0.5 (AllSPFRouters). Multicasts are used in
lieu of unicasts to allow for the possibility of unnumbered links, where the
address of each router’s interface used for the point-to-point network may not
be known.

200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30
Figure 8-9 A point-to-point network. No DR is required.
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248 Chapter 8

Non-Broadcast, Multi-Access (NBMA)

This is a multi-access WAN technology that may or may not support broad-
casts and multicasts, depending on the specific configuration. It is used by
Frame Relay, ATM, X.25, and SMDS. Three variants are described below.

NBMA, Fully Meshed

When a non-broadcast, multi-access data-link architecture such as Frame
Relay is in use, OSPF will default to the non-broadcast network type, which
requires special configuration. If broadcasts and multicasts are not supported,
neighbors will have to be manually configured with the neighbor command.
It may be possible to configure the underlining data-link service to simulate a
broadcast network. If so, you can force OSPF to see the network type as broad-
cast by using the ip ospf network command with the broadcast keyword. The
simulation is carried out by replicating LSAs for each router sharing the net-
work segment. In this configuration, OSPF will behave very much like a
broadcast, multi-access network. A DR or BDR will be elected, and only one
subnet will be burned. However, this model will only work properly if the net-
work is fully meshed; meaning every router has a direct link to every other
router through the WAN cloud as depicted in Figure 8-10.

200.1.1.9/29 200.1.1.10/29

Home Office SF

200.1.1.11/29 200.1.1.12/29

LA NY
Figure 8-10 Fully meshed Frame Relay network. Permanent virtual
circuits connect every router to every other router.
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NBMA, Point-to-Point Sub-interface Configuration

Fully meshed networks are expensive. Is there anyway to run OSPF in a WAN
cloud without purchasing all those WAN links? Some router vendors allow for
multiple logical sub-interfaces to be configured on a single physical serial
interface. This allows the logical topology of the network to differ from the
physical topology. One of the two common ways to take advantage of this fea-
ture is to create point-to-point sub-interfaces when initially configuring the
router interfaces. In such a model, one router acts as a hub in a hub-and-spoke
topology. A separate sub-interface is configured on the hub router for each
router it connects to through the WAN cloud. This results in separate subnet
IDs for each sub-interface (see Figure 8-11). OSPF will recognize the network
type as point-to-point. If the media does not support broadcasts/multicasts,
neighbors may need to be manually configured.
There are several caveats to this model. No DR or BDR is elected because it is
a point-to-point configuration. This means less efficient utilization of the proto-
col. Also, a subnet address is burned for each point-to-point sub-interface. Keep
in mind that these are usually public IP addresses, which may not come cheap
(this issue can be mitigated however, through the use of VLSMs and/or unnum-
bered links). Finally, if the underlying data-link service is unreliable, routing can
easily break. Check out the next variation.

200.1.1.5/30
200.1.1.9/30
200.1.1.13/30 200.1.1.6/30

Home Office SF
(hub)

200.1.1.10/30 200.1.1.14/30

LA NY
Figure 8-11 Point-to-point sub-interfaces used in a partial mesh Frame
Relay network in a hub-spoke topology; burns one subnet ID for each link.
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NBMA, Point-to-Multipoint Sub-interface Configuration

Rather than configure point-to-point sub-interfaces, point-to-multipoint sub-
interfaces can be configured, and in fact is the recommended method for
partially meshed networks (see Figure 8-12). Like the previous point-to-point
configuration, this version may produce additional routing traffic because no
DR or BDR is elected, but the point-to-multipoint model is more reliable than
the point-to-point model. Another advantage with point-to-multipoint links is
that a single subnet ID is used for all sub-interfaces.
In the point-to-multipoint configuration, OSPF must have the network type
manually configured as point-to-multi-point by issuing the ip ospf network
command. If the layer 2 media does not support multicasts, the optional key-
word non-broadcast must also be used in the statement. In that case, neigh-
bors will need to be configured manually with the neighbor command.

Demand Circuits
A demand circuit (also known as a dial-on-demand circuit) is unique in that the
link is only established when there is a need to send traffic. Quite often, the cus-
tomer pays a metered rate for the service. The more it is used, the more it costs.
ISDN is an example of this technology. The issue with demand circuits and rout-
ing protocols is that the routing protocol will “wake up” the line just to send
periodic routing updates. In the case of OSPF, periodic routing traffic occurs
with Hello packets (sent as a keep-alive feature to be sure the link is up) and with
summary LSAs (sent every 30 minutes even if no change has occurred).

200.1.1.9/29 200.1.1.10/29

Home Office SF
(hub)

200.1.1.11/29 200.1.1.12/29

LA NY
Figure 8-12 Point-to-multipoint sub-interfaces are the recommended
configuration for partial mesh Frame Relay networks.
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To accommodate the concern of excess costs due to periodic routing traffic,

version 11.2 of the Cisco IOS introduced the interface-level command ip ospf
demand-circuit that will suppress this periodic maintenance traffic. Once the
command has been issued and the network has converged, both periodic
Hello packets and periodic LSAs are suppressed. Only an actual change on
the network affecting routing will trigger OSPF packets to be sent over the
interface.

N OT E One other so-called network type recognized by OSPF is the virtual

link, which is actually an OSPF configuration related to areas that run on top of
the underlying data-link layer, and uses the area virtual link command rather
than the ip ospf network command. Virtual links are therefore discussed
separately.

OSPF Areas
The concept of OSPF areas was discussed in the introduction to this section.
The main reason to carve an OSPF autonomous system into areas is to manage
the amount of routing information carried on the network. Most routing infor-
mation is carried in link-state advertisements (LSAs). Routers advertise
detailed information about a network link within an LSA packet. It is the shar-
ing of these LSAs that allows every router to become aware of every network
link and build its own topology table. The type of LSA that performs this work
is known as a Router LSA. On larger networks, the kind of detail carried in a
Router LSA is simply not required by all routers. Bandwidth can be saved if
more distant routers receive only the amount of routing information required
to perform optimal routing. OSPF accommodates this need with a special type
of LSA that contains a subset of the data stored in a normal LSA. Areas can also
provide a layer of security because the internal area topology is not distributed
outside of the area The demarcation between groups of routers that circulate
router LSAs is the OSPF area border.
Knowing when to configure an OSPF system into multiple areas, and an
explanation of the special LSA types that circulate between areas, will be cov-
ered shortly. But first, the operation of OSPF in a single area will be covered.
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OSPF Operation in a Single Area

With a background in OSPF terminology and OSPF network types, and a brief
introduction to OSPF areas behind you, the operation of OSPF in a single area
will now be covered. A look at how neighbor relationships and adjacencies are
formed will be rendered, followed by an examination of how routing informa-
tion is shared among routers. The following concepts and terms will be covered:
■■ Router ID
■■ Hello protocol
■■ Neighbors
■■ Neighbor table
■■ Topology table
■■ Adjacencies
■■ Router states for establishing neighbor relationships
■■ Router states for establishing adjacencies
■■ Master and slave router relationships
■■ Database description packets
■■ OSPF packet types
■■ Link-State Advertisement types related to a single area
■■ Link-State Request packets
■■ Link-State Acknowledgement packets
■■ Link-State Retransmission List
■■ LSA retransmit-interval timer
■■ Designated Router and Backup Designated Router
■■ Router priority
Two network examples will be used to illustrate OSPF operation in a single
area: one model requiring a DR and a model not requiring a DR.

Example 1—Single Area. Point-to-Point Model. No Designated Router

Figure 8-13 illustrates a simple point-to-point network. No DR is required.

200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30

Figure 8-13 Network example #1—point-to-point network, no DR required.

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OSPF 253

Here is a mostly plain English explanation of the steps to initialize OSPF on

this network (afterwards, the nitty-gritty details will be delved into):
1. Upon power-up or reinitialization, OSPF will initialize itself on all
enabled interfaces.
2. Neighboring routers must discover each other. This occurs by the Hello
protocol multicasting Hello packets to address 224.0.0.5 (All-
SPFRouters) out all enabled interfaces. Routers are identified uniquely
by a router ID, which is either the highest IP address from an interface
or the address assigned to a loopback interface, if configured.
3. Upon reception of Hello packets, each router will form a neighbor rela-
tionship with the router it received the Hello packet from if certain cri-
teria are met. Neighbor information is stored in the neighbor table.
Link-state databases are not shared between neighbors. The neighbor
relationship must be upgraded to the status of adjacent for that to
occur. It’s kind of like if you’re neighbors you just date, but an adja-
cency is like getting married and producing offspring. Since this is a
point-to-point network no DR will be elected, so in this case, neighbor
relationships are immediately upgraded to an adjacency.
4. The key aspect to forming an adjacency is the sharing of the link-state
databases (topology tables). To carry this out, the router with the high-
est IP address becomes the master and starts the exchange by sending
database description packets (DDPs) to the slave router, which in turn
sends DDPs to the master.
5. Database description packets contain only a subset of the actual link-
state information. This is yet another bandwidth saving measure not to
be confused with the subset of link data sent between areas. In this case,
a DDP contains a link ID—a unique ID assigned to every LSA—along
with some information that identifies the LSA’s age. If the receiving
router finds that it does not have a link-state entry referenced by a par-
ticular database description packet, or if the received information about
an entry is newer, the receiving router sends back a Link-State Request
packet for the complete entry, which the other router will respond to by
sending a Link-State Advertisement (LSA) with the complete informa-
tion for the link. Upon reception of LSAs, the packets are acknowledged
with Link-State Acknowledgement packets. When the link-state data-
bases on each router are fully synchronized, the adjacency is complete.
6. Once each router has a complete link-state database, the SPF algorithm
is run and the route table is populated.
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Now let’s look under the hood at how this all happens.

Hello Protocol and Hello Packets

The Hello protocol is responsible for transmitting Hello packets. Hello packets
are transmitted periodically. They are used to establish and maintain neighbor
relationships and for electing a DR and a BDR. Hello packets are OSPF type 1
packets. (Table 8-2 at the end of this section shows the critical fields of a Hello
packet.)

Becoming Neighbors
Neighbor relationships must be established between all routers with an inter-
face that shares a common network link. Several parameters—stored in the
Hello packet—must be identical for two routers to become neighbors. The
parameters are as follows:
Network mask—net mask of the sending router
Area ID—area ID of the sending interface
Hello interval—how often Hello packets are transmitted
Dead interval—how long to wait for Hello packets before terminating neighbor
Authentication type and password—optional
Stub area flag—specifies the type of stub area, if applicable
Be advised that if you alter the Hello interval and/or dead intervals, you
must change the setting on all routers sharing the link, or neighbor relation-
ships will not be established. If neighbors are not being established, review the
list to be sure all parameters match. Naturally, not all items on the checklist
have been covered yet.
Becoming neighbors requires bidirectional communication between routers.
The routers transition through three distinct states to become neighbors:
1. Down state
The down state is the initial state when a router is first powered up
or when the OSPF process is reinitialized. In this state, the router
sends Hello packets out all OSPF-enabled interfaces on multicast
address 224.0.0.5 (AllSPFRouters). For clarity, let’s call this router
router A. In this state, the neighbor list field is empty.
2. Init state
Before router A can send a Hello packet to router B, router A receives
a Hello packet from router B (see Figure 8-14). Router A does not see
its own router ID listed in the neighbor list field of the packet
because router B has not received any Hello packets from router A,
but router A now knows there is another router out there and transi-
tions to the init state (also known as a 1-way state).
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Router ID = 172.16.1.1 Router ID = 172.16.1.2

A B
Hello

Neighbor list field

Figure 8-14 Router A enters init state upon reception of a Hello packet.

Now in the init state, router A adds router B’s router ID to the neigh-
bor list field for all subsequent outbound Hello packets, and sends a
populated Hello packet to router B, as shown in Figure 8-15.
3. 2-way state
In Figure 8-16, router A receives a Hello packet from router B with
router A’s router ID listed in the neighbor list field. Both routers are
now listed in the neighbor list field of the Hello packets. This indi-
cates that bidirectional communication has been established—the
neighbor relationship has been established.

N OT E On network types with manually configured neighbors (for example

non-broadcast, multi-access networks), an additional state is possible. If a
router loses contact with an established neighbor (via loss of Hello packets),
the router will enter the attempt state. In the attempt state, periodic Hellos are
sent at the poll-interval (defaults to 120 seconds on NBMA) rather than the
Hello-interval (defaults to 60 seconds on NBMA). This reduced rate conserves
bandwidth but still allows the neighbor relationship to be re-established.

Router ID = 172.16.1.1 Router ID = 172.16.1.2

A B
Hello

Neighbor list field

172.16.1.2

Figure 8-15 Router A populates a Hello packet with its router ID.
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Router ID = 172.16.1.1 Router ID = 172.16.1.2

A B
Hello

Neighbor list field

172.16.1.2
172.16.1.1
Figure 8-16 Receiving a Hello packet listing a router’s own router ID triggers a
transition to the 2-way state.

Establishing an Adjacency
Routers that will become adjacent to one another continue communicating
after the neighbor relationship has been established. The routers transition
through the following four additional states to establish the adjacency,
whereby they share (synchronize) their link-state databases. In this example of
a point-to-point network, the two neighboring routers will immediately estab-
lish an adjacency.
1. Exstart state
In exstart state, the routers determine which one will share its link-
state database first. Link-state databases are exchanged via the afore-
mentioned database description packets (DDPs). With no DR
present, the router that goes first is strictly arbitrary and is deter-
mined by router ID. The router with the highest router ID becomes
the master, while the other router becomes the slave (also known as
primary and secondary). This is determined by each router sending
a single DDP to its adjacent neighbor. The packet contains no link-
state data, but simply includes the local router ID and a sequence
number.
The router with the higher Router ID becomes the master and sends
a populated DDP to the slave, using the same sequence number for
the first packet. The slave expects the first DDP to have the agreed
upon sequence number.
2. Exchange state
Now that the master and slave roles are agreed upon, and a begin-
ning sequence number is set, the master sends the first DDP, and the
slave responds with a populated DDP describing its link-state data-
base. The DDP sent by the slave uses the same sequence number as
the master. The exchange state has commenced.
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Once the master receives the slave’s first populated DDP, the master
bumps the sequence number and sends the next DDP. Only one
DDP is outstanding at a time. Only the master can retransmit a DDP.
It waits a period of time set by the RxmtInterval timer before ever
retransmitting a DDP. The slave does not need a retransmit capabil-
ity, because the master receiving a DDP from the slave proves the
slave received the master’s DDP. If the master does not receive a
DDP from the slave within the timeout period, the master retrans-
mits the same DDP using the same sequence number. Only upon
receipt of a DDP from the slave is the next DDP sent by the master.
The process of exchanging DDPs continues until both routers have
exchanged the contents of their link-state databases.
The database description packets sent between routers contain a
subset of a single link-state entry, specifically, the LSA header, which
contains the link-state ID. The packet also contains general identifi-
cation information and other fields (see Tables 8-3 and 8-4).
The receiving router uses the link-state ID, the age, and the sequence
number to determine if it already has current information for this link.
If the receiving router does not already have a matching link-state ID,
or if the DDP contains a more recent version of an existing link-state
ID, then the router will generate a link-state Request requesting a
link-state Update (LSU). The request may be for one or more LSAs.
An LSU packet is the carrier for Link-State Advertisements, of which
there are 11 possible types. In the case of this database synchroniza-
tion, where an LSR has requested an LSU for details on one or more
links, a router LSA (Type 1) will be sent. Router LSAs contain the
core information of a link and are the primary means of synchroniz-
ing link-state databases within an area. (The pertinent fields of the
OSPF packets discussed in this section are listed at the end of this
section in Tables 8-2 through 8-8).

N OT E This is a good place to slow down and do a quick review, because LSAs
are where the rubber meets the road in OSPF. LSUs carry LSAs. LSAs carry link-
state information. Within an area, type 1 (router) LSAs are used to share link-
state database entries with adjacent neighboring routers. Type 1 LSAs are sent
in response to a link-state request, which was generated when the router
receiving a DDP determined that it had missing or outdated information for one
or more links. Type 1 (router) LSAs are also sent by each router every 30
minutes to insure the link-state databases remain synched.
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3. Loading state
The loading state is not always required. It is entered only if there is
still business to do after all DDPs have been sent. There are two rea-
sons for this.
If any Link-State Requests were generated (due to receiving a DDP
that required a complete LSA), and the corresponding LSAs have
not been received by the time the DDPs have been sent, the routers
will enter the loading state.
Second, LSAs are sent reliably using the proprietary assured deliv-
ery mechanism built into OSPF. They are acknowledged with LSA
packets. Transmitted LSAs are queued in a Link-State Retransmis-
sion List. The LSA is retransmitted if the LSA retransmit-interval
timer expires. Unacknowledged LSAs will transition the router’s
state to loading. Only after any requested LSAs are acknowledged,
does the router transition out of this state.
4. Full state
The full state is entered when the adjacent routers’ link-state data-
bases are fully synchronized. LSAs have been received for all gener-
ated LSRs, and each LSA has been acknowledged. When the full
state is reached, the SPF algorithm is run and the route table is pop-
ulated. Routing can now commence.7

Example 2—Single Area. Broadcast Multi-access Model

In this example, a DR handles the propagation of the link-state database.

Designated Router and Backup Designated Router

Figure 8-17 depicts a broadcast, multi-access network such as an Ethernet net-
work. When one or more multi-access networks exist within an area, not all
neighboring routers will form adjacencies. For such network types, it makes
more sense to designate a single router to receive all the link-state advertise-
ments from each router on the segment and then have the DR transmit the col-
lective link-state database back to each router. It has been demonstrated
mathematically that this method results in less network traffic. Thus, you have
the DR and its side-kick, the BDR, which has no duties except to take over if
the DR fails. When a DR and a BDR are elected, routers on the segment will
only form adjacencies with the DR/BDR. Broadcast, multi-access networks
like Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI will always elect a DR and a BDR.
Non-broadcast, multi-access networks may or may not elect a DR and a BDR,
depending on how they are configured (see the earlier discussion of network
architectures on page 245).
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HOW ARE DOWNED LINKS ADVERTISED?

If a router needs to invalidate an existing LSA, say because the link associated
to the LSA goes down, the router will generate a fresh LSA with the LsAGE field
set to MaxAge, which is 1 hour. The LSA will be flooded, and upon receipt, the
LSA will be purged from the link-state database of all routers in the area. Each
router will then run SPF and update their route tables as needed. This procedure
is referred to as premature aging in the RFC for OSPF.

The designers of OSPF, having determined that a Designated Router was a

good thing, had to work out some basic logistics like: Who gets to be the Des-
ignated Router? How is every router informed of who the Designated Router
is? What happens if the Designated Router goes down?
To begin with, every router sharing the link needs to be uniquely identified.
This is easy because each OSPF router has the aforementioned router ID. The
DR is chosen through an election process. Each router is configured with a pri-
ority number referred to as the router priority. The default router priority is 1.
The priority can be manually set from 0–254. The higher the number, the
greater the priority. A priority of 0 means the router is ineligible to participate
in elections.
Hello packets carry the information about the DR and BDR. There is a field
for the DR, the BDR, and the router priority for each router (shown in Table 8-2
at the end of this section). If the DR field is set to 0.0.0.0, an election is held. The
router with the highest priority becomes the DR, and the router with the next
highest priority becomes the BDR. In case of a tie, the router with the highest
router ID wins. If the DR goes down, the BDR is promoted to DR and an elec-
tion is held for a new BDR.8
The election of a DR and a BDR occurs after the neighbor relationships have
been established. Recall from the previous example that this is signified by the
2-way state being entered. The election is held after the 2-way state is reached,
but before the exstart state is entered.

Figure 8-17 Network example #2—multi-access network. A DR will be elected.

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260 Chapter 8

CONTROLLING WHICH ROUTER IS ELECTED DR AND/OR BDR

The DR and BDR do more work than other routers on the segment. Therefore,
you may want to control which routers take on the task of assimilating and
transmitting the link-state database. One may assume from the discussion so
far that simply setting the router priority of the two routers that are intended to
be the DR and BDR higher than the other routers on the segment would do the
job. That step will help, but be advised that if the routers that are elected DR
and BDR are not online when the election is held, they will not get elected
when they do come online. The first router with a priority of any value other
than 0 to come online becomes the DR. The only thing that can be done in this
case would be to force an election by temporarily taking the current DR and
BDR offline (the BDR must go offline because it will immediately be promoted
to DR when the DR goes down). Not an ideal solution, so naturally you want to
be sure these routers are online when the network is first brought up. Of
course, routers that should never be elected DR or BDR can have their priority
set to 0.

Propagation of the Link-State Databases in a Designated Router Environment

In a DR environment, routers sharing the multi-access link are classified with
three designations: AllSPFRouters, which represents every router attached to
the segment; AllDRouters, which represent the DR and BDR; and DRothers,
which represents any router that is not a DR or BDR. Figure 8-18 depicts this
relationship.
After the election of the DR and BDR, each DRothers router transitions to
exstart state and forms an adjacency with AllDRouters. The DRother routers
become slaves, with the DR and BDR acting as masters. From here, the process
of completing the adjacency is the same as described in the previous section
for point-to-point links. Figure 8-19 depicts the adjacencies formed on a multi-
access network.
The DR also takes responsibility for advertising the existence of all routers
attached to the multi-access network segment. This is done with an LSU car-
rying a type 2 (network) LSA, and is flooded to every router in the area. A net-
work LSA contains the router IDs of all adjacent routers (shown in Table 8-7 at
the end of this section).

Maintaining the Link-State Database

Regardless of whether a DR is in use or not, the link-state database for every
router is maintained by flooding LSAs when a change to a network link
occurs. Dropped links, added links, links transitioning from up to down or
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WHY ARE TYPE 2 (NETWORK LSAS) REQUIRED?

The answer lies in the same reasoning that spawned the idea of the DR in the
first place—namely the mitigation of unnecessary routing traffic. SPF wants to
know how every router links to every other router in an area to accurately build
the area’s topology map. Normally a router will generate an LSA that identifies
the router on the other end of each link (excluding stub networks of course).
On a multi-access segment however, such reporting will cause a number of
redundant LSAs to be generated. Since the DR is fully aware of which routers
share the common link, it is in a position to report the router relationships
without the redundancy.

vice versa, and a change in the metric value of a link all require each router in
the area to be notified. The router sourcing the change of a link’s state will
flood the area with a type 1 (router) LSA that describes just the changed link.
Regardless of any changes to links, each LSA in a link-state database is
reflooded by the router the link is connected to (known as the originating
router) every 30 minutes. This insures the integrity of the database on each
router.

Breakdown of the OSPF Packets That Circulate Within an Area

Initializing OSPF in an area requires the following packet types:
■■ Type 1 (Hello) OSPF packets (see Table 8-2)
■■ Type 2 (Database Description) OSPF packets (see Table 8-3)
■■ Type 3 (Link-State Request or LSR) OSPF packets (see Table 8-5)
■■ Type 4 (Link-State Update or LSU) OSPF packets that in turn carry the
following:
■■ Type 1 (router) Link-State Advertisements (see Table 8-6)
■■ Type 2 (network) Link-State Advertisements (see Table 8-7)
■■ Type 5 (Link State Acknowledgement) OSPF packets (see Table 8-8)
The format of these packet types is described in Tables 8-2 through 8-8. Bear
in mind that these are partial listings. See the appendix for a source of the com-
plete packet format of all OSPF packet types.
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262 Chapter 8

DRouters

DR BDR

All DRouters
Figure 8-18 Router designations for synchronizing link-state databases
on a multi-access network.

DR BDR
Figure 8-19 Adjacencies formed on a multi-access network.
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Table 8-2 Abbreviated Listing of a Type 1 (Hello) OSPF Packet

PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet by specifying

protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF packets. This is a type

1 (Hello) OSPF packet.

Router ID Router ID of the source router.

Area ID Area ID of the source router.

Network Mask Network/subnet mask of interface sourcing Hello

packet.

Hello Interval Defines how often the Hello packet is sent.

Router Priority Used for the election of a DR and BDR.

RouterDeadInterval Defines how long to wait before declaring that a

neighbor is down.

Designated Router IP address of the DR, if elected.

Backup Designated Router IP address of the BDR, if elected.

Neighbor List Lists the interface IP address of a neighbor. This field

is repeated for each valid neighbor.

Options Defines the capabilities of the router sourcing the

Hello packet.

Some of these Hello packet fields require further explanation:

■■ IP Header: All OSPF packets are encapsulated in an IP header. The
OSPF protocol uses its own registered IP number 89. OSPF packets do
not use UDP or TCP.
■■ OSPF Header: All OSPF packets have an OSPF header that indicates
the type of OSPF packet.
■■ Router ID: A Router ID is an IP address forced unique by using an inter-
face address configured on the router. The highest address is used, unless
a loopback interface is configured, in which case the address of the loop-
back is used, regardless of whether it is the highest address or not.
■■ Area ID: This is the area ID configured for the interface sending the
Hello packet. Bear in mind that a router may have interfaces in more
than one area, such as with Area Border Routers (ABRs).
■■ Network Mask: The subnet mask of the local interface transmitting the
Hello packet.
■■ Hello Interval: The Hello packet will include the value set for the Hello
interval, which determines how often Hello packets are sent, along with
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264 Chapter 8

the dead interval, which establishes how long a router will wait for a peri-
odic Hello packet before declaring a neighbor dead. The default values for
these timers is 10 seconds for Hello packets (30 seconds on NBMA media),
and 40 seconds for the dead interval (120 seconds on NBMA media).
■■ Router Priority: Determines the likelihood of a router being elected as
the DR or BDR. The default value is 1. The higher the value, the more
likely the router will be elected. A value of 0 removes the router from
contention as a DR or BDR.
■■ RouterDeadInterval: This timer determines how long to wait if the
stream of periodic Hello packets that maintain the neighbor relation-
ship is discontinued. The default is 4 times the Hello interval. If the
timer expires, the neighbor relationship is terminated.
■■ Designated Router: This field will be filled in when a DR has been
elected. It indicates the presence of a DR (no need for an election) and
allows the router to unicast packets to the DR. A value of 0.0.0.0 indi-
cates there is no DR. This forces an election.
■■ Backup Designated Router: Same as for Designated Router.
■■ Neighbor List: When a router receives a Hello packet from another
router, the receiving router will add its own router ID to the Hello pack-
ets it sources. When the corresponding router receives these Hello pack-
ets, it recognizes itself in the packets and commences the steps required
to establish a neighbor relationship. Once the neighbor relationship is
established, the interface address of the neighbor is added to the neigh-
bor field.
■■ Options: This field describes a router’s capabilities from the perspec-
tive of how it will behave in an OSPF routing domain. The Options
field is present in three different OSPF packet types, so it makes more
sense to describe it in a separate section (see page 300).

Table 8-3 Abbreviated Listing of an OSPF Type 2 (Database Description) Packet

DDP FIELD DESCRIPTION

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet by specifying

protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF packets. This is a type 2

(Database Description) OSPF packet.

Router ID The router the packet came from.

Area ID Must match the area ID of the recipient router.

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Table 8-3 (continued)

DDP FIELD DESCRIPTION

Database Description Used to order DD packets.

Sequence Number

LSA Header The LSA header information (detailed in Table 8-4).

Table 8-4 Abbreviated Listing of an LSA Header

LSA HEADER FIELD DESCRIPTION

Age The number of seconds since the LSA was created by the
originating router.

Link-State ID Varies according to LSA type.

Advertising Router The router the link is actually connected to.

Sequence Number Incremented each time the LSA is transmitted.

LS Type LSA type (specifies 1 of 11 LSA types).

Table 8-5 Abbreviated Listing of a Type 3 (Link-State Request) OSPF Packet

LSA TYPE 3
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION NOTE

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF

packet by specifying protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF

packets. This is a type 3 (LSR)
OSPF packet.

Router ID Router ID of router sourcing request.

Area ID Area ID of router sourcing request.

Link-State Type Identifies which type of LSA is Repeated for each link
being requested (of 11 types). being requested.

Link-State ID Varies according to the link-state Repeated for each link

type. See Table 8-6. being requested.

Advertising Router The router that originated the LSA. Repeated for each link
being requested.
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Table 8-6 Abbreviated Listing of an LSA Type 1 (Router) Packet

LSA TYPE 1
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION NOTE

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet

by specifying protocol #89.
OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF
packets. This is a type 4 (LSU) OSPF
packet.
LSA Header Identifies 1 of 11 LSA types. This is
a type 1 (router) LSA.
Age The number of seconds since the
LSA was created by the originating
router.
Options Any option bits are set here.
Link-State ID ID of the router that originated
the LSA.
Advertising Router The router the link is connected to.
Sequence Incremented each time the LSA is
Number originated.
E-Bit If set to 1, this identifies the originat-
ing router as an ASBR.
B-Bit If set to 1, this identifies the originat-
ing router as an ABR.
Number of Links The number of LSAs in this packet.
Link Type Specifies one of four types of links: Repeated for each link in
1: Point-to-point connection to packet.
another router
2: Link-to-transit network
3: Link-to-stub network
4: Virtual link
Link ID Varies according to link type: Repeated for each link in
Link type 1: Neighboring router’s packet.
router ID
Link type 2: IP address of the DR’s
sending interface
Link type 3: IP address of the subnet
Link type 4: Same as type 1
Link Data Varies according to Link Type: Repeated for each link in
Link type 1: The originating router’s packet.
interface address
Link type 2: Same as type 1
Link type 3: Subnet mask
Link type 4: Same as type 1
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Table 8-6 (continued)

LSA TYPE 1
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION NOTE

Metric Cost of the link. Repeated for each link in

packet.

Some LSA type 1 packet fields in Table 8-6 require further explanation:
■■ Age and Sequence Number: OSPF uses the Age field and the Sequence
Number field (along with the checksum field, which is not shown) to
determine if an LSA is newer then one a router may already have for
the same link. A newer LSA replaces an existing LSA.
■■ Link Type, Link ID, and Link Data: OSPF wants to know the type of
network being advertised in the LSA. This information is mainly used
by the SPF algorithm for building the route table. Link type 1 refers to a
pair of routers on a point-to-point link. Link type 2 refers to a multi-
access network with a DR. A type 3 link is simply a stub network—no
other routers share the link. Link type 4 refers to the special case of a
virtual link. The value of the Link ID and Link Data fields vary accord-
ing to the link type. For example if the link type is 1, OSPF wants iden-
tifying information about the neighboring router, as indicated in the
table. For the multi-access network specified by link type 2, OSPF
wants identifying information about the DR. For the stub networks
specified by link type 3, there is no router information required. Rather,
this is where the net mask for stub networks is collected. All this data
assists SPF in determining the shortest path to all networks.

Table 8-7 Abbreviated Listing of an LSA Type 2 (Network) Packet

LSA TYPE 2
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION NOTE

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet

by specifying protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF packets.

This is a type 4 (LSU) OSPF packet.

LSA Header Identifies 1 of 11 LSA types. This is a

type 2 (network) LSA.

Age The number of seconds since the LSA

was created by the originating router.

Sequence Used to identify age of packet.

Number

(continued)
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Table 8-7 (continued)

LSA TYPE 2
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION NOTE

Link-State ID Interface address of the advertising DR.

Advertising Router ID of the advertising router.

Router

Network Mask Mask of the multi-access network.

Attached Router Router ID of a router on the multi- This field is repeated for
access network. each attached router.

Table 8-8 Abbreviated Listing of a Type 5 (Link-State Acknowledgement) OSPF Packet

LSA TYPE 5
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet by specifying protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF packets. This is a type 5 (link-state

acknowledgement) OSPF packet.

Router ID Router ID of the router sourcing acknowledgement.

Area ID Area ID of the router sourcing acknowledgement.

LSA Headers Includes only the headers of the LSAs being acknowledged.

N OT E The fields of the various OSPF packet types can appear a bit daunting
at first. For example, the Link-State ID is not only an IP address, it can refer to a
DR, the interface of a neighbor, a network address, or another entity, depending
on the link type. Exploring packet formats places you deep in the bowels of the
protocol. We will not endeavor here to explain each field of each packet type in
detail, but instead note that the data in these packets is primarily used to
identify the state of links, help in link-state database synchronization, and build
an area’s topology table.

Single Area Review

An area is a logical grouping of routers with identical link-state databases.
Adjacencies are created between neighboring routers for the purpose of syn-
chronizing the link-state databases of each router in the area. Every router
must form an adjacency with at least one other router. In the case of multi-
access networks, a DR is elected to propagate the link-state database for the
segment.
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OSPF Operation in a Multiple-Area System

This section describes the operation of OSPF in a multiple-area configuration.
It builds on the previous section, which explained the operation of OSPF in a
single area. Each area in a multiple-area system initializes routing as previ-
ously described. What is added to the mix is how inter-area communications
are handled, and what the characteristics of different area types are.
The first order of business in discussing multiple areas is to understand
when it is necessary to create multi-area OSPF systems in the first place.

To Area or Not to Area

When should an OSPF system be subdivided into areas and how many areas
should it have? What’s the magic formula? Well, like many things in life, there
are no hard and fast rules for answering these questions. General guidelines
for when to create multiple areas fall into the range of autonomous systems
with 30 to 200 routers—a very wide-ranging value! In smaller, simpler OSPF
networks, you can get away with a single area configuration. Medium- and
large-sized networks usually should take advantage of the multiple-area
architecture of OSPF. Here are some of the factors that dictate when to config-
ure for multiple areas:
■■ Available network bandwidth for routing information
■■ Number of links in the autonomous system
■■ Available router memory
■■ Available router CPU cycles
■■ The desire to summarize routes
■■ Failed routes are advertised only within the area
■■ Subnets IDs can be hidden within an area and remain unknown outside
the area
■■ Political, administrative, and security concerns
Processing routing information takes up memory and CPU cycles on a
router. The more time a router spends processing routing information, the less
time it has for forwarding data packets. As an OSPF network grows larger, the
number of links increase, and the link-state database therefore grows in size, as
does the route table. The more links there are in a system, the greater the
chance of a link changing its state (going up or down, metric changing, and so
on), which results in more routing traffic and a heavier load on routers as they
re-compute the route table. As the load on routers and network links gets
heavier, a point is reached where it becomes clear that subdividing the system
into multiple areas (or adding another area to an existing multiple area sys-
tem) is required. Routes to networks learned from other areas require less pro-
cessing. This saves on router resources. Furthermore, routes learned from
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other areas are advertised with far less information. This reduces packet size
and saves on bandwidth.
Something else to be aware of in multiple-area configurations is that when
routers learn of a route to a network residing in another area, they do not run the
SPF algorithm on the route. Such routes are simply evaluated for inclusion into
the route table based on their metrics. The reason for this is that routes learned
from other areas within the system don’t include all the topology information
that links learned within the area do. Only networks and their metrics are adver-
tised between areas.
But wait. What kind of heresy is this? If only networks are advertised
between areas, and not the routers they are connected to, how can the topol-
ogy map be built by SPF? Isn’t that the key to how OSPF works— knowing the
location of all routers in the system? Isn’t this what guarantees fast, efficient,
loop-free routing?
Indeed, managing network resources by excluding some networks from the
SPF algorithm appears at first to be a bit of a tradeoff. Advertising only routes
and their metrics is kind of like – dare we say – routing by rumor. It is, but the
designers of OSPF took all this into account. There are specific restrictions as to
how the hierarchy of areas can be configured. Having all non-zero areas con-
nect to area 0 helps prevent a router learning of a route that leads back through
itself, also known as a routing-loop.
Another factor that affects the need for multiple areas is route summarization.
In OSPF, route summarization takes place only at the border between areas. Sum-
marization leverages the concept of small packets passing between areas by caus-
ing fewer of those packets to be generated, thanks to a fewer number of networks
being advertised. Summarizing routes is another factor to consider when plan-
ning where to place areas boundaries. You may even want to employ multiple
areas on smaller networks in order to enjoy the benefits of route summarization.
The number of areas to implement may even be affected by political consid-
erations. A manager might have two squabbling network administrators and
choose to put the administrators in charge of their own respective “areas.” A
silly concept perhaps, but you know how silly real life can be sometimes. In
another vein, a paranoid (perhaps with good reason) manager might wish to
take advantage of the fact that packet authentication can be set at an area’s bor-
der, preventing unauthorized routes from being advertised into the area.
Because many IT professionals take a layered approach to security, this feature
might be worth considering.
Finally, whether you are growing a newer network or changing routing pro-
tocols on an existing system, it is important to benchmark your system. This
means making baseline measurements of system performance before, during,
and after OSPF is introduced. Bandwidth usage should be monitored as well
as key router metrics like memory and CPU usage. Proper benchmarking
helps provides core information for determining how many areas are ulti-
mately required.
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Multiple Areas Mean Multiple Area Types, LSA Types, and Router Types
The network configuration within an area determines the amount and type of
routing information that needs to be shared with the area. Toward that end,
OSPF discerns among four different types of areas as described later.9 Area
types are simply another means of managing routing traffic. To handle the spe-
cific routing information required by different area types, additional types of
LSAs are brought to bear. The single-area configuration presented earlier
introduced two types of LSAs: type 1 (router) LSAs, which flood the network
links throughout the area; and type 2 (network) LSAs, which flood the area
with a listing of each router connected to a multi-access network. Those two
LSAs are used for intra-area routing. Four additional types of LSAs will be
introduced that are used for inter-area and external routing, which totals six
common LSA types in use out of 11 total types specified in the RFCs for OSPF.
When an OSPF autonomous system is broken into multiple areas, the routers
within each area take on varying roles. A router with all interfaces within a sin-
gle area handles routing differently than a router that straddles two areas (by
having an interface configured for each area). Therefore, OSPF discerns
between a total of four types of routers, based on their location within an area.
Area types, LSA types, and router types are integral components to multiple-area
routing. As stated in the introduction to this section, these building blocks will
be explained in sequence in this treatment, and then used in practical examples
in the subsequent section, “OSPF Operation, Part 2: Tying It All Together.”

Area Types
As mentioned previously, there are four RFC sanctioned area types that OSPF
uses to route traffic. They are as follows:
■■ Backbone area
■■ Standard area
■■ Stub Area (2)

Backbone Area
The backbone area—also referred to as area 0 or 0.0.0.0, since that must be its
numeric designation—is mandatory when more than one area exists.10 The
backbone area acts as a sort of hub which all inter-area network traffic passes
through. Each non-zero area connects to the backbone area.11 Traffic passing
from a network in area 1 to a network in area 2, for example, uses the backbone
area as a transit area. It is not necessary for area 1 and area 2 to be directly con-
nected, nor should it be.

N OT E Area IDs are 32-bit numbers and can be expressed as a single number
or in dotted decimal format like an IP address. Therefore, area “0” and area
“0.0.0.0” are equivalent.
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Use of the backbone area creates a two-level hierarchy scheme, thus OSPF’s
designation as a hierarchical protocol. Here again you can see the need for a
well-planned implementation of OSPF. By designing all areas to connect
through a single area 0, an efficient, logical network design is achieved. It
should be noted that because of this design, the network engineer should be
aware that some or all routers in area 0 need to be configured to accommodate
the extra transit traffic it must handle.
Figure 8-20 shows one possible multi-area configuration. Notice that geo-
graphically dispersed networks are configured into separate areas. An
assumption is made here that much of the network traffic is contained within
a single building or surrounding buildings (departments are often grouped
together geographically). Inter-area traffic is therefore kept to a minimum. The
FDDI backbone is accessed primarily for Internet access and when access to
networks in other areas is required.
Figure 8-21 illustrates a slightly different configuration. Here the areas are
connected via a public carrier and are very geographically dispersed. However,
in spite of the distances involved, the autonomous system can still be archi-
tected to connect areas 1, 2, and 3 to the backbone area. Notice that area 0 can be
configured with networks that contain hosts. It is not relegated to serving only
transient traffic. Note also that in this model each area has its own connection
to the Internet. The significance of whether an area directly connects to external
networks will be accounted for as we explore the other area types.

N OT E Area 0 is automatically recognized by OSPF as the backbone area

simply by designating its numeric assignment 0 or 0.0.0.0 when configuring
OSPF (see the command reference).

Standard Area
A standard area (also known as a normal area) is characterized by the follow-
ing criteria:
■■ Advertises summaries of its network links to backbone area 0
■■ Accepts summaries of network links from area 0, which comprise links
within area 0, as well as summarized network links area 0 has learned
of from other areas
■■ Accepts redistributed (externally learned) routes
■■ Can optionally accept a default route representing redistributed routes
Figure 8-22 illustrates a standard area. Standard areas receive the most rout-
ing information of any non-zero area type. The main characteristic of a stan-
dard area is that it can receive individual routes to both inter-area and external
locations. Optionally, a standard area may receive a default route representing
external routes. All other area types receive less routing information, mainly
having to do with external routes.
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The
Internet

Area 0
FDDI backbone

Area 1 Area 3
Buildings 1-4 Buildings 9-12

Area 2
Buildings 5-8

Figure 8-20 Multiple OSPF areas. This model has no hosts in area 0.

The
Internet

Area 0
Home Office – San Francisco

Area 1 Area 3
Los Angeles Tokyo

Area 2
Egypt
The The
Internet Internet

The
Internet

Figure 8-21 Multiple OSPF areas. Area 0 contains hosts in this example.
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274 Chapter 8

Area 1 Area 0

"Here is a summary
of the network
140.23.2.4
links in area 1."

Area 0 The
Internet

Area 1

Area 0 Area1

"Here is a summary of the network

links in area 0, which also includes
all the summary links I learned
from other areas. Here is a route to
external network 140.23.2.4/30.
Here is a default route to reach all
other external networks."

Figure 8-22 Example of a standard area with two connections to area 0.

Standard areas are often used when the area has redundant connections to
area 0 and/or when the area’s routers connect to external networks without
going through the backbone. With multiple paths to choose from for inter-area
and/or external routing, having the maximum amount of routing information
may improve routing decisions. A standard area is also the only area type that
can be used as a transit area for a virtual link connecting a non-zero area to the
backbone.

Stub Area
Stub areas accept less routing information than standard areas. A group of
routers are normally configured into a stub area when there is only a single
connection to the backbone, therefore requiring less detailed routing informa-
tion (although there are exceptions as noted later). There are two flavors
of stub areas specified by the RFC for OSPF, with a third type incorporated by
certain routing vendors such as Cisco. These various stub area types are
characterized by the type of routing information they send and receive. They
are stub, totally stubby, and not-so-stubby.
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Stub Area
A stub area (also known as a standard stub area) is the same as a standard
area except that it does not accept any information about external routes (see
Figure 8-23). Rather than learn about routes to external networks, a stub area
will simply accept a default route that will lead to a router that has more
detailed information about how to reach external networks. This is a logical
choice if the area has no internal routers connecting to external networks and
only has a single connection to area 0. Why populate the route tables with list-
ings of external networks if there is only one possible routing decision? A stub
area is characterized by the following criteria:
■■ Advertises summaries of its network links to backbone area 0
■■ Accepts summaries of network links from area 0, which comprise links
within area 0, as well as summarized network links area 0 has learned
of from other areas
■■ Accepts a default route leading to external networks

Totally Stubby Area

A totally stubby area takes the concept of a (standard) stub area one step fur-
ther as shown in Figure 8-24. Instead of just pumping a default route for exter-
nal networks into the stub area, a totally stubby area receives a default route
for all traffic bound for destinations outside the area. The RFCs for OSPF do
not specify a totally stubby area, but Cisco’s implementation of OSPF accom-
modates this area type. Totally stubby areas accept no routing information
other than a single default route. This is a reasonable solution in a Cisco-only
shop, where access to all routes outside the area is through a single border
router connecting to area 0. A totally stubby area is characterized by the fol-
lowing criteria:
■■ Advertises summaries of its network links to backbone area 0
■■ Accepts a default route leading to all networks outside the area

Not-So-Stubby Area (NSSA)

A not-so-stubby area goes the opposite direction from the totally stubby area.
This area type is slightly less restrictive than a stub area. An NSSA breaks the
rules for stub areas by allowing a connection to one or more external networks
from within the stub area. An example of the need for an NSSA area would be
a branch office that directly connects to another AS, such as an EIGRP system,
as shown in Figure 8-25. By configuring the area as NSSA, the networks from
the EIGRP domain could be propagated to all routers within the stub area. The
special LSAs that carry external routes and circulate only within an NSSA area
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276 Chapter 8

can even be translated into the external LSAs used by other areas and adver-
tised to area 0. The NSSA is also a good solution for a branch office with its
own Internet connection. Don’t forget that a rule of thumb for area types is to
propagate the least amount of information into an area that still allows for opti-
mal routing. The NSSA area type is a viable option when an area only requires
the amount of routing information provided to a stub configuration—but hey,
it needs an ASBR too. An NSSA is characterized by the following criteria:
■■ Advertises summaries of its network links to backbone area 0
■■ Accepts summaries of network links from area 0, which comprise links
within area 0 as well as summarized network links area 0 has learned of
from other areas
■■ Accepts a default route from area 0 leading to external networks
■■ Learns of external networks from a router within the NSSA
■■ Optionally advertises external networks learned from within the area to
area 0

Area 1 Area 0

"Here is a summary
of the network
links in area 1."

Area 0

Area 1

Area 0 Area 1

"Here is a summary of the network

links in area 0, which includes all
the summary links I learned from
other areas. Here is a default route
to all external networks."

Figure 8-23 Example of a stub area.

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OSPF 277

Area 1 Area 0

"Here is a summary
of the network
links in area 1."

Area 0

Area 1

Area 0 Area 1

"Here is a default route to all

networks outside your area."

Figure 8-24 Example of a totally stubby area.

Area 1 Area 0

"Here is a summary of the

network links in area 1.

Oh. And here is a

redistributed route that's
reachable through a router
in this area."

Area 0

Area 1

Area 0 Area 1

EIGRP "Here is a summary of the network

links in area 0, which includes all
the summary links I learned from
other areas. Here is a default route
to the external networks I know
about."

Figure 8-25 Example of a not-so-stubby area.

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278 Chapter 8

Router Types
There are four unique roles that routers play in multiple area OSPF configura-
tions, resulting in four router types recognized by the protocol:
■■ Internal router: Has all its interfaces within a single area. The exception
is area 0 which has a separate router type designation. Internal routers
maintain a single link-state database for one area.
■■ Area Border Router (ABRs): Play a very important role in multiple-
area systems. They straddle the two areas, bridging them with one
interface connected to one area and another interface connected to
another area. ABRs is where link-state database summarization occurs,
as well as route summarization. ABRs maintain a link-state database for
each connected area.
■■ Backbone router: A router with at least one interface in area 0. If all
interfaces of the router are in area 0, the router is still designated a back-
bone router, not an internal router, although in common use either term
may be used.
■■ Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR): A router with at least
one interface connecting to a network outside the OSPF autonomous
system. ASBRs are responsible for injecting (redistributing) external
routes into the OSPF domain. ASBRs may run both OSPF and the native
routing protocol of the external system, or in lieu of running another
protocol, they may simply be populated with static routes to external
destinations. Good design practice suggests that the ASBR be placed in
area 0, which all inter-area traffic normally flows through.
Notice in Figure 8-26 that some routers have multiple roles. This drives
home the point that router types are interface-based as opposed to router-based.
For example, the router connecting area 1 to area 0 is both an area border
router (ABR), since it bridges two areas, and a backbone router, since it has at
least one interface in area 0.

Link-State Advertisement Types

In the previous discussion of single area OSPF configurations, two different
LSA types were introduced which are carried in Link-State Update (LSU) pack-
ets: type 1 (router) LSAs operates within an area and carries the detailed infor-
mation of a router’s link-state database, and type 2 (network) LSAs advertise
the routers connected to a multi-access network through the area. LSUs carry
four additional common LSA types to handle the advertising of inter-area
routes. For completeness, the listing of LSA types from the previous discussion
will be repeated, with the new LSA types shown in bold:
■■ Type 1 (Hello) OSPF packets
■■ Type 2 (Database Description) OSPF packets
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OSPF 279

■■ Type 3 (Link-State Request or LSR) OSPF packets

■■ Type 4 (Link-State Update or LSU) OSPF packets that in turn carry;
■■ Type 1 (router) Link-State Advertisements
■■ Type 2 (network) Link-State Advertisements
■■ Type 3 (summary) Link-State Advertisements
■■ Type 4 (ASBR summary) Link-State Advertisements
■■ Type 5 (external) Link-State Advertisements
■■ Type 7 (not-so-stubby area external) LSA
■■ Type 5 (Link-State Acknowledgement) OSPF packets

Type 3 (Summary) LSA

Summary LSAs are the principle way network links are advertised to other
areas. This is where the promise of reduced routing traffic is fulfilled, because
only a subset of the information about a network’s links that circulate within
the area is advertised outside the area.

Autonomous System Boundary

Router (ASBR)

Backbone Routers

Area 0

Area 1 Area 3

Area 2

Area Border Routers

(ABR)

Internal Routers

Figure 8-26 OSPF router types. One router can assume multiple roles.
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280 Chapter 8

Recall that an intra-area type 2 (router) LSA includes a number of items

about a link, including the type of link (point-to-point versus stub network), a
link ID, the originating router’s interface address, the age of each link, metric,
and so on. A type 3 (summary) LSA on the other hand includes only the mini-
mum data needed to identify the route. Table 8-9 illustrates a summary LSA.

Table 8-9 Abbreviated Listing of an LSA Type 3 (Summary) Packet

LSA TYPE 3
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet by specifying

protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF packets. This is a type 4 (Link-

State Update) OSPF packet.

LSA Header Identifies 1 of 11 LSA types. This is a type 3 (summary) LSA.

Link-State ID Network/subnet address being advertised.

Advertising Router The ABR sourcing the advertisement.

Network Mask The mask of the network/subnet.

Metric Cost of the route from the ABR to the advertised network.

Additionally, a summary LSA is not necessarily transmitted for each corre-

sponding network link being advertised. Here’s why:
■■ If redundant paths to the same network exist, only the route with the
lowest metric will be advertised.
■■ If route summarization is configured at the border router, only the sum-
marized network ID will be advertised.
■■ LSA type 3 packets are also used to carry default routes, representing
many networks.

SUMMARY LSA’S VS. ROUTE SUMMARIZATION

Be sure you understand the difference between summary LSAs and route
summarization. Summary LSAs are an OSPF mechanism for advertising an
area’s networks to another area, whereas route summarization is a more
broadly defined process of summarizing a number of contiguously addressed
network IDs as a single route. OSPF supports route summarization at the area
border, which results in a reduced number of summary LSAs being produced—
fewer networks to advertise means fewer type 3 LSAs.
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OSPF 281

After an area has advertised summary LSAs into area 0, they are flooded
throughout the backbone. The ABRs in area 0 then flood the LSAs into all other
areas, making everyone aware of the routes. Routers receiving these LSAs do
not run the SPF algorithm on the learned networks. As previously mentioned,
the routes are simply added to the route table (or not) based on their metric.

Type 4—Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) LSA

The ASBR summary LSA is quite similar to the type 3 (summary) LSA. It also
is generated by Area Border Routers and advertised into area 0 and standard
areas, but not into any form of stub area. In fact, the type 4 LSA uses the same
packet format as the type 3 LSA. The type 4 LSA however, advertises ASBR
routers, not networks. The advertisement helps routers populate their route
tables with optimum paths to external networks. Table 8-10 shows the packet
structure of a type 4 LSA.

Table 8-10 Abbreviated Listing of an LSA Type 4 (ASBR) Packet

LSA TYPE 4
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet by specifying

protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF packets. This is a type 4

(Link-State Update) OSPF packet.

LSA Header Identifies 1 of 11 LSA types. This is a type 4

(summary) LSA.

Link-State ID The router ID of the router being advertised.

Advertising Router The ABR sourcing the advertisement.

Network Mask Always set to 0.0.0.0.

Metric Cost of the route from the ABR of the area to the
advertised ASBR.

Type 5—Autonomous System External LSA

If type 4 LSAs only advertise the location of Autonomous System Boundary
Routers, how do the external routes learned by ASBRs get propagated? This is
handled by type 5 LSAs, which are generated at the ASBRs. In the case of an
ASBR attached to area 0, the external routes learned by the ASBR are flooded
throughout the backbone via type 5 LSAs. These LSAs are then advertised into
standard areas through the ABR, but not into stub areas, which instead receive
a default route pointing to the stub area’s border router. Table 8-11 shows the
packet structure of a type 5 LSA.
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282 Chapter 8

Table 8-11 Abbreviated Listing of an LSA Type 5 (AS External) Packet

LSA TYPE 5
PACKET FIELD DESCRIPTION

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet by specifying

protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF packets. This is a type 4

(Link-State Update) OSPF packet.

LSA Header Identifies 1 of 11 LSA types. This is a type 5 (external) LSA.

Link-State ID IP network number of external route.

Advertising Router ASBR advertising the external route.

Network Mask Network mask of external route.

E-bit A bit that when set to 0 sets the type of metric to type 1,
external path. When set to 1, this sets the type of metric to
type 2, external path.

Metric Cost of route as set at the ASBR.

Forwarding Address IP address packets bound for the advertised network

should be forwarded to.

In a type 5 LSA packet, the link ID is the external route being advertised. As
you can see, the mask of the network is advertised as well. To advertise a
default route, both fields are set to 0.0.0.0.
The E-bit indicates whether the external path type is type 1 or type 2, which
affects how the metric for the route is calculated. Type 2 external paths (the
default) only use the metric calculated for the route by the ASBR that learned
it—in other words, the cost of the route from the ASBR to the external network.
That means all routers in the entire OSPF use the same metric for the route.
Type 2 paths are used when the metric to the external network is heavily
weighted over the internal cost to reach the ASBR.
Type 1 external paths, on the other hand, include the cost from the sourcing
router to the ASBR, plus the cost from the ASBR to the external network. This
means that the metric will vary for each router within the OSPF autonomous
system. The availability of the optional type 1 external path is for flexibility. In
certain configurations, the internal cost of the path to the external network will
have a bearing on routing decisions if there are multiple paths to the same
external network. In that case, the administrator has the option to include the
internal cost by configuring the path as external type 1.

Type 7—Not-So-Stubby Area (NSSA) External LSA

Recall that NSSAs are stub areas that allow for an ASBR within the area.
The traditional LSA type to propagate external routes is the type 5 (external)
LSA. However, the routers in a stub area block type 5 LSAs. Enter the type 7
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OSPF 283

LSA, which circulates only in not-so-stubby areas, bringing its router’s news
of external networks available through the locally attached ASBR.
In the event it is desired to share the routes learned by the NSSA ASBR, the
type 7 LSAs can be converted to type 5 LSAs at the Area Border Router and
advertised into other areas. In fact, this is the default setting. However, this
behavior can be inhibited (see the command reference). Table 8-12 dissects the
type 7 LSA packet.

Table 8-12 Abbreviated Listing of an LSA Type 7 (NSSA External) Packet

LSA TYPE 7 DESCRIPTION

PACKET FIELD

IP Header Identifies payload as an OSPF packet by specifying

protocol #89.

OSPF Header Identifies 1 of 5 types of OSPF packets. This is a type 4

(Link-State Update) OSPF packet.

LSA Header Identifies 1 of 11 LSA types. This is a type 7 (external) LSA.

Link-State ID IP network number of external route.

Advertising Router ASBR advertising the external route.

Network Mask Network mask of external route.

Forwarding Address ASBR ID.

Metric Cost of the route; varies according to whether E-bit is set

to external type 1 or external type 2.

Summary of Area Types, Router Types, and LSA Types

As you can see from this discussion of area types, router types, and LSA types,
these building blocks of OSPF all come together to populate the route table of
each router in the autonomous system with accurate, appropriate information
about the location of networks within and without the system. But how do you
wrap all those extraneous pieces of information into a cohesive, integrated
body of practical knowledge that cannot only quiet your mind from attempt-
ing to track all that minutiae, but be applied to real world scenarios? That is
what “OSPF Operation, Part 2: Tying It All Together” is designed to do. Before
that however, we need to wrap up this section with a discussion of OSPF met-
rics, route table population, route summarization, and some particulars on
redistribution and default routing.
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OSPF Metrics and Population of Route Tables

In the previous sections that discussed the flooding of LSAs and the synchro-
nization of an area’s link-state database, reference was made to the running of
the SPF algorithm and population of the route tables. The operation of the
Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm was described on page 286, but little has
been said about OSPF metrics and how a route table is actually populated. The
SPF algorithm will be revisited here, along with a closer look at route table
population now that you have developed some background with the protocol.

Overview
For the sake of perspective, it’s worth noting that with distance vector routing
protocols, once a router has learned of a route to a network and derived that it
has the lowest metric, the route is installed into the route table. OSPF, however,
requires an additional step because it does not yet know the shortest path to
each network. Unlike distance vector routing protocols, which transmit dis-
tance information with the route update, OSPF has to come up with the “dis-
tance” to each network on its own. This of course is where the Shortest Path
First (SPF) algorithm comes in. SPF actually does its work in several phases. It
creates the all-important topology map (the shortest path tree), laying out in its
mind the location of each router in the area and the networks attached to it.
This process is performed in several iterations. For example, the location of the
area’s routers are mapped out and then the stub networks are added to the
tree.
When the tree is complete, the algorithm calculates the shortest, loop-free,
path to each network. To accomplish this, SPF calculates each route’s complete
metric.
At some point, inter-area routes and external routes are added to the tree so
that all known networks can be evaluated for inclusion into the route table. As
with any routing protocol, the path to each network with the lowest metric is
then installed. Redundant routes to the same network may be installed as well,
because OSPF is capable of equal cost multi-path routing.

OSPF Metrics
In OSPF, the metric is based on “cost,” which in the case of the popular Cisco
IOS, is simply the bandwidth of the link. Specifically, cost in the Cisco imple-
mentation of OSPF is derived by the formula shown in Figure 8-27.

108/BW
Figure 8-27 Formula for the OSPF metric when the bandwidth is used as the cost.
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OSPF 285

For example, the bandwidth of Fast Ethernet is 100,000,000 bits per second,
so the formula reduces as shown in Figure 8-28.
Table 8-13 shows the cost for some common network transmission speeds.

Table 8-13 OSPF Costs Assigned to Various Media

NETWORK TYPE AND SPEED COST

Giga Ethernet (1,000,000,000/bps) .1

Fast Ethernet (100,000,000/bps) 1

FDDI (100,000,000/bps) 1

Ethernet (10,000,000/bps) 10

16M Token Ring (1000/bps) 6

4M Token Ring (1000/bps) 25

T1 (1.544/Mbps) 64

DSO (64/Kbps) 1562

56K (56/Kbps) 1785

There’s one “gotcha.” Note that the cost of gigabit Ethernet is .1. When
OSPF was first implemented, such speeds did not exist. The Cisco IOS, for
example, did not recognize a cost less than 1. Starting with Cisco IOS version
11.2, the auto-cost reference-bandwidth command was introduced, which
allows the formula constant to be altered from 100 to say, 1000, for example.
The constant is in million bits per second (bps), so 1000 alters the constant to
1gig/s (see the command reference).

Set the Proper Bandwidth on an Interface

It is important to set the correct bandwidth on serial interfaces when you’re
running routing protocols that incorporate bandwidth into their metric. As of
Cisco IOS version 10.3, the speed of a serial interface is auto-detected and the
cost of the link is automatically set. If necessary, the bandwidth of the link can
be manually configured with the interface configuration mode bandwidth
command.

100,000,000 / 100,000,000
1/1
cost = 1
Figure 8-28 Calculating the metric for a Fast Ethernet link.
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286 Chapter 8

Altering the Default Metrics of a Route

The auto-cost reference-bandwidth and bandwidth commands are used to
insure the cost of a link is set correctly. However, the cost of a link can be over-
ridden if need be. There are enough various commands in the Cisco IOS affect-
ing routing metrics to warrant listing them all in one place to put them into
perspective. Here they are:
■■ ip ospf cost: Used to assign a specific cost to an interface. Can be used
in lieu of the bandwidth command to override the default cost OSPF
automatically applies to an interface. Either command will get the job
done, but ip ospf cost is more direct, because you simply specify the
cost in the command line, rather than specifying a bandwidth value
that gets converted into a cost value.
■■ area default-cost: Used to alter the metric of a summary route adver-
tised by an ABR into a stub area.
■■ default-metric: Used to globally set a default metric for redistributed
routes. See Chapter 10 and the redistribution section in this chapter
(page 294).
■■ redistribute: with optional keyword metric x: Used to alter the metric
of a specific external route advertised by an ASBR into an OSPF system.
■■ default-information originate: with optional keyword metric x: Used
to alter the metric of a default route advertised by an ASBR into the
OSPF system.
As you can see, many of the commands that influence a route’s metric relate
to redistribution and default routing, and are therefore covered in Chapter 10.
A subsequent section in this chapter entitled “Default Routing in OSPF” cov-
ers the use of these commands as does the command reference at the end of the
chapter.

Running the SPF Algorithm

Figure 8-29 depicts an OSPF network. The SPF algorithm is about to run on
router A. Note the following:
■■ Assume all LAN links are Fast Ethernet (cost = 1).
■■ Area 1 is advertising a single route—172.16.100.0/20 to area 0. This
area’s networks have been summarized at the ABR. The /20 prefix
includes the range of subnets 172.16.100.0 through 172.16.112.0.
■■ The ASBR attached to area 0 is advertising an external route into area 0.
■■ From router A’s perspective, there are two paths to reach networks in
area 1.
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12.6.8.44/24

B
.4
Area 0

172.16.1.0/24

172.16.5.0/24
.1
.3 .2 .1
172.16.4.0/24 172.16.6.0/24
C D A .1 .2 E .1
.1 .1 .1
Area 1 172.16.2.0/24 172.16.7.0/24
.2
172.16.100.0/24 .1 .2 172.16.3.0/24
F

172.16.100.0/20

Figure 8-29 Example network for running SPF and building the route table.

Figure 8-30 shows the link-state database on router A before SPF has run
(simplified).
Notice the absence of the 172.16.100.0 and 12.6.8.44 networks in the list. The
SPF algorithm is initially run only on the link-state database. The inter-area
and external routes are included in the tree later as candidates for inclusion in
the routing table.

Running SPF
Now the SPF algorithm runs. When it completes all its iterations the resulting
shortest path tree is as shown in Figure 8-31.

Router ID 172.16.5.1 (router A) is connected to network 172.16.1.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s

Router ID 172.16.5.1 (router A) is connected to network 172.16.3.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.5.1 (router A) is connected to network 172.16.4.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.1.4 (router B) is connected to network 172.16.1.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.2.1 (router C) is connected to network 172.16.1.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.2.1 (router C) is connected to network 172.16.2.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.1.2 (router D) is connected to network 172.16.1.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.7.1 (router E) is connected to network 172.16.4.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.7.1 (router E) is connected to network 172.16.5.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.7.1 (router E) is connected to network172.16.6.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.7.1 (router E) is connected to network 172.16.7.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.100.1 (router F) is connected to network 172.16.2.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.100.1 (router F) is connected to network 172.16.3.0/24. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s
Router ID 172.16.100.1 (router F) is connected to network 172.16.100.0/20. The bandwidth is 100mbp/s

Figure 8-30 Router A’s link-state database.

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288 Chapter 8

<root>
Router ID
172.16.5.1
(Router A)
172.16.1.0/24 cost=1
172.16.3.0/24 cost=1
172.16.4.0/24 cost=1

Router ID Router ID Router ID Router ID Router ID

172.16.1.4 172.16.2.1 172.16.1.2 172.16.7.1 172.16.100.1
(Router B) (Router C) (Router D) (Router E) (Router F)
172.16.1.0/24 cost=1 172.16.1.0/24 cost=1 172.16.1.0/24 cost=1 172.16.4.0/24 cost=1 172.16.2.0/24 cost=1
12.6.8.44/24 cost=10 172.16.2.0/24 cost=1 172.16.5.0/24 cost=1 172.16.3.0/24 cost=1
172.16.6.0/24 cost=1 172.16.100.0/24 cost=1
172.16.7.0/24 cost=1 172.16.100.0/20 cost=1

Router ID
172.16.100.1
(Router F) Router ID
172.16.3.0/24 cost=1 172.16.2.1
172.16.4.0/24 cost=1 (Router C)
172.16.100.0/24 cost=1 172.16.1.0/24 cost=1
172.16.100.0/20 cost=1 172.16.2.0/24 cost=1

Router ID
172.16.1/2
(Router D)
172.16.1.0/24 cost=1

Router ID
172.16.1.4
(Router B)
172.16.1.0/24 cost=1
12.6.8.44/24 cost=10

Figure 8-31 Shortest path tree created by the SPF algorithm.

N OT E The inter-area and external networks are now shown, along with their
accompanying metrics. They will be included as each route is evaluated for
inclusion into the route table. Bear in mind that we are presenting a somewhat
simplified view of the SPF process. Detailed information on the SPF algorithm is
found in RFC 2328.

Populating the Route Table

With knowledge of every advertised network, the route table can now be built.
Populating the route table of OSPF learned routes is similar to how route
tables are populated by any routing protocol: by evaluating each route’s met-
ric. OSPF adds a couple of twists however. Before a route’s metric is consid-
ered, routes are first categorized according to their sources. For example, OSPF
will always give preference to a route learned from within the area as opposed
to learned from another area, regardless of the metric. The following subsec-
tions explain how it breaks down.
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OSPF 289

Path Type
Recall that there are six path types reflected in the route table: Intra-area, Inter-
Area, E1 External, E2 External, N1 NSSA External, and N2 NSSA External.
The first two path types simply denote routes learned internally to the OSPF
system. The other four path types all denote externally learned routes. The E1
External/N1 NSSA External path type refers to a route whose metric is made
up of both the cost assigned to the external route at the ASBR that learned of
the route, plus the cost of forwarding the packet between an internal router and
the ASBR. The E2 External/N2 NSSA External path type refers to a route
whose metric is composed solely of the cost assigned at the ASBR.

N OT E The NSSA path types mimic the two external types, except the
designation refers to external routes learned specifically from NSSA areas. An
area will have either external routes or NSSA external routes to evaluate, but
never both, because NSSA external routes are only found in NSSA areas, and
NSSA areas never learn of other external routes directly. Any NSSA external
routes advertised into other areas are advertised as external path types,
because the type 7 (NSSA) LSA is converted to a type 5 (external) LSA.

Intra-area routes have precedence over any other way a route was learned.
Why route a packet out of the area to reach a destination network within the
area? Inter-area routes have the next highest priority. This is based on the
axiom, “Why trust a route learned from a foreign source over the same route
learned of within the OSPF system?”
Path types E1 External and E1 NSSA External have the next order of prece-
dence. These path types are given more weight than their E2 counterparts
because the metric includes the internal cost as well as the cost assigned at the
system border. In cases where an OSPF system has multiple ASBRs, the com-
posite metric may render more optimal routing.

Destination Type
OSPF also distinguishes between routes to networks and routes to other routers.
Link-state information about the location of ABRs and ASBRs is included in
the initial SPF calculation, but only routes to networks are considered at this
point.

Installing the Routes

Once the preferred routes have been ranked by path type, the routes are then
installed based on the lowest metric. When multiple equal cost routes are
installed, OSPF will load-balance among them.
The rubber hits the road in Figure 8-32 as the route table output from router
A shows the results of all the work performed by SPF.
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290 Chapter 8

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2,
E1 – OSPF external type 1, E2 – OSPF external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

172.16.0.0 is variably subnetted, 8 subnets

C 172.16.1.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 172.16.3.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet2
C 172.16.4.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet1
O 172.16.2.0/24 [110/2] via 172.16.1.3,00:00:30, Ethernet0
O 172.16.2.0/24 [110/2] via 172.16.3.2,00:00:33, Ethemet2
O 172.16.5.0/24 [110/2] via 172.16.4.2,00:00:10, Ethernet1
O 172.16.6.0/24 [110/2] via 172.16.4.2,00:00:10, Ethernet1
O 172.16.7.0/24 [110/2] via 172.16.4.2,00:00:10, Ethemet1
O IA 172.16.100.0/20 [110/2] via 172.16.3.2,00:00:42, Ethernet2
O E2 12.6.8.44/24 [110/10] via 172.16.1.4, 00:00:55, Ethernet0

Figure 8-32 Route table output after SPF runs and populates the table.

Let’s walk through the entries, to be sure it’s clear what’s there, and why it’s
there. The first three route table entries reflect router A’s three directly con-
nected networks, thus they are denoted with a C code. The next two entries
coded O for OSPF intra-area routes are two equal-cost paths to the 172.16.2.0/
24. OSPF will forward roughly equal portions of traffic bound for that network
through both links. Note that the metric for both routes is 2, because SPF
summed the cost of the links to the network at each outbound interface.
The .5, .6, and .7 intra-area networks are then listed, all with a metric of 2,
again reflecting the sum of two links, which were assigned a cost of 1 based on
the interface bandwidth.
The 172.16.100.0/20 network shows up in the route table with an intra-area
code because the route was learned from a border router with an interface into
area 1. The 172.16.100.0 network is of course a summary route, representing
the condensed subnet IDs in area 1. Not only does this configuration reduce
the number of entries in the route table, all subnets in area 1 were advertised
into area 0 with a single, small summary LSA. This is a sign of a wellarchi-
tected OSPF system. The metric of 2 is a sum of the metric advertised by the
ABR (router F) plus the cost of the link between router F and router A (the
default cost applied to an inter-area summary route is 1).
Finally, the route to the 12.6.8.44 is indicated with the E2 code, indicating
its metric is composed simply of the cost assigned to the route at the ASBR
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OSPF 291

(router B). The metric would have been 11 rather than 10 if the path type had
been set to E1.

Route Summarization in OSPF

Route summarization is another tool for minimizing the impact of routing
updates on the network. The benefits of route summarization were discussed
in detail in Chapter 4 beginning on page 119. It is suggested you review that
section if you are not up to speed on this topic. The following information is
specific to route summarization in OSPF.

Summarizing Inter-Area Networks

OSPF summarizes inter-area networks only at the border of an area. By sum-
marizing network IDs at ABRs, fewer type 3 (summary) LSAs need be created
and propagated into other areas.
Although summarized LSAs occur naturally at the area border, summarized
routes don’t. Routes both within the autonomous system as well as external
routes can be summarized, but you must tell OSPF to do so. For Cisco routers,
route summarization for inter-area networks occurs at Area Border Routers
(ABRs) and is configured at the ABR with the area-range command. Route
Summarization for external networks occurs at Autonomous System Boundary
Routers (ASBRs) and is instead configured at the ASBR with the summary-
address command. Usage examples of these commands are found in the com-
mand reference.
Inter-area networks may be summarized as they are advertised into area 0.
Likewise, area 0’s networks may be summarized into non-zero areas.12 It
makes sense to do both, but you can perform such summarization only if your
network has been addressed with summarization in mind. IP addresses must
be assigned in contiguous blocks within an area to take full advantage of sum-
marization. Figure 8-33 illustrates an example of an autonomous system that
has been architected for summarization. The non-zero areas are advertising
their networks to area 0. Because route summarization has been enabled, only
a single network address is being advertised from each area. OSPF, being a
fully classless routing protocol, can summarize routes at any bit border.
In Figure 8-34, as area 0 becomes aware of the networks in non-zero areas, it
advertises the networks to all other areas in type 3 (summary) LSAs. Since area
0’s ABRs have also been configured for route summarization, area 0’s own
subnets are summarized as well. Note that a maximum of three networks are
ever advertised across an area boundary, even though up to 64 or more sub-
nets may exist in the system. Also note that OSPF employs a split-horizon style
rule by not advertising a network back to the area it learned the network from.
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292 Chapter 8

Area 1 Area 0 Area 2 Area 0

"Here is a type 3 "Here is a type 3

(summary) LSA. I (summary) LSA. I
am advertising the am advertising the
172.16.8.0/21." 172.16.16.0/21."

Area 0

172.16.8.0/25 172.16.1.128/25 172.16.16.0/25

172.16.8.128/25 172.16.3.0/25 172.16.2.0/25 172.16.16.128/25

172.16.9.0/25 172.16.17.0/25
172.16.2.128/25
Area 1 Area 2

172.16.24.128/25

172.16.24.0/25 172.16.25.0/25

Area 3 Area 3 Area 0

"Here is a type 3
(summary) LSA. I
am advertising the
172.16.24.0/21."

Figure 8-33 Route summarization in an OSPF system—what non-zero areas advertise to

area 0.

Summarizing External Networks

Summarization of externally learned networks is configured at the ASBR.
Because ASBRs advertise external routes in type 5 (external) LSAs, summariza-
tion results in fewer of these type 5 packets being generated. There are two
caveats. Rather than summarize external networks, ASBRs can instead be con-
figured to inject a default route into the OSPF autonomous system representing
the router’s external networks (a default route of course being the ultimate in
summarization). In that case, routers within the system simply use the default
route to reach external destinations. See the following section on default rout-
ing to develop an understanding of when this approach is practical.
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OSPF 293

Area 0 Area 1 Area 0 Area 2

"Here is a type 3 "Here is a type 3

(summary) LSA. I (summary) LSA. I
am advertising the am advertising the
172.16.0.0/21, 172.16.0.0/21,
172.16.16.0/21, 172.16.8.0/21,
172.16.24.0/21 172.16.24.0/21
subnets.” subnets.”

Area 0

172.16.8.0/25 172.16.1.128/25 172.16.16.0/25

172.16.8.128/25 172.16.3.0/25 172.16.2.0/25 172.16.16.128/25

172.16.9.0/25 172.16.17.0/25
172.16.2.128/25
Area 1 Area 2

172.16.24.128/25

172.16.24.0/25 172.16.25.0/25 Area 0 Area 1

"Here is a type 3
(summary) LSA. I
am advertising the
Area 3 172.16.0.0/21,
172.16.8.0/21,
172.16.16.0/21
subnets.”

Figure 8-34 Route summarization in an OSPF system—what area 0 advertises to non-zero

areas.

Second, to advertise an external route, summarized or not, you must redis-

tribute it. Be aware that when you redistribute external routes, the key word
subnets must be used with the redistribute command, or only classful net-
works will be advertised. We mention this here because leaving off the subnets
keyword is not the same as route summarization. Without the subnets key-
word, subnets are dropped rather than summarized to a classful boundary and
advertised. Some treatments of OSPF state that summarization is on by default
for external routes, when in fact the text is referring to the fact that leaving out
the optional keyword subnets results in only classful addresses being redis-
tributed. The resulting dropping of routes is not route summarization!
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294 Chapter 8

Redistribution in OSPF
Redistribution is covered in Chapter 10. The reason for talking about redistri-
bution in the last chapter of the book is certainly not because the topic has the
least importance, but rather because it makes more sense to explore redistrib-
ution after the routing protocols themselves have been covered. What is cov-
ered in this short section are some caveats regarding redistribution as it applies
to OSPF. Naturally, this material will make more sense if you go through the
general treatment of redistribution first.
There are special considerations for redistribution with OSPF. As a reminder,
redistribution is the process of advertising networks into the autonomous sys-
tem that were not learned by the native routing protocol. These may be routes
learned through another routing protocol, static routes, and even directly con-
nected networks on interfaces not enabled for OSPF. OSPF routers, as with any
routing protocol, won’t automatically advertise networks that haven’t been
learned through the OSPF process. Such routes need to be brought into the fold,
so to speak. The act of doing that is called redistribution.

Redistribution Specifics for OSPF

■■ The redistribute router configuration command is used to advertise

non-OSPF routes into an OSPF system. This is the same as with any
interior routing protocol.
■■ The default-information originate router configuration command is a
special form of the redistribute command used to advertise a default
route into the OSPF system, in lieu of advertising individual or summa-
rized external routes. The command is entered on a router whose route
table is populated with the external routes, causing the default route to
be advertised. For routing to be successful, it is mandatory that the router
configured with the default-information originate command also have a
static default route configured. Therefore, the ip route command is also
used to create the default route (see the command reference for details).
■■ Redistribution of non-OSPF routes occurs at ASBRs only. Executing the
redistribute or default-information originate command is, in fact,
what makes a router an ASBR (along with any other roles it plays).
■■ Redistributed routes may be propagated throughout the autonomous
system in one of three ways:
1. On a one-for-one basis using the redistribute command. Each exter-
nally learned network is advertised into the OSPF system.13
2. The external networks also can be summarized before being adver-
tised using a form of the redistribute command. Summarization can
occur at any bit border.14
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OSPF 295

3. A default route may be propagated that represents the route to the

external networks using the aforementioned default-information origi-
nate command.

■■ Redistribution can occur between two OSPF systems. OSPF is config-

ured with a process ID, and two completely separate OSPF autonomous
systems, with differing process IDs, can redistribute routes to each
other.
■■ By default, only major network numbers are redistributed: the
170.1.0.0/16 is redistributed, but the 170.1.1.0/24 is not. In order to
redistribute subnets of major networks, the subnets keyword must be
included in the redistribute command.

Assigning a Metric to Redistributed Routes

If left at the defaults, OSPF will advertise redistributed routes with a metric of
20. This behavior can be altered with the same generic commands mentioned
in Chapter 10. The default metric command can alter the metric OSPF applies
to all redistributed routes. Likewise, a metric can be set for a particular route at
the time the redistribute command is executed, thereby overriding any other
metric setting. Finally, a default route generated with the default-information
originate command can also have a metric applied when the command is exe-
cuted, again, overriding any default metric.

Default Routing in OSPF

The topic of default routing, like redistribution, is covered in Chapter 10,
because the information is easier to digest when you already know a few
things about the routing protocol you are interested working with. So, as with
redistribution, it’s worthwhile studying the general treatment of default rout-
ing in Chapter 10, and then come back here and read about the OSPF specifics
of default routing.
Default routing has several unique properties when applied to OSPF. Let’s
briefly summarize them, and then get into the details:
■■ Default routes can only be originated on ABRs and ASBRs.
■■ Default routes are automatically generated by OSPF for stub areas at
the ABR.
■■ Static default routes may be created with the ip route command, but
the default-information originate command must also be used to actu-
ally advertise (redistribute) the default route to other routers.
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296 Chapter 8

DANGER WILL ROBINSON

We repeat the warning from the redistribution section: Redistribution is an

advanced topic, and you should review additional material on the subject
before messing with it. If redistribution is not deployed properly, suboptimal
routing and/or routing loops will occur.

Only ABRs and ASBRs Originate Default Routes

In OSPF, all routes within an area are populated into the route table via type 1
(router) LSAs. Therefore, a default route pointing to a network within the area
is unnecessary. Therefore, the use of default routing in OSPF is generally to
provide a default path out of the area, which may be a default route to other net-
works within the autonomous system and/or to external networks. Therefore,
only ABRs and ASBRs originate default routes. (Is that enough therefores for
you?)
When ASBRs advertise a default route, the route is carried in a type 5 (exter-
nal) LSA. When ABRs generate a default route into a stub area, the route is
instead carried in the same type 3 (summary) LSAs that carry inter-area routes,
since stub areas do not accept type 5 (external) LSAs.

OSPF Handles Some Aspects of Default Routing Automatically

The fact is, there may be less of a need to manually configure default routing
in OSPF than with other routing protocols. The reason is simple; areas of the
network that require a default route can often be configured as some form of
stub area, in which case default routes are automatically generated and prop-
agated. Recall that stub and NSSA area types have a default route injected into
the area that represents the path to any external network, and totally stubby
areas are given a default route that represents the path to any network (both
inter-area and external). In either case, OSPF automatically injects the default
route into the stub area at the ABR without further configuration. After all,
summarizing routes external to the area is what the “stub” in stub areas is all
about (a default route is a summary route taken to its logical conclusion).

Default Routes for Non-Stub Areas

If there is a need to represent external networks to non-stub areas as a default
route (area 0 and/or a standard area), what better place to do so than at the
router responsible for redistributing external networks into the OSPF
autonomous system—the ASBR. As was pointed out in the previous section on
redistribution, a default route is one of three ways to redistribute external
routes into an OSPF domain. In certain circumstances, a default route is a
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OSPF 297

preferable solution to advertising a bunch of external networks to the non-stub

areas. The question is, as it always is with default routing: Can it be employed
without impacting optimal routing? In the case of a system with a single ASBR,
the answer is usually yes. Externally bound packets would have no other rout-
ing choice except to exit through the sole ASBR.
Even if multiple ASBRs are employed, default routing may still be a viable
option. If all ASBRs are the same distance to the same set of networks, each
ASBR could be configured to propagate a default route rather then redistribute
the external routes. Default routes are advertised with a metric, just like any
other route, so each router throughout the system would choose the closest
ASBR based on the advertised metric for each candidate default route.

Manually Configuring Default Routing

To create a default route in OSPF you use the ip route global configuration com-
mand. However, even though this command, properly formatted, is enough to
propagate a default route in other routing protocols (or in some cases the redis-
tribute static command is required), OSPF requires an extra step to have the
default route advertised. The default-information originate command dis-
cussed in the previous section on redistribution must be employed. The
default-information originate command is used because it forces the router to
take on the role of ASBR, and because it provides more configuration options
than the redistribute static command. The options are as follows:
■■ Set the metric
■■ Set the path type (External type 1 or External type 2)
■■ Set the IS-IS level
■■ Force the route to remain advertised even if the route is flapping
■■ Advertise the default route into other routing protocols
■■ Add a route map

DEFAULT ROUTING AND REDISTRIBUTION GO HAND-IN-HAND

Notice how closely default routing is tied to redistribution. In and of itself, the
act of configuring a default route on a single router is performed without any
routing protocol. However, if you want that default route to be made available
to other routers—you don’t want to run around and hand configure the default
route on every affected router—then a routing protocol is mandatory, and now
we’re talkin’ redistribution. Therefore, to fully understand default routing
means knowing a thing or two about redistribution. This point is underscored
in OSPF, which because of its area-based architecture, more closely integrates
redistribution and default routing than other interior routing protocols.
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Setting the Metric

The default-information originate command has an option for manually set-
ting the cost (metric) of a default route. In an OSPF system configured to gen-
erate only one default route, the metric has little meaning because any router
hearing of only a single default route will accept it. In cases where a router
may hear of more than one default route, having the ability to set the metric of
the default routes provides the administrator with a means to weigh each
redistributed default route so that a router choosing from among multiple can-
didate default routes will choose the one that provides the optimal path to the
destination networks. The default metric is 20.

Setting the Path Type

Here again is an aforementioned tool for fine-tuning how routers will choose
from among multiple candidate default routes. Like externally learned routes,
default routes can be redistributed as either external type 1 or external type 2
path types. Recall that type 2 external routes include only the cost assigned to
the route at the point of redistribution. In that case, the route is advertised to
all routers in the OSPF system with the exact same metric. Type 1 routes how-
ever, also include the metric from the point of origin (an ABR or ASBR) to the
router the default route is advertised to.
The other options of the default-information originate command mostly
have to do with interaction with other routing protocols and are considered
advanced topics that will not be covered in this book. However, the sample
configurations in the command reference will cover both inter-area and exter-
nal default routing scenarios.

Partitioned Areas
When one or more routers within an area lose connectivity to any other router
in the area, that area is considered partitioned. The severity of a partitioned area
depends on whether it is the backbone area (area 0) or a non-zero area.
Partitioning of non-zero areas will not break routing as long as every router
can still reach an ABR. OSPF will automatically treat the partitioned area as
two separate areas. Routing packets between the two disjoined sections of the
area will continue by forwarding packets to the backbone and then back into
the other partitioned section of the area.
Partitioning of area 0 is more problematic. Because inter-area traffic passes
through area 0, a downed link can break routing, as shown in Figure 8-35.
The chances of an area becoming partitioned are mitigated through the use
of redundant links. As you can see, area 0 needs redundancy if the system is to
be reliable. One option if an area does become partitioned; it can be temporar-
ily repaired through the use of Virtual Links, which are discussed next.
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ARE VIRTUAL LINKS GOOD THINGS OR BAD THINGS?

Some texts tend to criticize the idea of using virtual links in an OSPF system.
Virtual links are sometimes characterized as something of a fall-back position
for a less then ideally architected system. In the example under study, virtual
links were definitely a “plan B” when a link went down. But can virtual links be
included in a straight-out implementation of OSPF? The designers of OSPF
seemed to think so. The RFC for OSPF treats virtual links as a capable tool for
dealing with the realities of real world networks. It is sometimes difficult to
impossible to physically connect each non-zero area to area 0. That’s where a
virtual link can help.
Keep in mind that what you are doing with a virtual link is essentially
tunneling data through the transit area. Although the area being linked to the
backbone through the transit area does not physically connect to the
backbone, it is logically connected and therefore the two-level hierarchical
mantra of OSPF design remains intact.
Having said that, configuration of virtual links should be well thought out
and employed with care. There are a few limitations. Virtual links are therefore
considered an advanced topic and will not be covered further in this book. The
appendix will refer you to recommended places to obtain more information.

Area 0

Area 1 Area 3

Area 2

Figure 8-35 A failed link in area 0 has cut area 3 off from area 2, area 1, and
part of the backbone.
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Virtual Links
Virtual links allow a non-zero area to connect to the backbone via another area.
The problem just illustrated in Figure 8-35, where the backbone became parti-
tioned, could be solved if area 3 could connect to the backbone through area 2.
In this case, area 2 would be considered a transit area for the virtual link.
Conversely, a virtual link can help in the same example by making the back-
bone contiguous. The networks connected to router A are unreachable through
the backbone, but not through area 3. A virtual link could be configured from
the backbone through area 2 and area 3 to make the backbone contiguous
again.

Options Field
The options field describes a router’s capabilities. The field is present in three
OSPF packet types: Hello packets, database description packets, and all LSA
packets. The value of various bits set in the options field determines how a
router will behave in an OSPF routing domain. Some of the more important
options bits are described next.

E-bit (Hello Packets)

This option bit defines whether or not a router is part of a stub area. When set
to 0, it indicates the router is part of a stub area. If it is set to 1, the router will
not accept type 5 (external) LSAs. The value of the E-bit must match for two
routers to become neighbors.

N-bit (Hello Packets)

This option bit defines the router as part of an NSSA area. If it is set to 1, the
router will send and receive type 7 (NSSA external) LSAs. If the N-bit is set, the
E-bit must be 0.

P-bit (NSSA LSAs)

When this option bit is set to 1, it tells the ABR of a not-so-stubby area to trans-
late type 7 (NSSA external) LSAs to type 5 (external) LSAs. This is how routes
learned through ASBRs attached to NSSAs are propagated into other areas.
The default is to translate the LSAs and advertise the NSSA learned routes.

DC-bit (Hello and LSA Packets)

This is set when a router supports OSPF over demand circuits.
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M-bit (Database Description Packets)

This is used to control the flow of database description packets in the exstart
state when synchronizing link-state databases.

OSPF Operation, Part 2: Tying It All Together

At this point, you have a grasp of the building blocks of the OSPF protocol.
You have been exposed to the protocol’s terminology and have seen how area
types, router types, and LSA types relate to each other and how they facilitate
single and multiple area routing. You have also seen how OSPF metrics work,
how route tables are populated, how OSPF summarizes routes, and how redis-
tribution and default routing are handled by the protocol.
Here, a series of examples will be presented that reinforce all those OSPF
concepts and solidify your understanding of how the protocol can be put to
use in real world scenarios. Following this section is the command reference,
which will give you the how-to portion of configuring OSPF. A series of exam-
ples demonstrating the Cisco IOS commands for implementing a variety of
OSPF configurations will be presented.

Designing OSPF Networks

When designing an OSPF network, don’t worry about things like choosing
which router types and LSA types will be used. You’re not going be saying;
“Gee, which LSA types do I want to run on my network?” The LSA type used
is a function of the router type of a particular interface. Meanwhile, the router
type is a function of the area type and the router’s position in the area.
A better question with a hierarchical protocol like OSPF is; “How much
routing information do I need to propagate to each router in the system to
enable optimal routing, and how should the areas be configured to make that
so?” Out of that strategic query flows tactical questions like the following:
What is the minimum amount of routing information that needs to propagate
both within and between the various areas of the network while maintaining
optimal routing? Where are my redundant links and how can I best configure
OSPF to take advantage of them to avoid partitioned areas, especially through
the backbone? Where are the narrow pipes where routing information must be
minimalized? Where are my stub networks? How many external routes must
I propagate throughout the system? Where can I get away with using default
routes? How much of an impact by the OSPF routing protocol can various
routers handle? Where are the most heavily trafficked areas of the network?
Ultimately, you are deciding how many areas are right for your system and
what type they should be. The earlier discussion entitled “To Area or Not to
Area” on page 269 should help. Keep in mind that you can alter the area
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configuration at a later date. If you find that routers and/or links are becom-
ing overwhelmed with route calculations and/or routing traffic, you can split
the area. Conversely, areas that turn out to have available overhead for LSA
type 1 and type 2 traffic can be reconfigured to join another area. A significant
factor lies in whether you are growing a relatively small network, or migrating
a larger, mature network away from another routing protocol. Either way,
benchmarking is indispensable for spotting issues as you implement OSPF.
You should know ahead of time what the load on network links, router inter-
faces, router memory, and related items currently is. Then take periodic read-
ings as you make changes. Be smart. Stay a step ahead of trouble.
When you have an idea of how many areas you need, you then want to
determine what kind of areas they will be. Here is where we will get into some
examples that will clarify the purpose and role of each area type.

Backbone Area
If you’re implementing a multiple area system, it’s a no-brainer that you will
have a backbone area, because you have to. But how big will it be? How many
routers will it encompass? Bearing in mind the considerations just mentioned
for the size of an area, think about three other factors:
■■ Consider how all other areas will connect to area 0.
■■ Consider that all inter-area traffic must pass through area 0.
■■ Consider placing all or most all ASBRs in area 0—a good central location.
All non-zero areas must connect to area 0. That’s the rule; even if the con-
nections are through a virtual link. So area 0 should include the routers that
will act as ABRs to straddle into each non-zero area.
Because best practice specifies that traffic passing from one non-zero area to
another non-zero area will transit through the backbone area, area 0 must have
routers with sufficient CPU and memory to handle both inter-area traffic as
well as transient intra-area traffic. Naturally you want to have supersized
and/or redundant network links in the backbone as well.
All else being equal, it may be smart to place your ASBRs in area 0, simply
because it provides a central location to be reached by the non-zero areas. Of
course, external traffic entering and exiting through area 0 must also be con-
sidered. Other locations for ASBRs are standard areas and not-so-stubby areas.
Figure 8-36 depicts a properly designed area configuration.
The backbone area, like all area types, floods type 1 (router) LSA and type 2
(network) LSA packets within the area. Type 4 (ASBR summary) LSAs, and
type 5 (external) LSAs also circulate in area 0, carrying information on external
routes, as well as propagating default routes. And of course, area 0 carries
transit inter-area traffic.
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The EIGRP
Internet

Area 0

Area 1 Area 3

Area 2

Figure 8-36 In a properly architected system, all inter-area traffic flows

through backbone area 0.

Standard Area
Standard areas absorb the most routing information of any non-zero area type.
All three intra-area LSA types—type 3 (summary) LSAs, type 4 (ASBR sum-
mary) LSAs, and type 5 (external) LSAs—are accepted. Therefore, routers in
standard areas learn about all networks within the autonomous system, the
location of all ASBRs, and the external routes distributed by ASBRs—or simply
a default route representing the non-OSPF routes, depending on how the
ASBRs are configured.
A standard area is appropriate when there are multiple paths leading out of
the area, and granular routing data is required for both intra-area and external
routes in order to make optimal routing decisions. Furthermore, a standard
area can contain an ASBR for cases when it is best to have external routes
injected directly into a non-zero area, rather than have the external routes be
accessed through area 0. Figure 8-37 depicts a typical standard area.
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Area 1 Area 0

Type 3 (summary) LSAs. 10.4.2.9

Type 4 (ASBR summary) LSAs. The
Type 5 (external) LSAs. Internet

Area 0

10.4.2.9
Area 1 B
170.14.2.4

Area 0 Area 1

Type 3 (summary) LSAs.

Type 4 (ASBR summary) LSAs.
Type 5 (external) LSAs.

Figure 8-37 Standard areas circulate the same routing information as the backbone area.

Let’s assume in the diagram that all links in area 0 have the same band-
width. Note that there are multiple paths from area 1 to both inter-area and
external networks.
In terms of inter-area routing from area 1 to area 0, the path to the 170.14.2.4
in area 0 has a differing metric through router B than through A. Depending on
the network configuration within area 1, some routers may have an optimal
path through router B, while others may reach the 170.14.2.4 quicker through
router A. It is therefore wise to have both ABRs advertise the 170.14.2.4 into
area 1. Standard areas allow type 3 (summary) LSAs, so each router in area 1
will have the detailed information they need about how best to reach the
170.14.2.4.
Likewise with external routes. There are two paths to the 10.4.2.9. To pro-
vide area 1 with access to the 10.4.2.9 through area 0, area 1 must receive an
advertisement for the network. It won’t due to simply have the ABRs inject a
default route that points to the ASBR connected to the 10.4.2.9, even if it is to
be used as a backup if the route to the 10.4.2.9 in area 1 goes down. Why? The
ASBR connected to the Internet needs to supply the default route in order to
give all networks access to the Internet. The default route propagated by the
ABRs connecting to area 1 must point to the Internet ASBR. The route to the
10.4.2.9 must be specifically advertised.
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Because standard areas let type 4 (ASBR summary) and type 5 (external)
LSAs in, the routers in area 1 can learn about the additional ASBR in area 0 and
learn of a path to 10.4.2.9 through it. The route with the shortest path, based on
its accumulative metric, will be installed into the route table and optimal rout-
ing will ensue. In the event the installed route becomes invalid, the alternate
path to 10.4.2.9 will be installed.

Stub Area
Stub areas are more restrictive than standard areas because they don’t allow
type 4 (ASBR summary) or type 5 (external) LSAs. A stub area can’t contain an
ASBR because type 4 and type 5 LSAs are literally ignored by routers config-
ured to be a part of a stub area.15 Such routers accept only types 1, 2, and 3 LSAs.
In this case, the only way to propagate external networks into the stub area is
with a default route injected at the ABR. Because type 3 (summary) LSAs are
allowed into the area, the default route is contained in that LSA type. The
default route simply forwards packets to the ABR, which will either itself have
a default route pointing to external networks, or its route table will be popu-
lated with external routes, depending on how redistribution has been config-
ured at area 0’s ASBRs. Figure 8-38 depicts how LSAs circulate in a stub area.

Area 1 Area 0

Type 3 (summary) LSAs

Area 0

Area 1

Area 0 Area 1

Type 3 (summary) LSAs

Type 3 (summary) LSA supplying a default route

Figure 8-38 Stub area routers block type 4 (ASBR summary) and type 5 (external) LSAs.
A default route is injected for external networks.
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Stub areas were originally designed for routers with limited resources, par-
ticularly memory. If such routers can be located where a default route can rep-
resent the path to many networks—preferably optimal paths—stub areas
make sense. In fact, any area of the network where optimal routing can ensue
when external routes are represented by a default route, are worthy of consid-
eration as a stub area.

Totally Stubby Area

Once you start pondering the stub area in Figure 8-38, it inevitably occurs to
you that the default route injected by the ABR could be used as a path for all
traffic exiting area 1—both external as well as all inter-area traffic. Cisco had
the same thought and came up with the totally stubby area, which does just
that. The ABR of an area configured as totally stubby will advertise only a
default route into the area. All traffic bound for networks outside the area will
use the default route.
The model in Figure 8-38 is a great candidate for a totally stubby area
because it has a single connection to the backbone. There is simply no need to
supply the area with anything but a default route.
The real question if you are a Cisco shop is: How do you know whether to
configure an area as stub or totally stubby? For the answer to that question, we
present the network model in Figure 8-39.
A stub area is not necessarily restricted to having only a single connection to
the backbone. Always remember that the rule of thumb for choosing the area
type is to configure as restrictive an area as possible that doesn’t inhibit opti-
mal routing. Let’s put that rule to work in this example. Note the following
about the OSPF system in Figure 8-39:
■■ There is only one ASBR.
■■ Each ABR has an equivalent metric to the ASBR.
■■ The metric from each ABR to any particular network in area 1 is likely
to vary.
A totally stubby area would not be the best choice for this network model
because the two ABRs don’t have the same metrics for reaching destinations
within area 0. You want the detail provided by those type 3 (summary) LSAs.
However, the area need not be configured as standard. Configuring as stub
would not sacrifice optimal routing because both ABRs have the same metric
to the ASBR.
However, let’s assume that some routers in area 1 have a differing cost to
each ABR. It’s best to have each area 1 router choose the closest ABR. Not a
problem. This will happen automatically. With the area configured as a stub,
each ABR will advertise a candidate default route. The metric for each route
will be the cost of the route from the area 1 router receiving the advertisement
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OSPF 307

to the ABR, which will vary from router to router. Every area 1 router will
receive two advertisements for a default route, one from each ABR. The candi-
date default route with the lowest metric will be chosen. Optimal routing will
take place.16

Not-So-Stubby Area
Not-so-stubby areas (NSSAs) are the newest area type, introduced to OSPF in
1994 via RFC 1587. It allows the normal rule of “no ASBR in a stub area” to be
broken.
Sometimes the network configuration of a group of routers reveals that opti-
mal routing can still occur if the area is configured as stub . . . but . . . you want
to have a router within the area connect to one or more external networks. That
of course is a no-no with stub and totally stubby areas—the routers will sim-
ply ignore the type 5 (external) LSAs generated by an attached ASBR. This sit-
uation comes up often with remote locations that have a local Internet
connection or connect to another autonomous system for example. You want
to benefit from the reduced routing traffic enjoyed by a stub area, but you need
an ASBR in the area.

Area 1 Area 0 Assume all links in area 0 are the same speed
Router A

Type 3 (summary) LSAs.

Area 0

Area 0 Area 1
A
Routers A and B
Area 1
170.14.2.4
B Type 3 (summary) LSAs.
Type 3 (summary) LSA
supplying
a default route.

Area 1 Area 0
Router B

Type 3 (summary) LSAs.

Figure 8-39 Stub areas can have more than one connection to the backbone area.
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ONLY THE AREA BORDER ROUTER NEED BE CISCO

If you are attracted to the idea of a totally stubby area, but are not a fully Cisco
shop, bear in mind that only the ABR needs to be a Cisco router. In that case,
the routers within the area would be configured as stub (an RFC-sanctioned
area type), while only the ABR would be configured as totally stubby. This
strategy is easy to understand because the only difference between stub areas
and totally stubby areas is with how wide a range of networks are summarized
as a default route—and this distinction is only implemented at the ABR. The
routers within the area configured simply as stub don’t care if they don’t
receive inter-area routes. (It’s not like they’re going to revolt or anything.)

Enter the not-so-stubby area. Like a stub area, an NSSA area allows only
type 3 (summary) LSAs into the area, and represents external networks as a
default route injected by the ABR. However, unlike stub and totally stubby
areas, external routes from a locally connected ASBR can be propagated into the
area. In this case, the ASBR is configured as NSSA, and special type 7 (NSSA
External) LSAs are circulated just within the area.
The routers in the NSSA can either populate their route tables with paths to
specific external networks learned by the NSSA ASBR, or the NSSA ASBR can
simply inject a default route.17 Figure 8-40 illustrates an NSSA configuration.

Area 1 Area 0

Type 3 (summary) LSAs.

Type 5 (external) LSAs converted from type 7 LSAs (optional).

ASBR Area 1 Area 0

Type 7 (NSSA external) LSAs.

A

Area 1 B
170.14.2.4

Area 0 Area 1

Type 3 (summary) LSAs.

Type 3 (summary) LSA supplying a default route.

Figure 8-40 Having an ASBR located in a stub area is only possible with an NSSA type.
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OSPF 309

Propagating an NSSA’s External Routes to the Backbone

Type 7 LSAs can never cross an area border. Non-NSSAs areas simply don’t
understand them. But the ABRs of an NSSA will convert the type 7 (NSSA
External) LSAs into type 5 (external) LSAs and advertise the routes into the
backbone. In fact, this is the default setting. There are a number of additional
configuration options for this very flexible area type that are summarized in
the command reference.

Command Reference
This command reference includes not only the specific router commands used
to configure OSPF, but narration explaining many of the commands is also
provided. A single area network model will be presented first with just the
minimum commands required to run OSPF. Then a multi-area model will be
configured, again with just the bare bones commands needed to get OSPF up
and running. From there, additional OSPF commands will be presented that
apply to both single and multi-area configurations.

Single Area Model

Figure 8-41 depicts the network model used for the single area configuration
commands.

192.168.1.0/24 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.3.0/24

E1 192.168.1.1/24 E1 192.168.2.1/24 E1 192.168.3.1/24

A B C
E0 192.168.0.1/24 E0 192.168.0.2/24 E0 192.168.0.3/24

E0 192.168.0.4/24 E0 192.168.0.5/24

D E
E1 192.168.4.1/24 E1 192.168.5.1/24

192.168.4.0/24 192.168.5.0/24
Figure 8-41 Single area model—broadcast, multi-access network.
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Initial Configuration—No Routing Protocol Yet

routerA#configure terminal
routerA(config)#interface fastethernet 0 (1)
routerA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.0.0 255.255.255.0 (2)
routerA(config-if)#exit (3)
routerA(config)#interface fastethernet 1 (4)
routerA(config-if)#ip address 200.1.1.4 255.255.255.252 (5)
routerA(config-if)#exit
routerA(config)#

(1) changes to interface E0.

(2) configures the address for the multi-access network with a /24 prefix.
(3) exits interface mode back to global configuration mode.
(4) changes to interface E1.
(5) configures the address for the stub network with a /24 prefix.
Notes:

■■ The configuration is the same for routers B-E with obvious adjustments.
■■ There is no need to set interface speed because LAN interfaces auto-
detect correct link speed.

Router Output After Initial Configuration

Figure 8-42 shows how the route tables look before OSPF is configured.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0 /24 is directly connected, Ethernet1

C 192.168.0.0 /24 is directly connected, Ethernet0

Figure 8-42 Router output of single area multi-access network before OSPF is configured.
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Configure OSPF (Single Area)

routerA(config)#router ospf 1
routerA(config-router)#network 192.168.0.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
routerA(config-router)#network 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 area 0

routerB(config)#router ospf 3
routerB(config-router)#network 192.168.0.0 0.0.255.255 area 0

routerC(config)#router ospf 5
routerC(config-router)#network 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 area 0

routerD(config)#router ospf 5
routerD(config-router)#network 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 area 0

routerE(config)#router ospf 1
routerE(config-router)#network 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 area 0

Explanation (Single Area)

The OSPF process ID and the network command require explanation.

The router ospf 1 Statement

Unlike IGRP and EIGRP, which use an autonomous system number, OSPF uses a
process ID that simply allows for more than one instance of OSPF to run on a
router.18 The process ID has significance only at the router it is used on, so another
router in the same area or system can use a differing process ID. OSPF doesn’t
care. Differing process IDs are used in the example to illustrate this point.

The network Statement

The network command is used very differently for OSPF than for other inte-
rior routing protocols. Protocols such as EIGRP use only a classful address as
the argument to the network command. Any interfaces configured with a sub-
net within the range of the specified address are automatically enabled for the
routing protocol. Remember though that in OSPF, a router can be a member of
more than one area within the system. The network command not only
enables OSPF on an interface, but it also assigns the interface to an area. For
that reason, a more granular method of specifying which interfaces will be
assigned to which areas is required.
To accomplish this, OSPF uses an address coupled with an inverse mask to
define the range of addresses that will determine whether an interface is
enabled for OSPF or not, and if so, what area it will join. In effect, 0 bits in the
mask dictate that an exact match must be made between the respective portion
of the interface address and the corresponding portion of the address specified
in the network statement. Conversely, 1 bit in the mask simply passes through
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any value in the corresponding address, thus you will often see the moniker
“don’t care bits” used to describe 1 bits.19
Referring to Figure 8-41, router A had the OSPF process enabled on interface
E0 by constructing the first network command to force a specific match on the
accompanying address. Notice in the first network statement that the network
portion of the address has to have an exact match. In fact, the command syn-
tax is so specific the command had to be issued twice—once for each of the two
networks. For the first statement, only the address 192.168.0.x would match.
Indeed, when the address on interface E0 is compared to the statement, OSPF
is enabled on that interface, the interface is added to area 0, and the 192.168.0.0
network will be advertised. Likewise with the second statement in which the
192.168.1.0 is added to area 0 and advertised.
Because both networks are being added to the same area, it was not neces-
sary to construct such a narrow match that two statements were required. It is
simply used to illustrate how the command syntax works. With router B, a
shortcut was taken. Because the first two octets of the mask are set to 0, the first
two octets of an interface address must match. However, because the second
two octets of the mask are set to 255 (all “don’t care bits”), the second two
octets of the interface address will make a match, regardless of their value.
Thus in one statement, both the 192.168.0.0 and 192.168.1.0 are enabled for
OSPF on the corresponding interfaces. In this more encompassing version of
the network command, any 192.168.x.x subnet would be added to area 0.
With routers C, D, and E, the broadest possible form of the network com-
mand was executed. A mask of all “don’t care bits” means any interface
address will match the statement. Thus, any active interface with an IP address
will be made part of area 0 and the corresponding network will be advertised.
This is just fine and dandy, as long as there are no router interfaces that need
to participate in a different area. Because this is a single area configuration
model, all the routers are internal OSPF routers, and the statement can be used
without a problem.

Router Output After OSPF Configuration (Single Area)

In Figure 8-43, four additional networks have been discovered by the OSPF
process and added to the route table. Because this is a broadcast, multi-access
network, the neighbor table will be examined to see who got elected as the
Designated Router (see Figure 8-44).
Because the default router priority has not been altered, all routers have a
priority of 1 for being elected DR or BDR. Therefore, the DR or BDR will be
elected on the basis of the highest router ID (assuming all routers came online
at the same time). The highest router ID is based on the highest IP address of
any configured interface because no loopback address has been set. The other
neighbor table information is discussed later in the section.
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OSPF 313

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.1.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet1

C 192.168.0.0 /24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0
O 192.168.2.0 [110/2] via 192.168.0.2,00:01:10, Ethernet0
O 192.168.3.0 [110/2] via 192.168.0.3,00:01:20, Ethernet0
O 192.168.4.0 [110/2] via 192.168.0.4,00:01:25, Ethernet0
O 192.168.5.0 [110/2] via 192.168.0.5,00:01:13, Ethernet0

Figure 8-43 Router output after OSPF is configured.

Summary of Single Area Configuration

Although the network command appears a little hairy at first, note how few
commands were required to configure this network to run OSPF. Without
additional configuration, a DR and BDR are elected, the flooding of LSAs
occurs, the SPF algorithm runs, the route table is populated, and the system is
ready to forward packets. This of course is a best-case scenario. The commands
to cover network types that require additional configuration, alter the router
ID, router priority, and other optional commands relating to OSPF configura-
tion are shown after the following multi-area configuration is examined.

routerA#show ip ospf neighbor

Neighbor ID Pri State Dead Time Address Interface

192.168.2.1 1 FULL/DROTHER 00:01:03 192.168.0.2 FastEthernet0
192.168.3.1 1 FULL/DROTHER 00:01:13 192.168.0.3 FastEthernet0
192.168.4.1 1 FULL/BDR 00:01:34 192.168.0.4 FastEthernet0
192.168.5.1 1 FULL/DR 00:01:08 192.168.0.5 FastEthernet0

Figure 8-44 Using the show ip ospf neighbor statement to see who got elected DR
and BDR.
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314 Chapter 8

Multi-area Model (Standard Area)

Figure 8-45 depicts the model used for configuring OSPF in a multi-area
environment.

The
Internet

.10

65.16.16.8/30

E1 .9

A0-ASBR1

E0 .2

172.1.4.0/24 Area 0
E3 .1
E1 E2
A0-INT1
172.1.1.0/24 .1 .1 172.1.2.0/24
E0 .1

E0 E1 172.1.3.0/24
.2 ABR1 .2

172.2.3.0/24
Area 1
E0 .1
E1 E2
A1-INT1
172.2.1.0/24 .1 .1 172.2.2.0/24
E3 .1

172.2.4.0/24

E0 .2

A1-ASBR1

E1 .5

64.23.11.4/30

.6
The
Internet

Figure 8-45 Multi-area model, standard area.

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OSPF 315

Given that there are two ASBRs providing Internet access, and one of the
ASBRs is in a non-zero area, a standard area is a wise configuration. An NSSA
area is the other option, but let’s assume that some of the networks in area 1 are
(metrically) closer to the ASBR in area 0. In this case, you want the detailed
external routing information that is delivered to a standard area.

Initial Configuration—No Routing Protocol Yet

A0-INT1#configure terminal
A0-INT1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
A0-INT1(config-if)#ip address 172.1.3.1 255.255.255.0
A0-INT1(config-if)#exit
A0-INT1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/1
A0-INT1(config-if)#ip address 172.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
A0-INT1(config-if)#exit
A0-INT1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/2
A0-INT1(config-if)#exit
A0-INT1(config-if)#ip address 172.1.2.1 255.255.255.0
A0-INT1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/3
A0-INT1(config-if)#exit
A0-INT1(config-if)#ip address 172.1.4.1 255.255.255.0
A0-INT1(config-if)#exit

A0-ASBR1#config term
A0-ASBR1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
A0-ASBR1(config-if)#ip address 172.1.4.2 255.255.255.0
A0-ASBR1(config-if)#exit
A0-ASBR1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/1
A0-ASBR1(config-if)#ip address 65.16.16.9 255.255.255.252 (1)
A0-ASBR1(config-if)#exit

A1-INT1#config t
A1-INT1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
A1-INT1(config-if)#ip address 172.2.3.1 255.255.255.0
A1-INT1(config-if)#exit
A1-INT1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/1
A1-INT1(config-if)#ip address 172.2.1.1 255.255.255.0
A1-INT1(config-if)#exit
A1-INT1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/2
A1-INT1(config-if)#exit
A1-INT1(config-if)#ip address 172.2.2.1 255.255.255.0
A1-INT1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/3
A1-INT1(config-if)#exit
A1-INT1(config-if)#ip address 172.2.4.1 255.255.255.0
A1-INT1(config-if)#exit

A1-ASBR1#configure terminal
A1-ASBR1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
A1-ASBR1(config-if)#ip address 172.2.4.2 255.255.255.0
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A1-ASBR1(config-if)#exit
A1-ASBR1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/1
A1-ASBR1(config-if)#ip address 64.23.11.5 255.255.255.252 (2)
A1-ASBR1(config-if)#exit

ABR1#configure terminal
ABR1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
ABR1(config-if)#ip address 172.2.3.2 255.255.255.0
ABR1(config-if)#exit
ABR1(config)#interface fastethernet 0/1
ABR1(config-if)#ip address 172.1.3.2 255.255.255.0
ABR1(config-if)#exit

(1) /30 assigned address from ISP.

(2) /30 assigned address from ISP.
As you can see, the initial configuration of all five routers is quite straightfor-
ward. Only the IP addresses have been configured on the interfaces, but that is
all that’s required before configuring OSPF for this particular multi-area model.

Configuring OSPF
A0-INT1(config)#router ospf 1
A0-INT1(config-router)#network 172.1.0.0 0.0.255.255 area 0 (1)

A0-ASBR1(config-router)#network 172.1.4.2 0.0.0.0 area 0 (2)

A0-ASBR1(config-router)#default-information originate metric 10 metric-
type 1 (3)
A0-ASBR1(config-router)#exit
A0-ASBR1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 e1 (4)

A1-INT1(config)#router ospf 1
A1-INT1(config-router)#network 172.2.0.0 0.0.255.255 area 1

A1-ASBR1(config)#router ospf 1
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#network 172.2.4.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#default-information originate metric 10 metric-
type 1
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#exit
A1-ASBR1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 e1

ABR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.2.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.1.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 0

(1) all interfaces configured with subnets of 172.1.x.x join area 0.

(2) only the interface configured with 172.1.4.2 joins area 0.
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OSPF 317

(3) propagates the default route throughout the OSPF system.

(4) sets a default route pointing to the ISP.

Explanation (Standard Area)

Router A0-INT1
Placing this router in area 0 makes it a backbone router. This is an internal
router (all interfaces within the area), so a mask is applied to the network com-
mand that assigns all interfaces into area 0.

Router A1-INT1
This is also an internal router, so a mask is applied to the network command
that assigns all interfaces into area 1. Notice that nothing special was done to
make the area a standard area. This happens by default when an area is created
with a non-zero number.

Router ABR1
An ABR will always require at least two network statements because one inter-
face will join area 0 and the other interface will join a non-zero area, in this case
area 1. A very tight mask was applied to each network statement because there
is no need for the mask to encompass more than the single address used at
each interface. Notice that no special command was issued to make the router
an ABR. This happened automatically by virtue of configuring the router’s
interfaces into at least two different areas under the same OSPF process.

Routers A0-ASBR1 and A1-ASBR1

Routers become ASBRs when a redistribution command is executed. In this
case, the special OSPF command for redistributing default routes, default-
information originate, is what caused the two routers to take on the role of
ASBR.
The bigger question is: Why only redistribute a default route and why was
the path type (the keyword on the Cisco IOS is metric-type) set to type 1 on the
command line? Because both routers are connecting to the Internet, the inter-
face facing the ISP is not configured to run a routing protocol. Therefore, there
are no routes to redistribute. And there needn’t be. Well, almost. All that is
required is to redistribute a default route on each ASBR. The default route is
created with the ip route statement and is then redistributed throughout the
OSPF system with the default-information originate statement.
The path type is set to 1 which is the E1 path type. Having the default route
configured as E1 means the metric advertised with the route will increment as
the route is advertised through the system. The route will reflect the cost of the
additional interfaces traffic must pass through on the way to the ASBR.
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Because this system has two ASBRs, it’s helpful to use the E1 path type so that
each OSPF router can determine the shortest path to the nearest Internet con-
nection (ASBR). Each router will receive two candidate default routes, one
from each ASBR. The default route with the lowest metric will be installed. In
case the route to the Internet goes down, each router will run SPF again and
install the remaining default route.

Router Output After OSPF Configuration

In Figure 8-46, router A0-ASBR1 has learned of all the networks in the system.
The only network it is not aware of is 64.23.11.4, which was not advertised. OSPF
is not running on the router interface that 64.23.11.4 is connected to, nor was the
route redistributed into the system. Router A0-ASBR1 was told about a default
route that leads to 64.23.11.4, but it rejected the route because its administrative
distance value (110) was higher than the administrative distance of the directly
connected default route (0). This is a good opportunity to underscore that a
route’s metrics only apply when comparing routes learned by the same process.
In this case, an OSPF learned route was compared to a directly connected net-
work, so administrative distance values were used for the comparison. Finally,
note the last entry in the route table. The 0.0.0.0 network is being advertised to
other OSPF routers thanks to the default-information originate command.

AO-ASBR1#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 65.16.16.10 to network 0.0.0.0

65.0.0.0 is subnetted, 1 subnets

C 65.16.16.8 is directly connected, Ethernet1
172.1.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets
C 172.1.4.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
O 172.1.1.0 [110/2] via 172.1.4.1,00:02:32, Ethernet0
O 172.1.2.0 [110/2] via 172.1.4.1,00:02:32, Ethernet0
O 172.1.3.0 [110/2] via 172.1.4.1,00:02:32, Ethernet0
172.2.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets
O IA 172.2.1.0 [110/4] via 172.1.4.1, 00:02:32, Ethernet0
O IA 172.2.2.0 [110/3] via 172.1.4.1, 00:02:32, Ethernet0
O IA 172.2.3.0 [110/4] via 172.1.4.1, 00:02:32, Ethernet0
O IA 172.2.4.0 [110/4] via 172.1.4.1, 00:02:32, Ethernet0
S* E1 0.0.0.0/0 [0/0] via 65.16.16.10, 00:02:22, Ethernet1

Figure 8-46 Router A0-ASBR1 after the SPF algorithm has run.
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OSPF 319

It’s pretty much the same drill for router A1-ASBR1 as shown in Figure 8-47.
Of course, the router installed a default route pointing to its closest Internet
connection, which is through its directly connected interface.

A1-ASBR1#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 64.23.11.6 to network 0.0.0.0

64.0.0.0 is subnetted, 1 subnets

C 64.23.11.4 is directly connected, Ethernet
C 172.2.4.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
O 172.2.1.0 [110/2] via 172.2.4.1,00:04:10, Ethernet0
O 172.2.2.0 [110/2] via 172.2.4.1,00:04:10, Ethernet0
O 172.2.3.0 [110/2] via 172.2.4.1,00:04:10, Ethernet0
172.1.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets
O IA 172.1.1.0 [110/4] via 172.2.4.1, 00:04:50, Ethernet0
O IA 172.1.2.0 [110/4] via 172.2.4.1, 00:04:50, Ethernet0
O IA 172.1.3.0 [110/3] via 172.2.4.1, 00:04:50, Ethernet0
O IA 172.1.4.0 [110/4] via 172.2.4.1, 00:04:50, Ethernet0
S* E1 0.0.0.010 [0/0] via 64.23.11.6, 00:02:22, Ethernet1

Figure 8-47 Router A1-ASBR1 after the SPF algorithm has run.

The two internal routers in each area, as depicted by Figures 8-48 and 8-49,
now list all networks within the autonomous system. Neither router is aware
of the 65.16.16.x networks. Instead, they have each received advertisements
indicating the availability of two candidate default routes. Each router has
installed the default route closest to it.
The ABR is of course aware of all routes that have been advertised into
either area 0 or area 1 as shown in Figure 8-50.
Notice that all subnets of both the 172.1.0.0 and 172.2.0.0 are fully enumer-
ated, not only at the ABR, but throughout the system. No aggregation of routes
occurs without additional configuration. The commands to perform route
summarization and other commonly used OSPF commands are described
after the following stub area configurations are presented.
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320 Chapter 8

A0-INT1#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 172.1.4.2 to network 0.0.0.0

172.1.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets

C 172.1.1.0 is directly connected, Ethernet1
C 172.1.2.0 is directly connected, Ethernet2
C 172.1.3.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 172.1.4.0 is directly connected, Ethernet3
172.2.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets
O IA 172.2.1.0 [110/3] via 172.1.3.2, 00:04:10, Ethernet0
O IA 172.2.2.0 [110/3] via 172.1.3.2, 00:04:10, Ethernet0
O IA 172.2.3.0 [110/2] via 172.1.3.2, 00:04:10, Ethernet0
O IA 172.2.4.0 [110/3] via 172.1.3.2, 00:04:10, Ethernet0
S* E1 0.0.0.0/0 [110/1] via 172.1.4.2, 00:02:22, Ethernet3

Figure 8-48 Router A0-INT1 after the SPF algorithm has run.

A0-INT1#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 172.2.4.2 to network 0.0.0.0

172.2.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets

C 172.2.1.0 is directly connected, Ethernet1
C 172.2.2.0 is directly connected, Ethernet2
C 172.2.3.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 172.2.4.0 is directly connected, Ethernet3
172.1.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets
O IA 172.1.1.0 [110/3] via 172.2.3.2,00:04:10, Ethernet0
O IA 172.1.2.0 [110/3] via 172.2.3.2,00:04:10, Ethernet0
O IA 172.1.3.0 [110/2] via 172.2.3.2,00:04:10, Ethernet0
O IA 172.1.4.0 [110/3] via 172.2.3.2,00:04:10, Ethernet0
S* E1 0.0.0.0/0 [110/1] via 172.2.4.2, 00:02:22,Ethernet3

Figure 8-49 Router A1-INT1 after the SPF algorithm has run.
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OSPF 321

ABR1#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 172.2.3.1 to network 0.0.0.0

172.1.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets

C 172.1.3.0 is directly connected, Ethernet1
O 172.1.1.0 [110/1] via 172.1.3.1, 00:04:10, Ethernet1
O 172.1.2.0 [110/1] via 172.1.3.1, 00:04:10, Ethernet1
O 172.1.4.0 [110/1] via 172.1.3.1, 00:04:10, Ethernet1
172.2.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets
C 172.2.3.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
O 172.2.1.0 [110/1] via 172.2.3.1, 00:04:10, Ethernet0
O 172.2.2.0 [110/1] via 172.2.3.1, 00:04:10, Ethernet0
O 172.2.4.0 [110/1] via 172.2.3.1, 00:04:10, Ethernet0
S* E1 0.0.0.0/0 [110/2] via 172.2.3.1, 00:02:22, Ethernet0

Figure 8-50 Router ABR1 after the SPF algorithm has run.

Stub Area Configuration

In Figure 8-51, area 1 has no ASBR, so some form of stub configuration for
the area may still allow for optimal routing. There are two ASBRs attached to
area 0. Because one ASBR provides a path to another autonomous system and
a second ASBR provides the Internet connection, the routing solution must
include advertising the EIGRP routes into area 0. That way the default route is
saved for the ASBR connected to the Internet. The EIGRP routes need not be
propagated into area 1 however. Area 1 can live with a default route repre-
senting all external networks, with the two ABRs routing externally bound
packets appropriately.
The inter-area destinations are a different matter. Because one ABR may
have a shorter path to certain area 0 networks compared to the other ABR, it is
not wise to configure area 1 as totally stubby. A stub area is the best choice
here. External routes will be represented as a default route propagated in a
type 3 (summary) LSA, while intra-area routes will be fully enumerated in
type 3 (summary) LSAs.
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The
Internet
EIGRP
.10
.6

65.16.16.8/30 64.23.11.4/30

E1 .9 E1 .5

A0-ASBR1 A0-ASBR2

E0 .2 E0 .2

172.1.1.0/24 172.1.2.0/24
A0-INT3

172.1.3.0/24
Area 0
E0 E1
A0-INT1 A0-INT2
.2 ABR1 .2

172.2.3.0/24
Area 1

A1-INT1 ABR2
172.2.4.0/24 .2 .2 172.1.6.0/24

Figure 8-51 Multi-area model, stub area.

Three key configurations must be performed to configure this model:

■■ Configure A0-ASBR1 to advertise a default route into area 0.
■■ Configure A0-ASBR2 to advertise the EIGRP routes into area 0.
■■ Configure area 1 as a stub area.
When configuring an area as any form of stub area (stub, totally stubby, or
not-so-stubby), all routers within the area require additional configuration.
The following router commands will cover the OSPF configuration for the
ASBRs, the ABRs, and the internal area 1 router. All other routers are config-
ured as previously described in this section.

A0-ASBR1(config)#router ospf 1
A0-ASBR1(config-router)#network 172.1.1.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
A0-ASBR1(config-router)#default-information originate metric 10
A0-ASBR1(config-router)#exit
A0-ASBR1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 e1
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A0-ASBR2(config)#router eigrp 100

A0-ASBR2(config-router)#network 64.0.0.0
A0-ASBR2(config-router)#exit
A0-ASBR2(config)#redistribute eigrp 1 metric 10 subnets
A0-ASBR2(config)#router ospf 1
A0-ASBR2(config-router)#network 172.1.2.2 0.0.0.0 area 0

ABR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.1.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.2.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
ABR1(config-router)#area 1 stub

ABR2(config)#router ospf 1
ABR2(config-router)#network 172.1.6.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
ABR2(config-router)#network 172.2.4.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
ABR2(config-router)#area 1 stub

A1-INT1(config)#router ospf 1
A1-INT1(config-router)# network 172.2.0.0 0.0.255.255 area 1
A1-INT1(config-router)#area 1 stub

Explanation (Stub Area)

A0-ASBR1
This router has been configured almost exactly as it was in the previous stan-
dard area example. A default route is created with the ip static command and
then redistributed with the default-information originate command. The
only difference in this case is that the path type (metric-type) has not been
specified, leaving is at the default of E2. Because there is only one router adver-
tising a default route, there is no need to include the cost of the route from the
internal source router to A0-ASBR1.

A0-ASBR2
This router has the EIGRP routing process enabled with autonomous system
number 100 for any interface configured with a subnet of the 65.0.0.0. That’s a
very wide address range, but there is only one interface on this router that falls
under it, so EIGRP gets enabled on E1, and the router starts learning whatever
EIGRP routes are being advertised across the link. Meanwhile, interface E0
gets enabled for OSPF, and the EIGRP learned routes are injected into OSPF
process 1 with the redistribute command. A metric of 10 is assigned to all
EIGRP learned routes, the path type is left at the default of E2, and all subnets
of any learned routes are advertised with the subnets keyword.

ABR1 and ABR2

The area 1 stub statement causes a default route to be injected into area 1 that
represents the path to all external locations. When packets from area 1 reach
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324 Chapter 8

either of the ABRs, they will be forwarded to either A0-ASBR1 or A0-ASBR2,

depending on the destination address. More specifically, if the ABR’s route
table does not have an entry for the external address listed in the packet (an
EIGRP network), the default route will kick in and forward the packet to the
Internet router.

N OTE The area 1 stub statement must be executed on all routers within area 1.
This action sets the E-bit in the options field of the Hello packet to 0, which
causes the router to not accept any type 5 (external) LSAs.

Totally Stubby Area Configuration

In Figure 8-52, area 1 has no ASBR. Some type of stub area should work here
and still allow optimal routing. Since there is only one connection to area 0
through ASBR 1, a totally stubby area will work just fine—as long as the ABR
supports it. Let’s suppose the ABR is a Cisco router, so the area will be config-
ured totally stubby.

The
Internet

.10

65.16.16.8/30

E1 .9

A0-ASBR

E0 .2
172.1.4.0/24 Area 0
E3 .1
E1 E2
A0-INT1
172.1.1.1/24 .1 .1 172.1.2.1/24
E0 .1

E0 E1 172.1.3.0/24
.2 ABR1 .2

172.2.3.0/24
Area 1
E0 .1
E1 T1 E2
A1-INT1
172.2.1.0/24 172.2.2.0/24
E3 .1

172.2.4.0/24

Figure 8-52 Multi-area model, totally stubby area.

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OSPF 325

The following router commands will cover the OSPF configuration for just
the area 1 routers:

ABR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.1.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.2.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
ABR1(config-router)#area 1 stub no-summary
A1-INT1(config)#router ospf 1
A1-INT1(config-router)#network 172.2.2.0 0.0.255.255 area 1
A1-INT1(config-router)#area 1 stub

Explanation (Totally Stubby Area)

As you can see, all that is required to configure an area as totally stubby is to
add the keyword no-summary to the stub area statement. (Gee, for all the talk
about totally stubby areas, there isn’t even a totally stubby command—what a
gyp.) The no-summary keyword suppresses the advertisements of type 3
(summary) LSAs that normally carry intra-area routes. Instead, just the single
type 3 (summary) LSA carrying a default route will be propagated into the area.
Note that only the ABR requires the Cisco proprietary no-summary key-
word. All other area routers are configured simply as stub. This is why only
the ABR need be a Cisco router.

Not-So-Stubby Area Configuration

In the version of the multi-area model depicted in Figure 8-53, the simplicity of
a default route pointing to the Internet router in area 0 is desirable, but area 1
has a connection to another autonomous system—thereby nixing the idea of a
stub or totally stubby configuration for the area. Therefore, the area will be
configured as NSSA. The NSSA type permits the benefit of receiving type 3
(summary) LSAs from the ABR, as well as receiving a default route from the
ABR that points to external networks, yet also allows the routers within the
NSSA to learn of specific external networks from a locally attached ASBR.

The Big Picture for NSSAs

Before digging into the NSSA commands, let’s take a step back for a moment.
Because of the flexibility of allowing an ASBR to be attached to a stub area, the
NSSA type has more configuration options than any other stub area type—for
example, there is a totally stubby version of an NSSA. Here is a summary of the
various configurations possible with the NSSA type:
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326 Chapter 8

■■ Configuration option A
■■ ABR advertises type 3 (summary) LSAs into the area.
■■ ABR injects a default route into the area.
■■ NSSA ASBR advertises specific external networks into the area.
■■ Configuration option B
■■ ABR injects a default route into the area (totally stubby, NSSA).
■■ NSSA ASBR advertises specific external networks into the area.
■■ Configuration option C
■■ ABR advertises type 3 (summary) LSAs into the area.
■■ ABR injects a default route into the area.
■■ NSSA ASBR injects a default route into the area.
■■ Configuration option D
■■ ABR injects a default route into the area (totally stubby, NSSA).
■■ NSSA ASBR also injects just a default route into the area.
In addition, any of these configurations may either allow or disallow the
propagation of external routes learned by the NSSA ASBR into the backbone.
This makes for a very flexible area type. The model shown in Figure 8-52 will
be configured according to configuration A. Then just the commands to con-
figure the other NSSA alternatives will be shown.

ABR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.1.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.2.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
ABR1(config-router)#area 1 nssa

A1-INT1(config)#router ospf 1
A1-INT1(config-router)#network 172.2.0.0 0.0.255.255 area 1
A1-INT1(config-router)#area 1 nssa

A1-ASBR(config)#router rip
A1-ASBR(config-router)#network 64.0.0.0
A1-ASBR(config-router)#exit
A1-ASBR(config)#router ospf 1
A1-ASBR(config-router)#network 172.2.4.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
A1-ASBR(config-router)#area 1 nssa
A1-ASBR(config-router)#redistribute rip metric 1 metric-type 2 subnets
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OSPF 327

The
Internet

.10

65.16.16.8/30

E1 .9

A0-ASBR1

E0 .2

172.1.4.0/24 Area 0
E3 .1
E1 E2
A0-INT1
172.1.1.0/24 .1 .1 172.1.2.0/24
E0 .1

172.2.3.0/24 E0 E1 172.1.3.0/24
.2 ABR1 .2

172.2.3.0/24
Area 1
E0 .1
E1 E2
A1-INT1
172.2.1.0/24 .1 172.2.2.0/24
E3 .1

172.2.4.0/24

E0 .2

A1-ASBR1

E1 .5

64.23.11.4/30
.6
RIP
140.3.1.0/24
140.3.2.0/24
140.3.3.0/24

Figure 8-53 Multi-area model, NSSA.

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328 Chapter 8

Explanation (NSSA)
ABR1
Of note here is the nssa keyword used with the area command. All routers
with an interface in an NSSA area must use the area x nssa statement. In the
case of the ABR, along with enabling the ABR to receive type 7 (NSSA external)
LSAs, this statement also alerts the router to the fact that it must convert type
7 LSAs into type 5 (external) LSAs, and advertise them into area 0.

A1-INT1
The only thing unique here is the inclusion of the area x nssa statement, which
is required by all routers participating in the NSSA.

A1-ASBR
This router connects to the other autonomous system, so it must be configured
with the protocol running on the other system, which is RIP. The network
64.0.0.0 statement activates RIP only on interface E1. Then OSPF is activated
on E0 and configured as NSSA. However, no type 7 (NSSA External) LSAs will
be propagated until the RIP routes are redistributed into the OSPF routing
process, which the redistribute command takes care of.

Optional NSSA Configurations

Here are some common commands for enacting the optional NSSA configura-
tions alluded to earlier.

Make the NSSA Totally Stubby (Configuration Option B)

ABR1(config-router)#area 1 nssa no-summary

The no-summary keyword makes the ABR behave just as when this keyword
is used to make a stub area totally stubby: the advertisement of type 3 (sum-
mary) LSAs into the NSSA area are suppressed, and only a default route is
injected into the area. The model shown in Figure 8-52, since it has only a sin-
gle ABR, would benefit from this feature. Only the ABR requires the no-sum-
mary keyword in the statement, and of course, the router must support the keyword.

Make the NSSA ASBR Inject a Default Route in Lieu of Advertising

Individual Routes (Configuration Option C)

A1-ASBR (config-router)#area 1 nssa default-information originate

A1-ASBR (config-router)#exit
A1-ASBR (config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 e1
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OSPF 329

The area 1 nssa default-information originate command executed on the

ASBR will suppress the propagation of type 7 (NSSA External) LSAs, and
instead inject a default route into the NSSA. The default route must be listed in the
route table of the ASBR or no default route will be propagated.

Make Both the NSSA ASBR and the ABR Inject a Default Route
(Configuration Option D)
Note that configuration D is simply a combination of configurations B and C
employed on the same NSSA. In this case, two candidate default routes will be
injected into the NSSA. Each router in the NSSA will of course install the
default route with the lowest advertised metric. This is an unusual configura-
tion, but if both ASBRs in the system connect to the same set of external net-
works, it might be a viable option. This is yet another example of how flexible
OSPF can be.

Suppress the Conversion of Type 7 LSAs to Type 5 LSAs at the Border

The default behavior of an NSSA is to convert all type 7 (NSSA External) LSAs
into type 5 (external) LSAs at the Area Border Router and propagate the exter-
nally learned networks into the backbone. The generic summary-address
command, which is used to manually summarize a range of networks, has
an option that applies to this situation. If the summary-address command
is issued with the not-advertise keyword (applies to OSPF only), the range
of networks in the statement are not advertised into the backbone. The
summary-address command is therefore executed at the NSSA ABR.

ABR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.1.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
ABR1(config-router)#network 172.2.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
ABR1(config-router)#area 1 nssa
ABR1(config-router)#summary-address 64.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 not-advertise

The summary-address command uses the same inverse mask that the OSPF
network command uses. Here, the entire 65.0.0.0 network and its subnets are
suppressed from being advertised into area 0.

Suppress Both Type 7 LSAs and a Default Route from Being Propagated
From the NSSA ASBR
This final twist in the NSSA configuration arsenal seems a bit strange at first.
Why would you want to suppress both type 7 LSAs and a default route at the
NSSA ASBR? This concept would be helpful if an NSSA ASBR was doing dou-
ble-duty as an ABR.
In Figure 8-54, the ASBR, rather than being a separate router attached to
some internal NSSA router, is simply an interface of the ABR. In this case, the
routers in the NSSA really only need the default route injected by the ABR by
virtue of the area being configured NSSA. The default route already being
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330 Chapter 8

injected into area 1 by the ABR would accurately forward all externally bound
packets to the ABR, where they would either be sent to the ASBR interface or
to the area 0 interface depending on the destination address in the packet. In
that case, the ASBR need not propagate type 7 LSAs or a default route into the
NSSA. They just aren’t needed.

The
Internet

.10

65.16.16.8/30

E1 .9

A0-ASBR1
E0 .2

172.1.4.0/24 Area 0
E3 .1
E1 E2
A0-INT1
172.1.1.1/24 .1 .1 172.1.2.1/24
E0 .1

172.2.3.0/24 E0 E1 172.1.3.0/24
ABR-ASBR 1
.2 .2

172.2.3.0/24 E2 .5
Area 1 64.23.12.4/30
E0 .1
E1 T1 E2 .6
A1-INT1
EIGRP
172.2.1.0/24 .1 172.2.2.0/24
E3 .1

172.2.4.0/24

E0 .2

A1-ASBR1

E1 .5

64.23.11.4/30
.6

RIP
140.3.1.0/24
140.3.2.0/24
140.3.3.0/24
Figure 8-54 NSSA not requiring type 7 (NSSA External) LSAs from router ABR-ASBR1.
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OSPF 331

Because there is an ASBR hanging directly off area 1 (A1-ASBR1), the area
must be configured as NSSA if it is desirous to make it a stub area. Type 7 LSAs
are needed from A1-ASBR1, but not from ABR-ASBR1. The syntax of the area
nssa statement in the following example achieves the desired result:

ABR-ASBR1(config)#router rip
ABR-ASBR1(config-router)#network 64.0.0.0
ABR-ASBR1(config-router)#exit
ABR-ASBR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR-ASBR1(config-router)#redistribute rip metric 1 metric-type 2 subnets
ABR-ASBR1(config-router)#network 172.1.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
ABR-ASBR1(config-router)#network 172.2.3.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
ABR-ASBR1(config-router)#area 1 nssa no redistribution

ABR-ASBR1 will still propagate type 5 (external) LSAs into area 0, but
thanks to the no redistribution keyword, the NSSA will not receive type 7
LSAs from this router. If it is desired to also suppress type 3 (summary) LSAs
from area 1, the previously discussed no summary keyword can be appended
to the statement, making it totally stubby (assuming the router vendor sup-
ports it), like this:

ABR-ASBR1(config-router)#area 1 nssa no redistribution no-summary

Now ABR-ASBR1 will advertise nothing into area 1 except a default route.
A1-ASBR1 will still advertise external routes into area 1, which will also be
advertised into area 0 through the ABR, which will convert type 7 to type 5
LSAs. These could be suppressed of course with the filtering command shown
earlier.

Other Common OSPF Commands

Here is a listing of typical OSPF commands. Reference will be made to a pre-
vious network diagram when feasible, to help set a context for the usage of the
command.

Configuring Inter-area Summarization

The network model previously shown in Figure 8-45 will be used as an exam-
ple for configuring summarization. Recall that summarization of OSPF routes
can only be done at an area border, and that summarization is OFF by default.
The route table for A0-INT1 (previously shown in Figure 8-47) lists each net-
work in area 1. The area x range statement summarizes inter-area networks, as
follows:

ABR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR1(config-router)#area 1 range 172.2.0.0 255.255.0.0
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332 Chapter 8

The 1 in the statement indicates the area whose routes should be summa-
rized. The address following the range keyword specifies the summary
address. The mask following the address is a conventional subnet mask that
identifies the network portion of the address. Here, all subnets of the 172.2.0.0
(172.2.1.0/24, 172.2.2.0/24, etc.) are summarized as a single address, 172.1.0.0,
as shown in Figure 8-55. It will take only a single type 3 (summary) LSA to
advertise area 1’s networks to area 0.

N OT E Since the entire range of 172.2.0.0 is being summarized in this example,

it is assumed that all subnets of 172.2.0.0 are reserved for use in area 1.

Conversely, area 0’s routes can also be summarized before they are adver-
tised to area 1, as follows:

ABR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR1(config-router)#area 0 range 172.1.0.0 255.255.0.0

Configuring External Summarization

Recall that summarization of external routes can only be done at an ASBR, and
that external summarization is OFF by default. In the NSSA model (previously
shown in Figure 8-53), some number of RIP routes were injected into the OSPF
system. Figure 8-56 shows an example route table in area 0 before external
summarization.

AO-INT1#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 172.1.4.2 to network 0.0.0.0

172.1.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets

C 172.1.1.0 is directly connected, Ethernet1
C 172.1.2.0 is directly connected, Ethernet2
C 172.1.3.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 172.1.4.0 is directly connected, Ethernet3
O IA 172.2.0 0 [110/3] via 172.1.3.2, 00:01:05, Ethernet0
S* E1 0.0.0.0/0 [110/1] via 172.1.4.2, 00:01:12, Ethernet3

Figure 8-55 Router A0-INT1 after summarization has been configured.

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OSPF 333

A1-INT1#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 172.2.3.2 to network 0.0.0.0

172.2.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets

C 172.2.1.0 is directly connected, Ethernet1
C 172.2.2.0 is directly connected, Ethernet2
C 172.2.3.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 172.2.4.0 is directly connected, Ethernet3
140.3.0.0 is subnetted, 3 subnets
O E2 140.3.1.0 [120/10] via 172.2.4.2, 00:01:16, Ethernet3
O E2 140.3.2.0 [120/10] via 172.2.4.2, 00:01:16, Ethernet3
O E2 140.3.3.0 [120/10] via 172.2.4.2, 00:01:16, Ethernet3
S* E1 0.0.0.0/0 [110/1] via 172.2.3.2, 00:01:20, Ethernet0

Figure 8-56 Router A1-INT1 before external summarization.

Whereas internal route summarization is performed with the area range

command, external summarization is performed with the summary-address
command. However, the command is also entered in router configuration
mode, and the address/mask syntax is the same. To summarize the external
networks in the example, the summary address command is added before the
routes are redistributed, as follows:

A1-ASBR1(config)#router rip
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#network 64.0.0.0
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#exit
A1-ASBR1(config)#router ospf 1
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#network 172.2.4.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#area 1 nssa
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#summary-address 150.23.0.0 255.255.0.0
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#redistribute rip metric 1 metric-type 2 subnets

Now that A1-ASBR1 is summarizing the external routes before redistribut-

ing them, an examination of internal router A1-INT1 reflects the change (see
Figure 8-57).
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334 Chapter 8

AO-INT1#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 172.2.3.2 to network 0.0.0.0

172.2.0.0 is subnetted, 4 subnets

C 172.2.1.0 is directly connected, Ethernet1
C 172.2.2.0 is directly connected, Ethernet2
C 172.2.3.0 is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 172.2.4.0 is directly connected, Ethernet3
O E2 140.3.0.0 [120/20] via 172.2.4.2, 00:01:34, Ethernet3
S* E1 0.0.0.0/0 [110/1] via 172.2.3.2, 00:01:20, Ethernet0

Figure 8-57 Router A1-INT1 after external summarization.

Injecting a Default Route at the ASBR

An ASBR can advertise individual external routes, summarize those routes
before advertising them, or simply advertise a default route that represents the
path to the external networks. The first two options were covered earlier in this
section. Here is how the network model previously shown in Figure 8-51
would be configured to inject a default route at A1-ASBR1:

A1-ASBR1(config)#router rip
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#network 64.0.0.0
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#exit
A1-ASBR1(config)#router ospf 1
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#network 172.2.4.2 0.0.0.0 area 1
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#area 1 nssa
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#default-information originate metric 1 metric-
type 1
A1-ASBR1(config-router)#exit
A1-ASBR1(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 64.23.11.5

N OT E It should be noted that a default route is only desirable in this model if

A1-ASBR1 also provided Internet access. Otherwise, any router installing a
default route to A1-ASBR would lose its ability to forward packets to the
Internet. So, for the purposes of this example, let’s pretend that both ASBRs
have Internet access and that both routers are connected to the same RIP
network.
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OSPF 335

The difference in advertising a default route rather than redistributing the

RIP learned routes is in simply using the default-information originate and ip
route command rather than the redistribute command.

Forcing the Router ID

If a loopback address is configured, it will be used to establish the OSPF Router
ID regardless of the value of the LAN/WAN interfaces. It is recommended
that you force the Router ID to a specific address by configuring a loopback
interface. This results in assured uniformity and continuity of router IDs.
Loopback addresses never go down, do not need to be altered if the network
addressing is changed, and don’t cause the router to retransmit its link-state
database if the ID is changed. Here’s how to do it:

RouterA(config)#interface loopback 0
RouterA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.0.1 255.255.255.0

Altering Default Costs

The various ways to alter the cost of routes are referenced on page 286. Here is
the syntax to employ the commands referenced in the text.

Interface Bandwidth
The default bandwidth for an interface varies according to media type. To alter
the default bandwidth:
routerA(config-if)#bandwidth xx (1)

where:
(1) x is specified in Kbps.

Media Type Cost

The default cost assigned to a media type is 100. To alter this default cost:

routerA(config-if)#auto-cost reference-bandwidth xx (2)

where:
(2) x is specified in Mbps.
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336 Chapter 8

Interface Cost
There is no predefined default cost assigned to an interface. To directly alter
this cost:
routerA(config-if)#ip ospf cost x (3)

where:
(3) x = 1-65535

Cost of a Summary Route Advertised into a Stub Area

The default cost of a summary route advertised to a stub area is 1. To alter this
cost:
ABR1(config-router)#area x default-cost y (4)

where:
(4) x = area number; y = a value for cost

Cost of Redistributed Routes at an ASBR

The default cost of all redistributed routes at an ASBR varies according to the
routing protocol whose metric is being translated. To alter the default cost:

ABR1(config)#router rip
ABR1(config-router)#default-metric x (5)
ABR1(config-router)#redistribute ospf 100

where:
(5) x = a value for the metric

Cost of a Redistributed Route at an ASBR

To alter the default cost of a single redistributed route at an ASBR:

ABR1(config-router)#redistribute rip metric x (6)

where:
(6) x = a value for the metric

Cost of a Default Route Advertised by an ASBR

To alter the default cost of a default route advertised by an ASBR:

ABR1(config-router)#default-information originate metric 1 (7)

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OSPF 337

where:
(7) x = a value for the metric

Cost of a Default Route Advertised by an ABR

To alter the default cost of a default route advertised by an ABR:

ABR1(config)#router ospf 1
ABR1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
ABR1(config-router)#area 1 stub
ABR1(config-router)#area 1 default-cost x (8)

where:
(8) x = the cost for the area. The default value is 1

Altering Default Timers and Router Priority

Most of the timers in OSPF can be changed, but proceed with caution.

Hello Packet Frequency

The default frequency of Hello packets is 10 or 60 seconds. To alter the default:

routerA(config-if)#ip ospf Hello-interval x

Interval Before Declaring a Neighbor Dead

The default interval for how long a router waits for Hello packets before
declaring a neighbor dead is four times the Hello interval. To alter this default:

routerA(config-if)#ip ospf dead-interval x

Acknowledgement Wait Time

The default for how long a router waits for an acknowledgement to an LSA
before resending it is 5 seconds. To change this default:

routerA(config-if)#ip ospf retransmit-interval x

Traverse Time
The default estimated time for an LSA to traverse a link is 1 second. To change
this default:

routerA(config-if)#ip ospf retransmit-delay x

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338 Chapter 8

OSPF Topology Detection Time

The default delay between when OSPF detects a topology change and begins
an SPF calculation is 5 seconds. To change this default:

routerA(config-router)#timers spf spf-delay x

Minimum Time Between SPF Calculations

The default minimum time between SPF calculations is 10 seconds. To alter
this default:

routerA(config-router)#timers spf spf-holdtime x

DR and BR Election Priority

To alter a router’s priority for getting elected as a DR or BDR:

routerA(config-if)#ip ospf priority x (9)

where:
(9) x = 0-255

Show Commands

OSPF Information
To show general information about an OSPF process:

routerA#Show ip ospf x (10)

where:
(10) x = process ID

OSPF Process
To show details about the OSPF process on a specific interface:

routerA#Show ip ospf interface x (11)

where:
(11) x = name of interface, like ethernet 0
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OSPF 339

Link-State Database
To show the link-state database of a router:

routerA#Show ip ospf x y database (12)

(12) x = process ID; y = area ID

Neighbor Infomation
To show the neighbor information:

routerA#Show ip ospf neighbor

ABRs and ASBRs

To show the ABRs and ASBRs a router is aware of:

routerA#Show ip ospf border-routers

LSAs Requested
To show a list of LSAs that have been requested:

routerA#Show ip ospf request-list

LSAs Awaiting Acknowledgement

To show a list of transmitted LSAs that are awaiting acknowledgement:

routerA#Show ip ospf retransmission-list

Summary Address Information

To show a list of all summary address information for an OSPF process:
routerA#Show ip ospf summary-list

Configured Virtual Links

To show information regarding configured virtual links:

routerA#Show ip ospf virtual-links

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Notes

1. The interior routing protocol IS-IS is similar to OSPF and was devel-
oped around the same time. Although IS-IS is not widely used, it is in
use on some ISP backbones.
2. When multiple routers interface to a common subnet, LSAs on the sub-
net are instead forwarded to a single DR, which will then propagate the
LSAs to each router sharing the link.
3. OSPF maintains additional tables beyond the ones described here, but
the most commonly discussed tables are listed here.
4. The finite state machine was defined in Chapter 7 on page 190.
5. An interesting extension to OSPF to demonstrate its extensibility is a
newer class of LSAs termed “opaque” LSAs. See RFC 2370.
6. Due to the sometimes complex nature of configuring OSPF for NBMA,
the command reference does cover this advanced topic.
7. A detailed look at the SPF algorithm and the population of the route
table will occur in a subsequent section (page 198). The explanation will
make the most sense after a full treatment of area types, router types,
and LSA types.
8. If the downed DR or BDR comes back online, it is not restored to its
former role. Elections are only held if a DR or BDR is missing. For those
familiar with Windows NT Domain Controllers, the DR and BDR elec-
tion process works in a similar manner.
9. Cisco routers employ a fifth area type, which will also be discussed.
10. In fact, even a single area configuration requires the numeric designa-
tion of the area to be 0. An area can conceivably be linked to area 0 via
another area with a technique known as a Virtual Link. This contin-
gency will be covered later.
11. An area can conceivably be logically linked to area 0 via another area
with a technique known as a Virtual Link. This contingency will be cov-
ered later.
12. Just to be clear, if summarization was not enabled in area 0, any sum-
marized networks it learned of from other areas would remain summa-
rized, but networks within area 0 would not be summarized as they are
advertised to other areas.
13. Of course, even if the ASBR is configured with this option, stub areas
will receive only a default route. This is by design.
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OSPF 341

14. Be advised that summarization of non-OSPF routes can occur only at

the ASBR. If not initially summarized at the ASBR, such routes will not
be summarized at an ABR.
15. The E-bit in the options field of Hello packets is set to 0 when an area is
configured as stub, totally stubby, or not-so-stubby.
16. In case there is any confusion about how the external route types 1 (E1)
and types 2 (E2) would come into play here, they only affect how the
metric would be reported from the ASBR to routers in area 0 and stan-
dard areas. ABRs injecting default routes into any form of stub area are
unaffected by the setting. The metric an ABR reports to a router within
a non-zero area is simply the cost from the ABR to the router receiving
the default route.
17. Take care when configuring an NSSA ASBR to inject a default route into
an NSSA. By definition, an NSSA will also receive a default route from
the ABR. The routers within the area will accept the default route with
the lowest metric only. Be sure that you don’t accidentally cut the area
off from external routes only available through the backbone.
18. OSPF can emulate the function of the autonomous system number by
enabling two OSPF processes on the same router, and configuring an
interface into each system. The redistribution command is then used to
redistribute routes from one system to another. Special care must be
taken to avoid routing loops by using distribution lists and the other
tools mentioned in the chapter on redistribution.
19. When all “don’t care bits” (.255) are used in the mask, the correspond-
ing bits in address for the statement are essentially placeholders, and
are set to 0. For example, in the statement network 192.168.0.0
0.0.255.255 area x, the third and fourth octets of the address are set
to 0, corresponding with the “don’t care bits” in the third and fourth
octets of the mask.
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CHAPTER

9
External Routing Protocols
in Brief

Overview
In this chapter, external routing protocols are explored. This class of protocols
is generally referred to as Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs). The chapter cov-
ers the following EGP topics:
Internal versus external routing protocols 344
Brief history of EGPs 345
BGP—King of external routing protocols 346
BGP Backgrounder 346
When to use BGP 347
How BGP works 349
BGP terminology 349
BGP path attributes 351
The autonomous system revisited 353
BGP peer sessions 355
BGP path determination (decision process) 355
Sample BGP system 357
The future of BGP 358
343
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344 Chapter 9

Up until now, Interior Gateway Protocols have been studied; that is, the rout-
ing protocols that run inside an autonomous system. Ultimately however, the
many autonomous systems deployed throughout the world need to connect to
each other. There’s a familiar name for a worldwide network of autonomous
systems talking to each other; they call it the Internet. The current External
Gateway Protocol (EGP) used to tie the autonomous systems of the Internet
together is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).
Our coverage of external routing protocols will not be as in-depth as the
treatment of the internal routing protocols in previous chapters. Many network
engineers may go through their entire IT careers and not deal directly with BGP,
because with certain exceptions (as noted later), most organizations don’t run
BGP. They instead point default routes to their ISPs, which are running BGP.
The main purpose of this chapter is to contrast exterior routing protocols to
their interior counterparts and to give you a general familiarity with the default
EGP for Internet routing; BGP. If you require in-depth knowledge of BGP (for
industry certification, employment with an ISP, working for a large enterprise
that runs BGP, or just general curiosity), you will do well to purchase one of the
many books dedicated to BGP. Please don’t read this chapter and then apply for
a job with your friendly neighborhood ISP stating that you “know BGP.” The
fact is, you probably need to have more routing experience to configure BGP
than any other routing protocol. This is due to the complexity of BGP, the fact
that it is manually configured to a much greater degree than other routing pro-
tocols, and the impact on the Internet as a whole if BGP is misconfigured.

Internal versus External Routing Protocols

The requirements of an inter-autonomous system routing protocol differ sig-
nificantly from the requirements of an intra-autonomous system. While OSPF,
EIGRP, or even RIPv2 fulfill the dynamic routing requirements within a com-
pany, enterprise, government, or educational institution, these protocols are
not engineered to handle the thousands of networks forming the Internet.
Even if an interior routing protocol could scale to handle such a number of
networks, the current crop of internal routing protocols don’t have the traffic
shaping features to facilitate routing on the Internet. Routing between
autonomous systems is handled by a number of companies, and these organi-
zations participate in the inter-autonomous system routing process through
service agreements. Service agreements specify a number of responsibilities,
including the specific routing traffic each carrier must handle, which are
implemented through routing policies. Routing policies involve security filtering
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External Routing Protocols in Brief 345

and other types of filtering that autonomous systems under the same admin-
istrative umbrella don’t have to deal with. An external routing protocol used
to manage Internet traffic must be designed so that it can be tuned to accom-
modate the implementation of such routing policies.

Brief History of External Gateway Protocols

Although the Internet of today is composed of thousands of separate
autonomous systems, this was not always the case. In ancient times (1980s),
when the Internet was still the ARPANET, there was no distinction among
autonomous systems. ARPANET at that time was one big internetwork under
a single routing administration. A distance vector routing protocol called the
Gateway-to-Gateway Protocol (GGP) was used to route traffic. Every router
had to maintain a route to every destination network. GGP was basically an
interior routing protocol.
As ARPANET grew, it was discovered that GGP was unable to scale in size.
In 1982, RFC 827 introduced the concept of dividing the single ARPANET
internetwork into a number of autonomous systems. The first exterior gateway
protocol to tie together these autonomous systems was the Exterior Gateway
Protocol or EGP. EGP allowed a group of internetworks to be assigned an
autonomous system number or AS number, which uniquely identified it.
Routing between the autonomous systems was handled by EGP. Within an AS,
the local administrators were free to employ whatever methods they preferred
to route traffic. Initially, GGP was the interior routing protocol of choice, but
RIP quickly took over as the defacto interior routing protocol of the time.
Although the deployment of autonomous systems and EGP solved several
problems, EGP itself was only a stop-gap to a true external routing protocol.
EGP had several limitations. For example, the protocol required manual con-
figuration of all routes and had no native mechanism for determining optimal
routes or preventing routing loops. Furthermore, EGP was designed with the
assumption that the internetworks it connected were attached to a single back-
bone. As ARPANET evolved away from a backbone architecture and into the
mesh network now known as the Internet (see Figure 9-1), it became clear that
a full-blown routing protocol that could scale well, implement routing poli-
cies, and prevent routing-loops was required. In 1989, RFC 1105 defined just
such a protocol with the first release of BGP. The rest of the history of EGPs is
really about the evolution of BGP, whose story is told in the following section.
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346 Chapter 9

ARPANET

G G G G G

Internet

Figure 9-1 The backbone-based ARPANET evolved into the AS-based Internet.

BGP—King of External Routing Protocols

Since its initial deployment in 1989, BGP has proved itself a workable solution
for interdomain routing. This section is devoted to helping you understand the
architecture of BGP, how it has survived the explosive growth of the Internet,
and further clarifying how BGP differs from the popular interior routing pro-
tocols RIPv2, EIGRP, and of course the recommended IGP for the Internet,
OSPF.

BGP Backgrounder
BGP is now the principal routing protocol used to connect autonomous sys-
tems across the Internet. The protocol has been updated several times since its
initial release in 1989 as an experimental protocol. The current version is BGP-
4, released as RFC 1771 in 1995.1 Among several changes in version 4 was full
support for CIDR. Table 9-1 shows the basic characteristics of BGP.
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External Routing Protocols in Brief 347

Table 9-1 Routing Characteristics of BGP

Metric Composite metric

Interior or Exterior? Exterior

Distance vector or Link-state? Path vector

Singlepath or Multipath? Singlepath2

Broadcast or Multicast? Multicast

Flat or Hierarchical? Hierarchical3

Classful or Classless? Classless (BGP-4)

When to Use BGP

BGP is an inter-autonomous system routing protocol, so its primary use is by
the companies that facilitate inter-autonomous system routing; that being
ISPs. As has been pointed out many times throughout this book, most organi-
zations connect to an ISP and simply employ default routing to forward pack-
ets bound for another autonomous system. There are exceptions however.
Some organizations do run BGP. This mostly occurs when the organization uti-
lizes more than one ISP and BGP allows them to configure redundant links for
auto-failover as shown in Figure 9-2.

ISP 1 ISP 2
AS 123 AS 456

BGP BGP

BGP/OSPF
BGP/OSPF

BGP

Customer 1
AS 789

Figure 9-2 Some companies may use BGP if they connect to multiple ISPs.
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348 Chapter 9

On the other hand, if a company is simply multi-homing to a single ISP for

redundancy as shown in Figure 9-3, BGP is not necessary.

Other Uses for BGP

Another possible use for BGP is by a multi-national organization wishing to tie
together geographically dispersed segments of their business. The company
may assume that there would be something to gain by breaking up the inter-
network into multiple autonomous systems and using BGP to route between
the ASs. This has been done, but you should also be aware that OSPF is a capa-
ble contender for very large networks, configured as either a single AS or as
multiple ASs redistributing routes to each other. We will not go into a full com-
parison of the two approaches here, except to note that BGP is a complex
enough protocol that it might be wise to consider it the last solution as
opposed to the first solution for solving routing problems.

AS1
ISP 1

BGP

Default routes point to ISP

OSPF

Customer 1

Figure 9-3 BGP is not required simply for a fault tolerant connection to a single ISP.
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External Routing Protocols in Brief 349

How BGP Works

As has been alluded to, BGP operates quite differently from interior routing
protocols. BGP is considered a path vector routing protocol. What does that
mean? BGP is actually a distance vector protocol in that BGP routers advertise
routes, not network links as OSPF does. However, BGP does not use the typical
distance vector methods of route selection such as bandwidth, hop count,
delay, and so on. Instead, BGP keeps the full path to a destination by main-
taining a list of autonomous systems that packets must pass through to reach
a target network. Thus the moniker: path vector routing protocol.
In lieu of conventional metrics, BGP applies a variety of attributes to each
route it learns. The purpose of attributes is to allow routing policies to be
implemented. Routing policies allow control over what routing prefixes are
distributed between interconnected ISPs and between ISPs and their cus-
tomers. This feature allows BGP to be deterministic; meaning an administrator
can exert granular control over what routes are accepted or rejected, and set a
preference of one route over another to a particular network. Routing policies
are the name of the game in interdomain routing. There are many players that
take part in routing on the Internet, and the various companies such as Sprint
and MCI create service agreements with each other that are implemented
through routing policies. It is the ability to shape traffic through path attrib-
utes that is at the core of what makes BGP so different from interior routing
protocols. It is not uncommon for a policy file to be several thousand lines long
in a backbone ISP.

BGP Terminology
BGP has some unique terminology associated with it. Some of the terms refer
to characteristics unique to BGP, while other terms are simply new names for
a feature present in other routing protocols.

BGP Router Roles: Speakers, Peers, and Border Gateways

Any router configured to run BGP takes on the role of BGP speaker. The router
advertises, or speaks, the routes it is aware of. BGP speakers that form a con-
nection with each other for the purpose of exchanging routing information are
known as BGP peers. BGP speakers that form peer relationships with BGP
speakers in other autonomous systems take on the additional role of BGP bor-
der gateway routers.
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ROUTING PROTOCOLS VS. AUTOMOBILES

If you were to compare routing protocols to cars, then you might say that RIPv2
is like an old, well maintained VW bus; it will get you from point A to point B,
but it doesn’t keep up well on the big Interstates. OSPF is like a Honda Civic;
very well engineered and quite economical. On the other hand, BGP is kind
of like a formula race car; you can tune every aspect of such a vehicle from
carburetion, to gearing, to suspension setup. BGP has the right stuff for fine-
tuning inter-autonomous system routing.

EBGP and IBGP (External BGP and Internal BGP)

BGP operates in two distinct modes. When communicating between
autonomous systems, External BGP (EBGP) is used. Within an AS, BGP
enabled routers use Internal BGP (IBGP) to communicate. The differences
between the two modes of operation are few, but important. For example,
routes learned through IBGP have preference over the same routes learned
from EBGP. This is somewhat analogous to OSPF areas, where a route learned
from within the area is preferred over the same route learned from either
another area or external to the system. Subsequent examples will illustrate
other differences.

NLRI (Network Layer Reachability Information)

The NLRI refers to the IP prefix (i.e. 17.2.3) and prefix length (i.e. /24) of each
route being advertised by a BGP speaker.

Path Attributes
Every route advertised in BGP has a number of attributes, or path attributes,
associated with it. A route’s attributes are critical to conveying and applying
routing policies, and are discussed further in this chapter.

RIB (Routing Information Base)

BGP keeps routing information in a database known as the RIB, or Routing
Information Base. The RIB has three parts, which may be stored in a single
database, or three separate databases, depending on the vendor’s implemen-
tation of BGP.
Raw routing information received by a BGP speaker is stored in an infor-
mation base known as Adj-RIBs-In (Adjacent Routing Information Base In).
This is a listing of all routes the BGP speaker is aware of, and are referred to as
feasible routes.
Routes in Adj-RIBs-In are processed by applying the routing policies to
each route. This results in the route table used by BGP, known as the Loc-RIB
(Local RIB).
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External Routing Protocols in Brief 351

Finally, routes chosen to be advertised to a BGP speaker’s peers are stored in

Adj-RIBs-Out (Adjacent RIB Out). This is where any aggregation of routes
occurs (BGP prefers the term aggregation over summarization).

BGP Confederations
BGP confederations allow a single AS to be broken into smaller ASs. Confed-
erations were introduced well after the first BGP RFC was published to solve
a problem whereby the protocol did not scale well in large autonomous sys-
tems (the current RFC for BGP Confederations is 3065).
The scaling problem of BGP results from the fact that every BGP speaker
within an autonomous system must form a peer relationship with every other
BGP speaker. A direct connection to every speaker is not required, but a full
mesh of every BGP speaker in the AS is. With confederations, a full mesh is cre-
ated within the confederation, not to each speaker within the confederation.
Each confederation must then be able to reach every other confederation.

BGP Path Attributes

Integral to BGP are path attributes. Every route known to BGP has a set of
attributes associated with it that are passed along with the route. Path attrib-
utes convey routing information, but just as important, they also convey rout-
ing policies.

AS_PATH
The AS_PATH attribute is utilized by EBGP for interdomain routing. The
attribute contains the full path to the destination network (see Figure 9-4).
That’s a rather surprising statement, because interior routing protocols nor-
mally do no such thing (although OSPF certainly knows the full path to a des-
tination within an area via its topology table). However, this is a list of
autonomous system IDs, not network IDs. At a glance, this would appear to be
source routing, but in fact traffic may or may not pass through the ASs speci-
fied in the attribute, depending on routing policies and other factors. Rather,
the AS_PATH attribute is BGP’s mechanism for preventing routing-loops. If a
BGP router receives a routing update that includes its own AS number in the
AS_PATH attribute, it knows that accepting the route would create a loop and
the update is therefore rejected.

AS_PATH 100 200,100 300,200,100 400,300,200,100 500,400,300,200,100

AS 100 AS 200 AS 300 AS 400 AS 500

Figure 9-4 As a route is advertised, it accumulates a list of autonomous systems the

advertisement has passed through.
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352 Chapter 9

NEXT_HOP
The NEXT_HOP attribute specifies the IP address that packets should be for-
warded to. Naturally the value of this attribute will be updated each time the
route is advertised. The specified address will normally be the interface of the
router the route was learned from, but in the case of two IBGP routers
exchanging a route within another AS, the address will be the interface of the
EBGP router the route was learned from.

ORIGIN
The ORIGIN attribute is one of several attributes used to evaluate which route
to use for forwarding traffic to a particular network. Three possible values
exist: IGP, EGP, and Incomplete. If the value of the ORIGIN attribute is IGP, it
means the route was learned from an interior routing protocol, and the route
therefore is contained within the local AS. Such routes get a higher preference
than routes with an ORIGIN attribute of EGP or Incomplete. A value of EGP
for the ORIGIN attribute indicates the route was learned from an EBGP router
(learned from another AS) and has the next highest precedence for route selec-
tion. Finally, a value of Incomplete means that the origin of the route is
unknown, such as a redistributed route, and thus has the lowest precedence.

MULTI_EXIT_DISC
MULTI_EXIT_DISC, as in Multiple Exit Discriminator (MED), is an optional
attribute that can be used by EBGP speakers to tell another AS which path to
use when there are multiple links between the ASs. The MULTI_EXIT_DISC
attribute basically acts as a metric to set a preference for one path over another.
The attribute can be set to a particular value for routes advertised across one
link and set to another value for routes advertised over a redundant link. The
corresponding AS will then send traffic to the originating AS over the link where
the routes with the lowest-value MULTI_EXIT_DISC attribute were learned.
Keep in mind that like any attribute, MULTI_EXIT_DISC can be applied to a sin-
gle route or a group of routes.
Also note that although the MED is a way for one autonomous system to
suggest to another autonomous system how to route traffic, it is only a sug-
gestion. For example, if an ISP used the MED to say, tell another ISP to send
west-coast traffic through a west-coast interconnect and east-coast traffic
through an east-coast interconnect, no ISP would accept such a command
because it lets a competitor say how traffic flows within the ISPs network.
Rather, MEDs are generally used when an ISP has two routers on the same
LAN as another ISP to tell the other ISP which of the two routers to use.
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External Routing Protocols in Brief 353

LOCAL_PREF
The LOCAL_PREF attribute is an optional attribute used only within an AS
(IBGP). Like MULTI_EXIT_DISC, the value can be manually set to prefer one
path to a destination over a different path to the same destination. Although
LOCAL_PREF is only used internally, it can be applied to both internal routes
as well as routes to networks in other ASs.

ATOMIC_AGGREGATE and AGGREGATOR

The ATOMIC_AGGREGATE attribute is active when a route to be advertised
has been summarized (aggregated). The presence of this attribute indicates to
downstream BGP routers that the route has been aggregated and should not
be de-aggregated. The AGGREGATOR attribute is used to indicate which
autonomous system and which router performed the aggregation.

COMMUNITY
The BGP COMMUNITY attribute is a handy little tool for simplifying the
application of routing policies. It provides a means of applying an attribute to
a group, or community of routes, rather than set the attribute on each route.

The Autonomous System Revisited

BGP connects autonomous systems together, so it’s important to understand
exactly what an autonomous system is. In relation to interior routing proto-
cols, an autonomous system is often defined as a collection of networks under
common administrative control. Quite often a single organization, like say
WidgetCO, is considered an autonomous system regardless of how large or
small it is.
In relation to EGPs though, a more precise definition of autonomous system
is encountered: a collection of networks under common administrative control
and sharing a common routing strategy. The latter part of the definition is critical
with BGP. The administrator of an autonomous system takes on the responsi-
bility of employing a routing strategy (vis-à-vis routing policies) that encom-
pass all networks the AS may come to learn of. In the world of EGPs, an AS is
usually an ISP, and can include more than a single organization, as illustrated
in Figure 9-5. Each ISP forming an AS is responsible for routing to and from its
customers and may also be required to route transit traffic passing through to
other autonomous systems.
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354 Chapter 9

AS 1138

ISP

Customer 1 Customer 2 Customer 3

Figure 9-5 Many companies may come under the umbrella of a single AS.

Autonomous System Numbering4

Just as IP networks must be identified by a unique IP address, autonomous
systems running BGP must be identified by a unique AS number (ASN). The
same assigning authority that allocates IP addresses allocates autonomous
system numbers. In America for example, the authority is ARIN. Autonomous
system numbers are 16-bit numbers ranging from 1–65535.
The numbers 1–64511 are designated as public ASNs. Any autonomous sys-
tem connecting to the Internet core must have a public ASN. The numbers
64512–65535 are designated as private ASNs, and may be used for various pur-
poses such as private peering between two ISPs, but can never be used on the
public Internet. There is work in progress to double the size of the ASN num-
ber allocation, because over half of the public pool has been exhausted.

N OT E Every IP subnet used within an autonomous system must be

associated with the ASN assigned.
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External Routing Protocols in Brief 355

BGP Peer Sessions

BGP operates by BGP-enabled routers forming peer relationships with other
BGP routers, through which network reachability information is exchanged.
This is the Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI) for each route,
which is composed of the IP prefix ID and length, along with the attributes for
the route. A BGP router may have a peer relationship with one or more BGP
speaking routers.
Routing neighbors are not discovered automatically in BGP. Each pair of
BGP speakers that will exchange routing information must be configured by
hand. This is by design. Peer relationships are only established between orga-
nizations doing business with one another.
Peer sessions between BGP speakers commence with the opening of a TCP
connection between the routers. Unlike OSPF, which uses its own proprietary
mechanism for assured delivery, BGP relies on TCP for reliable communica-
tions. TCP sessions use port 179. Upon initialization of a TCP session, a pair of
BGP speakers exchange the entire contents of their Adj-RIBs-Out database.
After that, only updates are sent, and then only when the contents of Adj-RIBs-
Out changes (known as triggered updates). The TCP session stays open with
keep-alive packets. If the connection is terminated, the initialization process
starts over.

N OT E Like conventional distance vector routing protocols, BGP uses split

horizon. Routes learned through an interface are not advertised out the same
interface.

BGP Path Determination (Decision Process)

Because BGP does not incorporate the traditional metrics of interior routing
protocols, how is one route selected over another when there are multiple
paths to the same network? This is one place where routing policies come in.
BGP stores all learned routes and their attributes in Adj-RIBs-In. This is raw,
unprocessed routing data. Routes to be installed and/or advertised go through
a three-part process as described next.

Three-Phase Decision Process

The three-phase decision process is described in this section.

Phase 1: Calculate the degree of preference for each route in Adj-RIBs-In

For routes learned from an internal peer, the degree of preference is calculated
based on policy information, or in lieu of a policy the preference is calculated
based on the LOCAL_PREF attribute. For routes learned from an external peer,
the degree of preference is calculated strictly based on policy information. This
process returns a set of feasible routes that are acted on in phase 2.
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356 Chapter 9

Phase 2: Install the best route to each destination into Loc-RIB

Each feasible route is first checked to see if the next hop router specified in the
NEXT_HOP attribute is reachable. If the next hop is not reachable the route is
dropped. Then the AS_PATH variable is checked to be sure the route is not
looped. Qualified routes are then installed to Loc-RIB based on the following
criteria:
■■ If there is only one route to a particular destination, it is installed into
Loc-RIB.
■■ For multiple routes to the same destination, install the route with the
highest degree of preference as calculated in phase 1.
■■ For each instance where multiple routes to the same destination remain
(because they have the same degree of preference), a set of tie-breaking
rules are engaged. The algorithm iterates through a series of steps that
eliminates routes. The algorithm terminates when only one route to the
destination remains.
■■ Shortest AS path: Select the route with the smallest value for the
AS_PATH attribute and eliminate all other routes. If more than one
route has the same smallest value, continue the tie-breaking process.
■■ Origin number: Select the route with the smallest value for the ORI-
GIN attribute and eliminate all other routes. If more than one route
has the smallest value, continue the tie-breaking process.
■■ MULTI_EXIT_DISC: Select the route with the smallest value for the
MED attribute and eliminate all other routes. If more than one route
has the smallest value, continue the tie-breaking process.
■■ EBGP versus IBGP: If at least one of the candidate routes was
received via EBGP, remove from consideration all routes that were
received via IBGP. If more than one route has the smallest value,
continue the tie-breaking process.
■■ Interior cost: Select the route with the smallest metric based on the cost
of reaching the next hop and eliminate all other routes. If more than
one route has the smallest metric, continue the tie-breaking process.
■■ BGP identifier: Select the route with the lowest BGP identifier, and
eliminate all other routes. If more than one route has the lowest BGP
identifier, continue the tie-breaking process.
■■ IP address: Eliminate all routes except the one with the lowest peer
IP address.

Phase 3: Route dissemination

Select which routes in Loc-RIB will be advertised. This selection process is based
on configured routing policy. Any configured route aggregation also takes place
here.
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External Routing Protocols in Brief 357

Decision Process Wrap Up

Vendor specific implementations of BGP may employ additional attributes or
even add options to the decision process. For example, the Cisco IOS allows
multiple routes to be installed into Loc-RIB. Cisco also adds a WEIGHT attribute
that allows an administrator to easily force one route to be selected over another.

Sample BGP System

Figure 9-6 illustrates a slice of a BGP system as it fits into the hierarchy of the
Internet.

AS 2001 AS 1138

NAP

IANA assigned address 34.12.0.0/16 BGP advertising 34.12.0.0/16

(65,535 host addresses)

AS451

Network provider assigned address 34.12.4.0/22

(1,024 host addresses) BGP advertising 34.12.4.0/22

AS 007

ISP assigned address 34.12.4.4/30 ISP address 34.12.4.8/29

(2 addresses) (6 addresses)

Customer 1 Customer 2

Figure 9-6 The big picture of BGP operation.

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358 Chapter 9

Note the following about Figure 9-6:

■■ Starting at the top, three autonomous systems running BGP are con-
necting to the core of the Internet at a Network Access Point (NAP).
Each AS is public peering with each other AS and exchanging routes
through EBGP.
■■ Network provider AS 451 is private-peering with AS 007, a local ISP,
again exchanging routes via EBGP.
■■ All the autonomous systems are using IBGP internally to propagate
routes learned through EBGP.
■■ The ISP is providing Internet access to two customers. BGP is not used
any lower on the hierarchy in this model. Each customer is using
default routing to forward packets with unknown destinations to the
ISP. BGP is therefore not required at this level, even for the customer
with the redundant connection.
■■ Finally, note the hierarchy in the addressing of the networks. AS 451
received a CIDR block of 65K plus addresses, to reassign as it sees fit.
The ISP has been assigned about a thousand of those addresses, and
only needs to allocate a very few addresses from the pool to satisfy the
needs of these two customers. The customers use private addressing
within their networks and therefore only require the addresses for the
link to the ISP.

The Future of BGP

To keep BGP current with the ever evolving Internet, additional RFCs supple-
ment the BGP-4 specification. Technologies such as IPv6, multicasting, and
VPN support have been added to the core BGP specification. Issues such as
security are always being examined.
On the other hand, there is talk that BGP will ultimately be replaced or radi-
cally revamped. Although BGP is successfully holding up the Internet, it has its
problems. It can be slow to converge (on the order of minutes, not seconds),
policy dissemination is imperfect, and it is a relatively insecure protocol. Some
drafts of a new inter-autonomous system routing protocol have been created,
but replacing BGP is a huge endeavor because it cannot simply be taken offline
and replaced with another protocol. For that reason, the next generation inter-
autonomous system may roll out in an evolutionary, not revolutionary manner.
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External Routing Protocols in Brief 359

Notes

1. As we went to press, RFC 1771 was being obsoleted. The new standard
was in draft form and did not yet have an RFC number. See the appen-
dix for a link to the draft document.
2. Some implementations of the RFC defining BGP utilize multi path
routing.
3. Hierarchical in the sense that BGP follows the roughly hierarchical
structure of the autonomous system based Internet, but not hierarchical
as in OSPF, which incorporates a distinct two-level hierarchy.
4. RFC 1930 was created to clear up confusion about AS numbers.
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CHAPTER

10
Redistribution and Default
Routing

Overview
The topics of route redistribution and default routing have been saved until
after the routing protocols were covered because it’s easier to discuss these
topics if you already understand something about the mechanics of routing
protocols.
Default routing has to do with configuring a router to forward packets when
a destination network is not found in the route table. Normally, if a router can’t
find a path for a packet, the packet is dropped. Default routing helps prevent
that scenario by providing a path to forward such packets in hopes that
another router will have more information about the packet’s destination. The
default routing facility can be used to great advantage in managing the size of
route tables and the bandwidth used by routing updates.
Default routing, in and of itself, can be configured without any routing pro-
tocol. But if it is desirable to have the default route shared with other routers,
a routing protocol must get involved. When a default route, or in fact any
route, is made known to a routing protocol that did not natively discover the
route, it is known as redistribution.
Of course, the most common use of redistribution is to import routes
learned by other routing protocols. Routing data known to one protocol can be
redistributed into another routing protocol, and vice versa. These external
routes are then advertised by the native routing protocol.
361
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362 Chapter 10

KEY TERMS

Redistribution
Route tagging
Route maps
Distibution lists
Metric translation
Default route
Static default route
Default gateway
Network 0.0.0.0
Gateway of Last Resort
Candidate default route
Stub router

Be advised that redistribution is generally considered an advanced topic. Its

coverage in this book is mainly to familiarize you with what redistribution is
and some of the issues surrounding the implementation of redistribution.
The following topics are covered in this chapter:
Route redistribution 362
Default routing 367

Route Redistribution
Route redistribution refers to the process of importing routes learned from
other sources into a particular routing protocol. The source may be routes
known to another routing protocol, a statically entered route, or directly
connected routes where the interface is not enabled for the native routing
protocol.
When you’re redistributing routes learned by another routing protocol, it is
typical to configure the foreign routing protocol on a border router connected
to the other system. Both the native and the foreign protocols run on a single
router, thus laying the groundwork for routes to be redistributed into the AS.
Redistribution can be one-way or two-way. Even when multiple routing
protocols are enabled on a router, redistribution does not usually occur auto-
matically, as illustrated in Figure 10-1.1 Redistribution must be specifically
configured.
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Redistribution and Default Routing 363

Router B Router C
Router A
Running RIP Running OSPF
Running RIP

I know about the I know about the I know about the

192.168.1.0/24, 192.168.1.0/24, 172.20.0.0/16
192.168.10.0/24, 192.168.10.0/24, and 200.2.2.4/30.
200.1.1.4/30, 200.1.1.4/30,
and 200.2.2.4/30. and 200.2.2.4/30.

192.168.1.0/24 192.168.10.0/24 172.20.0.0/16

200.1.1.5/30 200.1.1.6/30 200.2.2.5/30 200.2.2.6/30

Figure 10-1 Routing protocols don’t share learned routes with each other by default.

Be advised that route redistribution can be a complex issue. No real standards

exist for redistribution, so you need to rely more on the experience of others.
Lack of proper planning when configuring redistribution can result in anything
from sub-optimal routing, to routing holes, to routing-loops. This treatment of
redistribution is only an introduction to the topic. If you need to configure redis-
tribution, be sure to learn all you can about the specifics of redistribution for the
routing protocols in use. See the appendix for recommended reading.

The Need for Redistribution

In a perfect world, all networks would run the same routing protocol. Intra-
domain routing has different requirements of a routing protocol than inter-
domain routing, so in a slightly less-than-perfect world, maybe two routing
protocols would be in use : an interior protocol and an exterior protocol; like
BGP and OSPF. Alas, in this much less-than-perfect world, networks some-
times need to absorb routes from foreign routing protocols.
Here are some reasons for running multiple routing protocols.
■■ An organization is migrating from one routing protocol to another.
■■ Two organizations need to share routes with each other, but each orga-
nization runs a different routing protocol.
■■ A large, geographically dispersed organization might run both an inte-
rior routing protocol and an exterior routing protocol to tie together the
disparate branch offices.
■■ An organization is running multiple routed protocols: IP, IPX, and
Appletalk. Only EIGRP supports all these routed protocols, so unless
EIGRP is in use throughout the system, multiple routing protocols may
be required.
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364 Chapter 10

Figure 10-2 cites a network model where two autonomous systems want to
share routing information. The systems are physically connected, but each
routing domain is running a different routing protocol. In this case, each sys-
tem’s border router must be configured to run the foreign routing protocol
before routes can be dynamically learned, as shown in Figure 10-3.
After the corresponding routing protocol and configuring redistribution are
activated, routes are shared with the opposing system.
Static routes can be redistributed as well. The most common example of this
is the static default route examples in the subsequent section on default rout-
ing. But any static route in a router’s route table can be redistributed.
All the common interior routing protocols are capable of redistribution (RIP,
IGRP, EIGRP, and OSPF). The ubiquitous exterior routing protocol BGP is
capable of redistribution as well.

Autonomous system 1 Autonomous system 2

RIP IGRP

Figure 10-2 Example of the need to redistribute routes

between domains when running dissimilar routing protocols.

Autonomous system 1 Autonomous system 2

RIP/IGRP IGRP/RIP

Figure 10-3 Route propagation occurs only after configuring redistribution.

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Redistribution and Default Routing 365

Redistribution Issues
As alluded to earlier, route redistribution must be done with care. If not prop-
erly configured, convergence will be slowed and/or routing-loops may
develop. For example, say a router is running both RIP and EIGRP. RIP learns
of routes known to EIGRP because they have been redistributed into RIP. RIP
begins to advertise the EIGRP learned routes along with its normal routing
updates. If the EIGRP routers are also configured to learn and redistribute RIP
routes, eventually the RIP routers will learn about their own routes again
through EIGRP. These are far less favorable paths to the networks within the
RIP routing domain. This scenario can sabotage routing, so there are a variety
of mechanisms available to ensure redistribution works smoothly. Let’s have a
cursory look at each available method.

Metric Translation When Redistributing Routes

As you have garnered from earlier reading, every routing protocol has its own
unique set of metrics for determining the best path to a network when multi-
ple paths exist. But what metric should be applied to a route injected from
another routing protocol? Because the routing protocol did not discover the
routes itself, the metric for the external route cannot be used because it is prob-
ably not compatible with the native routing protocol. For example, RIP uses
hop count as the metric. A network three hops away would have a metric of 3.
Conversely, OSPF uses bandwidth for the metric. That same destination net-
work may have a metric of, say, 1020 under OSPF. Therefore, injecting a route
with a metric of 3 into OSPF would tremendously skew the route selection
process. Because of this fact, metric conversion is a prime consideration when
redistributing routes.

Setting a Metric for Redistributed Routes with a Cisco Router

Metric translation can occur globally or locally. You set the metric with the fol-
lowing commands:
■■ default-metric: Used in router configuration mode to globally set a
default metric for redistributed routes. This value can be overridden for
a specific route.
■■ redistribute, with optional keyword metric x: The redistribute com-
mand is used to redistribute routes. It is used in router configuration
mode. When the leyword metric is used in the redistribution statement,
the metric of the external routes being redistributed is set. This form of
setting a route’s metric takes priority over any other method for setting
a metric for the route.
See the full-context examples for each routing protocol.
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366 Chapter 10

Special Administrative Distance Values for Redistributed Routes

Routes redistributed from certain routing protocols may be assigned a different
administrative distance number than normal. As you can see from Table 10-1,
EIGRP and BGP have a different administrative distance value when learned
externally. As you will recall from the treatment of administrative distance,
routes with lower administrative distance values are chosen over routes with
higher values. For example, externally learned EIGRP routes are not trusted as
much as directly learned EIGRP routes. Also see the subsequent section on
route tagging.

Table 10-1 Administrative Distances

ROUTE DISTANCE

Directly connected interface 0

Static route 1

EIGRP (summary routes) 5

BGP (external) 20

EIGRP (internal) 90

IGRP 100

OSPF 110

IS-IS 115

RIP 120

EGP 140

EIGRP (external) 170

Internal BGP 200

Unknown 255

Route Tagging
Routes injected into one protocol from another protocol can be tagged—
marked with unique identifiers noting their source. This allows other routers
to identify the redistributed routes as having been redistributed, and accept,
discard, or otherwise rank the route accordingly. The routing protocol must
support this feature.
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Redistribution and Default Routing 367

Distribution Lists
Distribution lists are used to filter specific routes when redistribution takes
place. Distribution lists are a form of access lists (a filtering mechanism pro-
vided by the Cisco IOS) applied to routing updates.

Route Maps
Route maps are access lists on steroids. Route maps make it possible to test for
certain conditions and branch one way or another based on the condition.
When route maps are used with distribution lists, route filtering can be man-
aged in a very granular fashion.

Default Routing
The concept of a default route (also known as a default gateway) is quite
straight forward. A default route provides a way of saying none of the above. If
there is no entry in the route table matching the destination address of a
packet, rather than drop the packet, it can be forwarded to the address speci-
fied by the default route entry. Default routing was first mentioned in Chapter 2,
when it was noted that workstations usually rely on default routes to forward
packets off the local network. Routers may or may not employ a default route
depending on the configuration of the network. In point of fact however, if a
network is connected to the Internet, default routing is very likely in use.
Would you want to import the entire routing table for the Internet? Most ISPs
don’t even do that.
Default routing doesn’t happen automatically. Packets with no matching
route are normally dropped and an ICMP Destination Unreachable message is
returned to the sender. Furthermore, even if a default route is established
packets may still be dropped if default routing is not configured properly.

When to Use Default Routing

There are several reasons for configuring a default route:
■■ Internet access
■■ Provide a path to another autonomous system without importing the
routes of the other system
■■ Stub routers that only have a single entry and/or exit point
■■ Minimize router updates and/or minimize the size of route tables
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Accessing the Internet

Internet access is the most obvious reason to use default routing. It is not practi-
cal to populate a route table with every possible network a user may need to
reach. Therefore, a typical approach is to have all the networks within the
autonomous system populated into the route tables, and then configure a default
route to direct all externally bound traffic to the organization’s border router—
the router interfacing the autonomous system to the outside world. The border
router in turn would have a default route pointing to the interface connecting to
the organization’s ISP. Any packet not destined for somewhere in the organiza-
tion finds a path leading it out of the system, as illustrated in Figure 10-4.
In this model, routers B, C, and D each have a default route pointing to
router A. Router A in turn, has a default route pointing to the Internet.

Routing Packets to Other Autonomous Systems

Sometimes it’s necessary to route packets to a different autonomous system,
but it is not desireable to have the networks of the other system redistributed
into the local system’s route tables. In this case, a default route could be used
for externally bound packets. The default route would forward packets to the
local organization’s border router, which may or may not be populated with
the routes to the other system, depending on the network configuration.

I have only one path to other

networks. A default route will do.

ISP router
providing
Internet
B access

C
A

I know about the networks

attached to routers B, C, and D.
All other traffic goes to the ISP’s
router.

Figure 10-4 Arrows indicate the direction of packets along the default route.
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Redistribution and Default Routing 369

If the border router was only connected to the target organization’s border
router, a default route might work there as well. If on the other hand, the bor-
der router also connected to an ISP for Internet access, it would be necessary to
populate the border router’s route table with the networks to the other
autonomous system and save the default route for directing unknown traffic
to the Internet. This could be accomplished by either running the routing pro-
tocol of the target organization on the border router and performing redistrib-
ution, or by creating static routes that point to the other system.

Using Stub Routers

In the model shown in Figure 10-4, routers B, C, and D are stub routers. Mean-
ing, they have only one interface connecting to the rest of the network. Regard-
less of whether router A had an external connection or not, the route tables
of the stub routers could be populated with nothing more than a default
route pointing to router A. This model is sometimes termed a hub-and-spoke
configuration.

Minimizing Network Traffic and the Size of Route Tables

As you will notice in all the aforementioned examples, route tables—and the
network traffic associated with populating and maintaining them—are mini-
mized to one degree or another when default routes are employed. Moral of
the story: default routing is yet another tool the network engineer has for opti-
mizing routing.

When Not to Use Default Routing

Default routing works best when there is only one path to or from a network
(no routing decisions need to be made). In the modified model in Figure 10-5,
redundant links have been added. Populating routers B, C, and D with just a
default route is no longer appropriate because each router has multiple paths
to the other networks. In this case, a well-designed routing solution would
populate all routers with the routes to all internal networks. Whatever routing
protocol was in use would choose the best path among whatever routes were
available at the time. The routers could still employ a default route for Internet
access, as long as the internal networks were listed in the route tables.
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370 Chapter 10

Now I have at least two paths to

other networks. I’d better populate
my route tables in order to make
the best decision about how to
route packets.

ISP router
providing
Internet
access
B

C
A

Right. But we still need a default

route for Internet access.

Figure 10-5 Redundant links and default routes don’t mix.

Configuring Default Routing

Using a Cisco router as an example, there are two different methods for config-
uring default routing. One method is to set what’s known as a static default
route using the ip route global configuration command. This is simply a static
route entry specifying a wild card network, which receives all traffic that doesn’t
find a match in the route table. This command is not supported by all routing pro-
tocols however. There is also the ip default-network global configuration com-
mand, which can be used by certain routing protocols. Both commands achieve
similar results, but there are nuances in the way each is configured. Figure 10-6
provides a reference model for configuring both methods of default routing.

Initial Configuration of Routers

An initial configuration of the network is first performed using EIGRP as an
example. Then two examples will be presented illustrating the two methods
for configuring default routing (only the configuration for routers A and B will
be enumerated).

routerA#config-term
routerA(config)#ip classless
routerA(config)#interface serial 0
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Redistribution and Default Routing 371

routerA(config-if)#ip address 66.77.88.5 255.255.255.252

routerA(config-if)#exit
routerA(config)#interface fastethernet 0
routerA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.3.2 255.255.255.255
routerA(config-if)#exit
routerA(config)#interface fastethernet 1
routerA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.4.2 255.255.255.255
routerA(config-if)#exit
routerA(config)#interface fastethernet 2
routerA(config-if)#ip address 192.168.5.2 255.255.255.255
routerA(config-if)#exit
routerA(config)#router eigrp
routerA(config-router)#network 192.168.3.0
routerA(config-router)#network 192.168.4.0
routerA(config-router)#network 192.168.5.0
routerA(config-router)#exit
routerA(config)#

routerB#config-term
routerB(config)#ip classless
routerB(config)#interface fastethernet 0
routerB(config-if)#ip address 192.168.0.1 255.255.255.255
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#interface fastethernet 1
routerB(config-if)#ip address 192.168.3.1 255.255.255.255
routerB(config-if)#exit
routerB(config)#router eigrp
routerB(config-router)#network 192.168.0.0
routerB(config-router)#network 192.168.3.0
routerB(config-router)#exit
routerB(config)#

The route tables for the configuration after they have converged are depicted
in Figures 10-7 and 10-8.

ISP router
providing
Internet
access
E0 E1
192.168.0.0/24 .1 B .1 192.168.3.0/24

.2 E0

E0 E1 E1 S0 (T1)
C .5 66.77.88.4/30 .6
192.168.1.0/24 .1 .1 192.168.4.0/24 .2
A
.2 E2

E0 E1
192.168.2.0/24 .1 D .1 192.168.5.0/24

Figure 10-6 Reference model for configuring default routing.

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372 Chapter 10

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

66.77.88.4/30 is subnetted, 1 subnets

C 66.77.88.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 192.168.3.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 192.168.4.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet1
C 192.168.5.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet2
D 192.168.0.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.3.2, 00:00:10, Ethernet0
D 192.168.1.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.4.2, 00:00:10, Ethernet1
D 192.168.2.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.5.2, 00:00:10, Ethernet2

Figure 10-7 Router A before default routing is configured.

Notice the statement Gateway of last resort is not set in the printout of both
routers. The obvious conclusion is that this is where a configured default route
(default gateway) would show up. Often true . . . but not always, as these
examples will show.

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.0.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 192.168.3.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet1
D 192.168.1.0 [90/332800] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:10, Ethernet1
D 192.168.2.0 [90/332800] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:12, Ethernet1
D 192.168.4.0 [90/307200] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:12, Ethernet1
D 192.168.5.0 [90/307200] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:12, Ethernet1

Figure 10-8 Router B before default routing is configured.

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Redistribution and Default Routing 373

N OT E If you are wondering why router A has not been configured to advertise
the 66.77.88.4, there really is no point. Although 66.77.88.4 is the link to the
Internet, simply advertising the route is not enough to coax the stub routers
into directing Internet bound traffic to it. In truth, whether or not the route is
ultimately advertised is based on which of the two methods are employed for
default routing. Read on.

At this point, all the routers know about all the internal networks. However,
the Internet is still unreachable by the stub routers, and even by the border
router for that matter. Any packet bound for a network other than the six inter-
nal networks will be dropped because there is no entry for destinations other
than the local networks in the route tables. Thus, a default route must be
added to enable Internet access.
The most likely place to configure the default route is router A. Why?
Because a routing protocol will do the job of advertising the default route. Giv-
ing router A a default route negates the need to manually configure it on the
other routers. Let’s start with an example of creating a default route with the
ip route command.

Example 1: Default Route with the ip route Command

The ip route command is just a general statement for adding a static route.
Here’s the syntax:

routerA#config-term
routerA(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0

REDISTRIBUTION TIP FOR STATIC DEFAULT ROUTES

In general, static routes are not automatically advertised to other routers

(redistributed). To redistribute static routes, the redistribute static command
must be issued in global configuration mode, as shown in the redistribution
section of this chapter.
The exception to the rule is with static default routes, but only in one case.
Note in configuration example 1 that either the interface name or the IP
address of the interface can be used with the ip route command on Cisco
routers. If the name of the interface is used (“e0”), the route is automatically
redistributed by the routing protocol. Instead, the actual IP address of the
interface could be used, like this:
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 66.77.88.5
In this case, the route is not redistributed unless the redistribute static
statement is also issued. If you have a static default route that you don’t wish
to redistribute to other routers, use the latter form of the command. Having the
two forms of the command is extremely useful for controlling which static
routes are redistributed.
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374 Chapter 10

However, specifying the network ID as 0.0.0.0 with a mask of 0.0.0.0 is what

makes it a static default route. 0.0.0.0 is basically a wildcard address that
matches any destination address. When the router fails to find a match for a
destination network within the table entries, the matching algorithm will “fall
through” to the wild card route, which matches any destination address.
The output in Figure 10-9 shows that the Gateway of Last Resort is now set.
Packets bound for 0.0.0.0 (any network not in the route table) will exit out
interface S0. Internet bound packets now have a valid path out of the system if
they reach this router.
An additional entry also appears in the table; a static route entry. Note that
the static route listed at the bottom of the table is tagged with an asterisk (*)
indicating it is a candidate default route. A candidate default route is one that
is advertised as a potential default route for other EIGRP routers. Whether or
not the route is actually used by the routers is based on how many other can-
didate default routes they have to choose from, in addition to any default route
that may have been statically configured locally. The router can employ only
one default route, although it can keep others standing by if the current default
route goes down. The choice is based on metrics and administrative distance,
just as it is with any other route. If the installed default route fails, a backup
default route from the list of candidates can be installed in its place (if one even
exists).
An examination of router B’s route table in Figure 10-10 shows how it han-
dled the advertisement of the default route after recalculating its route table.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 66.77.88.6 to network 0.0.0.0

66.77.88.4/30 is subnetted, 1 subnets

C 66.77.88.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 192.168.3.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 192.168.4.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet1
C 192.168.5.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet2
D 192.168.0.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.3.2,00:00:10, Ethernet0
D 192.168.1.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.4.2,00:00:10, Ethernet1
D 192.168.2.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.5.2,00:00:10, Ethernet2
S* 0.0.0.0/0 [1/0] via 66.77.88.4

Figure 10-9 Router A has been given a default route using the ip route statement.
13_772739 ch10.qxp 3/3/06 9:26 PM Page 375

Redistribution and Default Routing 375

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is 192.168.3.2 to network 0.0.0.0

C 192.168.0.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0

C 192.168.3.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet1
D 192.168.1.0 [90/332800] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:44, Ethernet1
D 192.168.2.0 [90/332800] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:45, Ethernet1
D 192.168.4.0 [90/307200] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:45, Ethernet1
D 192.168.5.0 [90/307200] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:46, Ethernet1
D* 0.0.0.0/0 [90/0] via 192.168.3.0, 00:01:46, Ethernet1

Figure 10-10 Router B has received and accepted a default route.

Router B has been provided with a path to the Internet without the need for
reconfiguration (as have routers C and D). As with router A, notice that not
only has a Gateway of Last Resort been set, but router B is in turn advertising
the default route in its updates. Downstream routers running EIGRP will be
made aware of a candidate default route as well. Pretty cool.

Summary of the ip route Command

Here’s what you should remember regarding the ip route command.
■■ Static default routes work as described in the previous example for
EIGRP and RIP.
■■ OSPF can make use of static default routes, but redistribution of the
default route is not automatic, and furthermore, must be configured dif-
ferently from other routing protocols. See the default routing section in
the OSPF chapter (page 295) and a configuration example (page 314).
■■ IGRP does not support static default routes. IGRP does not understand
the 0.0.0.0 network; therefore, default routes cannot be propagated with
the ip route statement. However, IGRP (as well as EIGRP and RIP) can
use the second method for default routing as described next.

Example 2: Default Route with the ip default-network command

The other way to create and propagate a default route is with the ip default-
network command. Unlike the ip route command, which provides a path
through network 0.0.0.0 to the actual gateway router, the ip default-network
command usually propagates an actual network number.
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376 Chapter 10

The key difference with this method is that the network specified for the
default route must be in every router’s route table.2 This will require a slight
alteration to the base configuration of the network model at router A. The fol-
lowing statements must also be be added to the configuration:

routerA(config)#router eigrp
routerA(config-router)#network 66.0.0.0
routerA(config-router)#exit
routerA(config)#

Because all routers need the network ID of the default route listed in their
route tables, the best way to make that so is to propagate the 66.0.0.0 through-
out the system. With the network now being advertised, router A is configured
for a default route by executing the ip default-network command:

routerA#config-term
routerA(config)#ip default-network 66.0.0.0

Notice that the statement does not include a network mask. A mask is not
used with the ip default-network command. Now let’s examine the router
output in Figure 10-11.

routerA#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

* 66.77.88.4/30 is subnetted, 1 subnets

C * 66.77.88.4 [0/0] is directly connected, Serial0
C 192.168.3.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 192.168.4.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet1
C 192.168.5.0/24 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet2
D 192.168.0.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.3.2, 00:00:10, Ethernet0
D 192.168.1.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.4.2, 00:00:10, Ethernet1
D 192.168.2.0/24 [140/307200] via 192.168.5.2, 00:00:10, Ethernet2

Figure 10-11 Router A has been given a default route using the ip default-network
command.
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Redistribution and Default Routing 377

The route table looks different from the earlier example with the ip route
command. To begin with, the Gateway of Last Resort entry shows no gateway
set. This is due to the fact that router A is itself the gateway. The ip route state-
ment in the previous example specified the interface address of the next hop
router, but the ip default-network statement specifies a network; which is
directly connected. Packets arriving at this router, finding no matching address
in the route table, will be forwarded out interface Serial 0 because of the default
route entry in the route table. This point also addresses the other difference in
the output: there is no 0.0.0.0 candidate default route. Rather, the asterisk is
next to the 66.0.0.0 network, indicating that it’s the candidate default route.
Let’s see how router B’s route table has been influenced after a routing
update by examining the output in Figure 10-12.
Router B now has a Gateway of Last Resort set. Additionally, the router is
also advertising the candidate default route to its neighbors. With just the two
commands entered at router A, every router in this system now has a route to
the Internet.

routerB#show ip route
Codes: C – connected, S – static, I – IGRP, R – RIP, M – mobile, B – BGP
D – EIGRP, EX – EIRGP external, O – OSPF, IA – OSPF inter area
N1 – OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 – OSPF NSSA external type 2, E – EGP
i – IS-IS, L1 – IS-IS level-1, L2 – IS-IS level 2, * - candidate default
U – per-user static route, o – ODR
T – traffic engineered route

Gateway of last resort is not set

* 66.77.88.4 is subnetted, 1 subnet

D * 66.77.88.4 [90/793600] via 192.168.3.2, 00:01:22, Ethernet1
C 192.168.0.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 192.168.3.0 [0/0] is directly connected, Ethernet1
D 192.168.1.0 [90/281600] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:23, Ethernet1
D 192.168.2.0 [90/281600] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:23, Ethernet1
D 192.168.4.0 [90/307200] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:16, Ethernet1
D 192.168.5.0 [90/307200] via 192.168.3.2,00:01:17, Ethernet1

Figure 10-12 Router B has a default route to network 66.77.88.4.

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378 Chapter 10

Summary of the ip default Command

Here’s what you should remember regarding the ip default-network command:
■■ This is the only way to set a default route if you want to have the route
propagated by IGRP.
■■ OSPF handles default routes in a special way and does not use the ip
default-network command. See the default routing section in the OSPF
chapter (page 295) and a configuration example (page 314).
■■ Be sure each router has a path to the network specified by the Gateway
of Last Resort statement. Exception: RIP will propagate the default
route as 0.0.0.0, negating the need to have the network indicated by the
default route residing in any table except the router directly connected
to the specified network.
■■ Be sure to specify a classful address in the ip default-network state-
ment. A subnet address will not be recognized and the default route
will not be set.

Notes

1. The exception is IGRP and EIGRP, which automatically share routes

with each other by default.
2. This statement is true for IGRP and EIGRP. RIP does not actually
require the route to be listed in any other router’s route table to pro-
pogate the default route because RIP will advertise the route as 0.0.0.0.
14_772739 appa.qxp 3/3/06 9:27 PM Page 379

APPENDIX

A
Where Do You Go From Here?

This is an introductory book, so naturally there is a lot more to know about

routing. This appendix will give you an idea what more you can study.

The Routing Protocol in Your Environment

It pays to learn everything you can about the routing protocols in the network
environment where you work. If you’re like the author, you will want to get
your hands on all the books written about those routing protocols. No single
reference ever has everything there is to know about a particular technology.
All it takes is finding one critical piece of information relative to the emergency
of the moment that, in itself, pays for the book. Study the RFCs related to the
protocol and then study the routing vendor’s implementation of the RFC.

Multicast Routing
With the popularity of the Web, multicasting (transmitting data to a group of
hosts) has become a hot item. You will be well-served to know about how mul-
ticasting works, and which routing protocols and networking equipment sup-
port multicasting the best.

379
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380 Appendix A

Security
As everyone knows, security is a key issue of 21st century networking. Learn-
ing about security as it relates to network routing, means learning about access
lists, Virtual LANs (VLANs), packet encryption, and Virtual Private Networks
(VPNs), for a start.

Redistribution
As stated in Chapter 10, redistribution must be approached with caution. If
you need to redistribute routes into your network, study this topic some more,
and be cautious with the metrics you set on redistributed routes. Fully under-
standing redistribution means understanding access lists, route maps, route tags,
and distribution lists.

On-Demand Routing
On-demand routing (ODR) was noted in Chapter 2. If you employ static routes
on your network, it would be of benefit to research the benefits of ODR, a
newer technology that may prove to be more versatile than static routes.

IPv6
Although it may be years until it’s fully deployed, IPv6 is coming. It’s wise to
start learning it, even if your shop is not running IPv6 protocol stacks yet.

MultiProtocol Label Switching

MultiProtocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a more recent technology that may
have future importance. MPLS uses a variety of network information to assist
in traffic engineering, Quality of Service (QOS), and Class of Service (COS).
15_772739 appb.qxp 3/3/06 9:27 PM Page 381

APPENDIX

B
Recommended Reading

We recommend that you pick up a copy of one or all of these books to further
your knowledge of network routing:
■■ Routing TCP/IP volumes I & II, Jeff Doyle, Cisco Press, ISBN
1-57870-041-8, 1-57870-089-2
Put simply, this is the Bible of IP routing. This comprehensive two-volume
set should be on your bookshelf. The book was revised to a second
edition in 2005, so watch the edition number when ordering. There is a
great deal of granular information, such as a full treatment of IPv6,
OSPF packet formats, and OSPF Virtual Links. The bulk of the second
volume is devoted almost entirely to BGP.
■■ Troubleshooting IP Routing Protocols, Faraz Shamim, et al, Cisco Press,
ISBN 1-58705-019-6
This is an excellent resource for down-and-dirty troubleshooting. There
are lots of examples of failed routing scenarios and how to fix them.

381
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382 Appendix B

■■ CCNP Routing, Clare Gough, Cisco Press, ISBN 1-58720-001-5

This is one of the better-written books in the Cisco Press lineup. There
are a few mistakes here and there, but the topics are well-covered. It
includes a great treatment of redistribution and good treatment of OSPF
over Frame Relay. We recommend it even if CCNP certification is not
your goal.
■■ Computer Networks, Andrew Tanenbaum, Prentice Hall, ISBN
0-13-066102-3
This is a great primer on networking. It covers a wide variety of net-
working topics and is very detailed.
16_772739 appc.qxp 3/3/06 9:27 PM Page 383

APPENDIX

C
RFCs Related to Routing

RIPv2
2453, 1582, 1721, 1724, 2082, 2091

OSPF
2328, 2370, 2740, 3101, 3623, 3630, 3883, 4136, 4203, 4222

BGP
4271, 1657, 1997, 2385, 2439, 2547, 2796, 2918, 3065, 3107, 3392, 3765, 3882

IGMP
1112, 2236

383
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384 Appendix C

VLSM
1878

IPv6
2460, 2461, 2462, 2463, 2464, 2675, 2711, 3041, 3122, 3513, 3587, 3633, 3646,
3697, 3736

IP
791

CIDR
1518, 1519

Subnetting
950

VLSMs
1009

Route Summarization
1518

DHCP
1541
16_772739 appc.qxp 3/3/06 9:27 PM Page 385

RFCs Related to Routing 385

BOOTP
951, 1395, 1497, 1532, 1542

Broadcast on Subnets
919, 922

Requirements for IPv4 Routers

1812

DVMRP
1075

TCP/IP utilities
1739

EIGRP White Papers (Proprietary Protocol,

No RFCs)
Do a Google search on the following:
Loop-free Routing using Diffusing Computations
A Unified Approach to Loop-free Routing Using Distance Vectors or Link
States
16_772739 appc.qxp 3/3/06 9:27 PM Page 386
17_772739 appd.qxp 3/3/06 9:28 PM Page 387

APPENDIX

D
Web References

IP Address Allocation
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN):
www.icann.org
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority): www.iana.org
Number Resource Organization: www.nro.net
North America ARIN: www.arin.net
Europe, RIPE NCC: www.ripe.net
Asia Pacific APNIC: www.apnic.net
Latin America LATNIC: www.latnic.net
Africa AfriNIC: www.afrinic.net

Internet Standards Bodies

www.ietf.org
www.isoc.org
www.w3.org

387
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388 Appendix D

www.ansi.org (click on Internet Resources)

www.ifla.org
www.webstandards.org

Macro View of the Internet

www.caida.org/analysis/topology/as_core_network

Initial Setup of a Router

www.opennet.ru/soft/cisco-configuration.html
www.swcp.com/~jgentry/topo/cisco.htm
www.sdnp.undp.org/rc/areas/tech/setup/cisco-geta2.html

Other Sites of Interest

www.tcpipguide.com/free/
www.hottrainingmaterials.com
18_772739 appe.qxp 3/3/06 9:28 PM Page 389

APPENDIX

E
Administrative Distance Table

ROUTE DISTANCE

Directly connected interface 0

Static route 1

EIGRP (summary routes) 5

BGP (external) 20

EIGRP (internal) 90

IGRP 100

OSPF 110

RIP 120

EIGRP (external) 170

Internal BGP 200

Unknown 255

389
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APPENDIX

F
Quick-and-Dirty Subnetting—
No Calculator

The key to subnetting “quick-and-dirty style” is via a trick known as the magic
number. Once you determine the magic number in a subnetting problem,
everything else is child’s play. See for yourself.
Follow these steps to subnet a /24 address (former class C) with no binary
numbers and no calculator:
1. Determine the number of networks (subnets) needed.
This example uses the address 192.168.1.0:
(a) Count on your fingers, starting at two, doubling the number for
each finger until you get the number of subnets you need (1 finger =
two subnets, two fingers = 4 subnets, and so on).
(b) Subtract 2 from the result, and if you still have enough subnets, that
is the number of binary digits to borrow. If not, you’re one finger
short, so just borrow 1 additional bit.
Example for 6 subnets: 1 finger = 2; two fingers = 4; three fingers = 8.
Subtract 2 (8-2 = 6) and you know that borrowing 3 bits will provide
enough subnets.

391
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392 Appendix F

2. Determine the magic number.

Start at the number 256 and cut it in half for each bit you borrowed. This
gives you the magic number! The subnet mask and all subnet addresses
come from this number. That’s why it’s called the magic number.
Example with 3 borrowed bits: 128, 64, 32. (32 is the magic number).
3. Determine the custom subnet mask.
Subtract the magic number from 256.
Example: 256-32=224. 224 is the custom subnet mask for the fourth octet
(255.255.255.224).
4. Determine the first subnet number.
Easy: the magic number is the first subnet number (192.168.1.32).
5. Determine successive subnet numbers.
Just add the magic number to the previous subnet number.
Example: The previous subnet number was 192.168.1.32. Adding the
magic number to 32 = 192.168.1.64. The next subnet number is 64+32 =
192.168.1.96, then 96+32 = 192.168.1.128, and so on.
6. Determine the last subnet number.
Subtract the magic number from the custom subnet mask.
Example: 224-32 = 192 (192.168.1.192)

7. Determine the host IDs and broadcast address for any subnet:
■■ The number of host IDs per subnet is always the magic number – 2.
■■ The first host ID is always one greater than the subnet number.
■■ The last host ID is always two less than the next subnet number.
■■ The broadcast address is always one less than the next subnet
number.
Example using subnet 192.168.1.32 (255.255.255.224):
■■ There are 30 host addresses (32-2=30).
■■ The first host number is 192.168.1.33 (32+1).
■■ The last host number is 192.168.1.62 (64-2).
■■ Broadcast address is 192.168.1.63 (64-1)
This technique works for any classful or classless address. Just remem-
ber to borrow from the correct octet.
20_772739 appg.qxp 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 393

CHAPTER

G
Subnetting Helper Sheet

Network address
to subnet
Default subnet
mask
# of networks
required
# of hosts
per network
# of bits
borrowed
Custom subnet
mask
Subnet IDs 1st Host ID Last Host ID Broadcast
Address

10

393
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21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 395

Index

2-way state, OSPF routers, algorithms, SPF, running, LSAs and, 251
236 286–288 multiple-area operation,
ANDing 269–283, 271–277
introduction, 34–35 not-so-stubby area,
A subnetting and, 46 275–277
ABR (Area Border APIs (application pro- packets, 261–269
Router), 317 gramming interfaces), 6 partitioned, 238–239
default routing and, 295, Application layer (7), redi- single area operation,
296 rector, 8 252–261
OSPF, 239, 278 area 1 nssa default- standard area, 237–238,
access-list statement, 163 information originate 272–274
ACK (acknowledgement) command, 329 standard area, network
packets, EIGRP, 60, 188 area 1 stub statement, design and, 303–305
active route states, EIGRP, 317–318 stub area, 238, 274–275
191 Area ID packet field, Totally Stubby Area, 275
addressing. See also IP Hello packet (OSPF), transite, 239
addressing 263 virtual links, 239
hierarchical, 39 area range command, 333 ARPANET, EGP and, 345
loopback address, 73–74 area x default-cost com- ARP.EXE, 66
adjacency, OSPF mand, 336 AS (autonomous system)
establishing, 256–258 area x nssa statement, 328 interior/exterior proto-
overview, 235 area x range statement, cols, 108–109
administrative distance, 331 AS number, 345, 354
routing areas, OSPF ASBR (Autonomous Sys-
overview, 84–85 backbone area, 237, tem Boundary Router)
redistributed routes, 366 271–272 LSAs, 241
table, 389 backbone area, network default routing and, 295,
advertising routes, 140 design and, 302–303 296
AGGREGATOR attribute, introduction, 244 OSPF, 239, 278
BGP, 353 isolated, 239

395
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 396

396 Index

AS_PATH attribute, BGP, BGP confederations, 351 broadband, baseband

351 BGP peer sessions, 355 and, 17
ATOMIC_AGGREGATE border gateway routers, broadcast, mult-access
attribute, BGP, 353 349 network, OSPF, 233
attempt state, OSPF COMMUNITY attribute, broadcast addresses, sub-
routers, 236 353 netting and, 40
auto-cost reference- decision process, broadcast domains,
bandwidth command, 355–357 routers and, 19
335 EBGP, 350 broadcast information,
automated routing, need future of, 358 route table, 75–76
for, 104 IBGP, 350 broadcast routing proto-
autonomous system num- LOCAL_PREF attribute, cols, 117
bers, IGRP, 173 353 BSD Unix sockets, 58
autonomous systems, MULTI_EXIT_DISC
BGP and, 353–354 attribute, 352
NEXT_HOP attribute, C
352 CIDR (Classless Inter-
B NLRI, 350 Domain Routing)
Backbone area, OSPF, ORIGIN attribute, 352 allocation, 52–54
271–272 path attributes, 350, Inter-Domain Routing,
backbone routers, OSPF, 351–353 50
239, 278 path determination, InterNIC and, 50
Backup Designated 355–357 IPv6 and, 55–56
Router (OSPF), 235, path vector, 349 NIC and, 50
246, 258 peers, 349 overview, 38
bandwidth reasons to use, 347–348 problems solved by, 51
EIGRP, 216 RFCs, 383 RFCs, 384
IGRP, 169, 171 RIB, 350 route aggregation
interfaces, setting, 285 sample system, 357–358 and, 51
OSPF, 284, 285, 286 speakers, 349 class A networks, IP
routing protocols and, three-phase decision addressing, 27
107 process, 355–357 class B networks, IP
bandwidth command, 335 BGP confederations, 351 addressing, 27
baseband, broadband binary numbers class C networks, IP
and, 17 32-bit IP address addressing, 27
BDR. See Backup Desig- example, 25 class D networks, IP
nated Router converting from addressing, 28
Bellman-Ford algorithm, decimal, 26 class E networks, IP
RIP and, 139 bit-level summarization, addressing, 28
BGP (Border Gateway 129–132 classful IP addressing,
Protocol), 109 BOOTP 26–32
AGGREGATOR and DHCP, 62–63 classful routing protocols,
attribute, 353 RFCs, 385 118–119
AS_PATH attribute, 351 borrowed bits, subnet IDs classless IP addressing, 36
ATOMIC_AGGREGATE and, 40–41, 43–44 CIDR, 38
attribute, 353 bridges, data-link layer configuring RIP, 161
BGP background, and, 17–18 EIGRP and, 215
346–347 First Octet Rule, 32–33
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 397

Index 397

introduction, 36 ip ospf retransmit- connection-oriented

network ID, 32 interval, 337 protocols, 59
routing and, 36 ip summary-address convergence
subnetting, 37, 38–39 eigrp, 215 RIP timers, 145–146
supernetting, 38 network, 311–313 routing and, 106, 141
VLSMs, 37 network x.x.x.x, 157 CSU/DSUs (Channel Ser-
classless routing proto- OSPF, 309–339 vice Unit/Data Service
cols, 118–119 passive-interface, 157, Units), 23. See also TSUs
collision domains 216 (Terminal Service
hubs and, 17 redistribute, 162 Units)
repeaters and, 17 RIP, 158–164
commands router eigrp, 208
area 1 nssa default- router igrp, 181 D
information origi- router rip, 156–157, data communication
nate, 329 159–160 sessions
area range, 333 show debug, 183 receiving side, 4–5
area x default-cost, 336 show ip eirgp neighbor, sending side, 3–4
auto-cost reference- 217 data-link addresses, data-
bandwidth, 335 show ip eirgp topology, link layer and, 11
bandwidth, 335 217 Data-link layer (2)
debug eigrp neighbor, show ip interface, 160, bridges, 17–18
218 182 data-link addresses, 11
debug eigrp packets, 218 show ip interface x, 215 Ethernet, 10
debug ip eigrp events, show ip protocols, 159, network addresses, 11
183 182–183 switches, 18–19
debut ip rip, 164 show ip rip database, Database Description
default-information orig- 163–164 packet, OSPF, 240,
inate, 316 show ip route, 157 264–265, 301
default-metric 10 state- summary-address, 329 database types, OSPF, 243
ment, 162 timers active, 217 DC-bit (Hello and LSA
IGRP, 175–183 timers spf-delay, 338 Packets), OSPF, 300
InfTransDelay timer, timers spf spf-holdtime, debug eigrp neighbor
OSPF, 243 338 command, 218
ip address, 154–156 undebug, 183 debug eigrp packets com-
ip bandwidth-percent, undebug all, 219 mand, 218
216 variance, 181 debug ip eigrp events
ip classless, 161, 215 version 2, 159 command, 183
ip default-network com- configuration debut ip rip command,
mand, 153 bit-level route summa- 164
IP Header packet field, rization, 129–132 decimal numbers, con-
Hello packet (OSPF), EIGRP, 209–213 verting to binary, 26
263 IGRP, 176–180 dedicated routers
ip Hello-interval, 216 RIP initial configuration, interfaces, 21
ip ospf cost, 336 154–158 memory, 21
ip ospf dead-interval, route summarization, multi-purpose, 22–23
337 161 operating system and, 20
ip ospf hello-interval, static routes, 91–100 processors and, 20
337 connection-less default-information origi-
ip ospf priority, 338 protocols, 59 nate command, 316
ip ospf retransmit-delay,
337
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 398

398 Index

default-metric 10 state- metrics, 111–113 EIGRP (Enhanced Interior

ment, 162 route table, 113 Gateway Routing
default routing routing update packets, Protocol)
configuration, initial, 109 ACK packets, 188
370–373 vectors, 110–111 active route states, 191
configuration, ip default- distribution lists, redistri- advantages, 186–187
network command, bution and, 366 architecture, 191–197
375–378 dotted decimal format, IP bandwidth, 216
configuration, ip route addresses, 25 characteristics of, 185
command, 373–375 down state, OSPF routers, classless IP addressing,
EIGRP and, 208 236 215
IGRP and, 174–175 DPUs (Data Protocol commands, 208–219
Internet access, 368 Units), Transport layer configuration, 209–213
not using, 369–270 and, 10 core communications,
OSPF and, 295–298 DR (designated router), 193–194
OSPF, manual configura- OSPF, 235, 258–260 default routing and, 208
tion, 297–298 DRouter, OSPF, 235 disadvantages, 187
reasons to use, 367–369 DUAL (Diffusing Update distance vector routing
RIP, 153 Algorithm) protocols and,
route tables, size, 369 introduction, 192 192–193
routing packets to learned routes and, DUAL, 190
autonomous sys- 202–203 DUAL, routing loop pre-
tems, 368–369 routing loop prevention, vention, 206–207
stub routers, 369 206–207 DUAL finite state
traffic minimizing, 369 dynamic networking, machine, 190
delay, routing protocols route table population Feasible Condition, 190,
and, 107 and, 83 191
demand circuits, OSPF, dynamic routing, 104 Feaible Distance, 189
234, 250–251 dynamic routing protocols Feasible Succession, 190
Designated Router packet exterior, 108–109 Hello packets, 188, 192,
field, Hello packet interior, 108–109 216
(OSPF), 264 hold-time, 188
destination types, OSPF, load balancing and, 207,
244, 289 214
Destination Unreachable metrics, 196–197
message, 95 E multicasts, 193–194
DHCP (Dynamic Host E-bit (Hello packets), neighbor discovery/
Configuration Protocol) OSPF, 300 recovery, 188
introduction, 62–63 EBGP (External BGP), 350 neighbor tables, 194
RFCs, 384 EEPROM memory, neighbors, 188
discontiguous networks, routers, 21 packets, 188
128–129 EGP (Exterior Gateway passive route states, 191
distance vector routing Protocol) Query packets, 188, 217
protocols ARPANET and, 345 RD, 189
EIGRP and, 192–193 history of, 345–346 redistribution, 208
link-state routing proto- overview, 109 Reply packets, 188, 193
cols vs., 116–117 route summarization,
208, 215
route tables, 196
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 399

Index 399

routing by rumor and, FD (Feasible Distance), route looping and,

192 EIGRP, 189 152–153
routing loop prevention, First Octet Rule, IP routing protocols and,
DUAL and, 206–207 addressing, 32–33 107
RTO, 189 Flash memory, routers, 21 host IDs, subnetting
RTP, 189, 193–194 flash updates, IGRP, 170 and, 39
show commands, 217 flat routing protocols, 118 host numbering, IP
split horizon and, 215 floating static routes, 100 addressing, 28–29
SRRT, 189 flooding, OSPF, 226, 237 HOSTNAME.EXE, 66
Stuck in Active, 191, flush timer, convergence hosts
205–206 and (RIP), 145–146 definition, 24
successors, 190 fragmentation, IP proto- IP addressing, routing
timers, 193–194 col, 61 and, 75
topology tables, 195–196 FS (Feasible Successor), subnet masks and, 33–36
topology tables, populat- EIGRP, 190 hubs
ing, 198–204 full state, OSPF routers, collision domains, 17
troubleshooting com- 237 physical layer, 16–17
mands, 218–219
Update packets, 188
encapsulation, headers G I
and, 13 gateway, default, 71 IBGP (Internal BGP), 350
error detection, IP proto- Gateway of Last Resort, 71 ICMP (Internet Control
col, 61 Message Protcol)
Ethernet destination unreachable
collision domains H messages, 61–62
and, 17 Hello-Interval timer, echo messages, 61–62
Data-link layer and, 10 OSPF, 242 echo reply messages,
exchange state, OSPF Hello packets 61–62
routers, 237 EIGRP, 188, 192, 216 PING.EXE, 61
exstart state, OSPF OSPF, 230, 231, 234, 235, Redirect messages, 61–62
routers, 236 236, 242, 254, 255, Time Exceeded mes-
exterior routing protocols, 256, 259, 263, 264, sages, 61–62
108–109 300 TRACERT.EXE, 61
External LSAs, OSPF, 241 Hello protocol, OSPF, 235 IGP (Interior Gateway
external networks, OSPF hierarchical addressing, Protocol), 109
route summarization, subnetting and, 39 IGRP (Interior Gateway
292–293 VLSMS and, 49 Routing Protocol)
external routes, OSPF, 241 hierarchical routing proto- advantages, 168
external/internal routing cols, 118 autonomous system
protocols, comparison, hold-down timer, routing numbers, 173
344–345 loop and, 150 bandwidth, 169, 171
hold-time, EIGRP, 188, 193 characteristics of, 167
hop count commands, 175–183
F learning routes, 141 configuration com-
FC (Feasibility Condition) RIP and, 139 mands, 176–180
EIGRP, 190 default routing, 174–175
route tables, 198 disadvantages, 168–169
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 400

400 Index

IGRP (Interior Gateway class E networks, 28 K

Routing Protocol) classful, 26–30 keep-alive packets,
(continued) classless, 29, 32–55 routers, 146
flash updates, 170 dotted decimal keywords
load balancing, 173–174, format, 25 no-summary, 325
181–182 enumeration, 29 not-advertise, 329
metrics, 171–173 host numbering, 28–29 nssa, 328
poison reverse, 171 introduction, 24–25 range, 332
redistribution, 175 networks, usable, 28
RIP comparison, 169 octets, 25
route summarization, prefix notation, 36 L
175 private addresses, 30 LAN interfaces,
show commands, public addresses, 30–31 routers, 21
182–183 RFCs, 384 layer 3 switches, 22
split horizon, 171, 182 routers and, 73, 75 learning routes
timers, 170, 181 uniqueness, 25 DUAL and, 202–203
troubleshooting com- Web sites, 387 introduction, 141
mands, 183 ip bandwidth-percent Link-State Acknowledge-
InfTransDelay timer, command, 216 ment packets, OSPF,
OSPF, 243 ip classless command, 161, 241
init state, OSPF routers, 215 Link-State Database,
236 ip default-network com- OSPF, 226, 234, 260–261
installation, rejected mand, 153 Link-State Request (LSR)
routes, 203–204 IP Header packet field, packet, OSPF, 240
inter-area networks, OSPF Hello packet (OSPF), link-state routing proto-
route summarization, 263 cols, 114–117
291–292, 331–332 ip Hello-interval com- Link-State Update (LSUs)
interfaces mand, 216 packet, OSPF, 240–241
bandwidth, setting, 285 ip ospf cost command, 336 link types, OSPF, 244
routers, 21, 73 ip ospf dead-interval com- links, virtual, OSPF and,
interior routing protocols, mand, 337 300
108–109 ip ospf hello-interval com- LLC (Logical Link) layer,
internal routers, OSPF, mand, 337 data-link layer and, 12
239, 278 ip ospf priority command, load, routing protocols
invalid timer, convergence 338 and, 107
and (RIP), 145–146 ip ospf retransmit-delay load balancing
ip address command, command, 337 EIGRP and, 207, 214
154–156 ip ospf retransmit-interval IGRP, 173–174, 181–182
IP addressing command, 337 RIP, 153
ANDing, 34–35 IP protocol loading state, OSPF
binary numbers and, IP error detection, 61 routers, 237
25–26 IP fragmentation, 61 LOCAL_PREF attribute,
class A networks, 27 ip summary-address eigrp BGP, 353
class B networks, 27 command, 215 loopback address, routing,
class C networks, 27 IPCONFIG.EXE, 65 73–74
class D networks, 28 LSA Retransmit-Interval
timer, OSPF, 242–243
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 401

Index 401

LsAge timer, OSPF, 242 routing and, 73, 84 introduction, 301

LSAs (Link-State Adver- routing protocols, not-so-stubby area,
tisements), 114 107–108 307–308
NSSA (Not-So-Stubby MPLS (MultiProtocol standard area, 303–305
Area) External, Label Switching), 380 stub area, 305–306
282–283 MTUs (Maximum Trans- totally stubby areas,
OSPF, 226, 300–301 mission Units), Net- 306–307
OSPF areas and, 251 work layer and, 10 network IDs
Type 4 (ASBR), 281–282 multi-area model, com- invalid, 28
Type 3 (Summary), mands (OSPF), 314–321 usable, 29
279–281 multi-homed computer Network layer (3)
types, OSPF, 240, 241, systems, routers MTUs and, 10
265, 266, 267, 268, and, 20 routers, 19–23
271, 278, 280, 281, multi-purpose routers, Network LSAs, OSPF, 240
282, 283, 301 22–23 Network Mask packet
LSU/LSA packet types, multicast routing proto- field, Hello packet
OSPF, 244 cols, 117, 193–194, 379 (OSPF), 263
MULTI_EXTI_DISC network masks, routing
attribute, BGP, 352 and, 73
M multipath routing proto- network numbering,
M-bit (Database Descrip- cols, 117 classful IP addressing,
tion Packets), OSPF, 27–28
301 network types, OSPF, 233,
MAC (Media Access Con- N 243, 245
trol) addresses, 11 N-bit (Hello packets), broadcast, multi-access,
manual summarization, OSPF, 300 246–247
129–132 NAT (Network Address demand circuits, 250–251
masks. See subnet masks, Translation), devices, introduction, 243
IP addresses routers and, 22 NBMA (non-broadcast,
MaxAge timer, OSPF, 242 Neighbor List field, Hello multi-access),
media types, OSPF, 243 packet (OSPF), 264 248–250
memory neighbor tables point-to-point, 247
dedicated routers EIGRP, 189, 194 network x.x.x.x command,
and, 21 OSPF, 234 157
routers and, 21 neighbors networks
metrics EIGRP, 188 discontiguous, 128–129
default, altering, 286 OSPF, 225, 235 hidden, 25
distance vector routing net mask. See subnet monolithic, 5
protocols, 111–113 masks, IP addresses next hop, RIPv2, 140
EIGRP, 196–197 NETSTAT.EXE, 66 NEXT_HOP attribute,
IGRP, 171–173 network addresses, Data- BGP, 352
OSPF, 284–286 link layer and, 11 NIC (network interface
OSPF, default routing network command, card), MAC addresses
and, 298 311–313 and, 11
OSPF, redistribution network design, OSPF NLRI (Network Layer
and, 295 backbone area, 302–303 Reachability Informa-
redistribution and, 365 benchmarking, 302 tion), 350
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 402

402 Index

no-summary keyword, mail analogy, 12–13 default routing, redistri-

325 Network layer (3), 2 bution and, 297
nodes, hosts and, 24 Physical layer (1), 2 default timers, altering,
non-broadcast, multi- Presentation layer (6), 337–338
access networks 2, 8–9 demand circuits net-
(NBMA), OSPF Session layer (5), 2, 9 work, 234
fully meshed, 248 TCP/IP and, 15 destination types, 244
introduction, 234 Transport layer (4), 2, disadvantages, 223
point-to-point sub- 9–10 DR (designated router),
interface configura- upper layers, 7–9 235, 258–260
tion, 249 OSPF Header packet field, DRouters, 235, 260
not-advertise keyword, Hello packet (OSPF), external routes, 241
329 263 flooding, 237
not-so-stubby areas, OSPF, OSPF (Open Shortest Path Hello packets, 234,
238, 275, 325 First) 263–264
not-to-stubby area, OSPF, ABRs (Area Border Hello protocol, 235
network design and, Router), 278 initialization, 253
307–308 adjacency, 235 interface bandwidth, 335
NSLOOKUP.EXE, 66 advantages, 222–223 interface cost, 336
NSSA External LSAs, 241, AllDRouters, 260 internal routers, 278
282–283, 325–331 AllSPFRouters, 260 Link-State Acknowl-
nssa keyword, 328 area types, 244 edgement packet,
NVRAM memory, areas, 231–233, 237–239 268
routers, 21 areas, multiple area link-state database, 226,
operation, 269 234
areas, single area opera- Link-State Request
O tion, 252–261 packet, 265
octets, IP addressing, 25 ASBR (Autonomous Sys- link types, 244
on-demand routing, 380 tem Boundary LSA Type 1 packet,
operating systems, Router), 278 266–267
routers, 20 backbone router, 278 LSA Type 2 packet,
Options field, OSPF background, 223 267–268
DC-bit (Hello and LSA BDR (backup designated LSA types, 240, 241, 265,
Packets), 300 router), 235, 258–260 266, 267, 268, 271,
E-bit (Hello packets), 300 broadcast, multi-access 278, 280, 281, 282,
M-bit (Database Descrip- network, 233 283, 301
tion Packets), 301 characteristics, 221 LSAs, 226
N-bit (Hello packets), command reference, LSAs, header, 265
300 309–339 LSU/LSA packet types,
P-bit (NSSA LSAs), 300 costs, media and, 285 244
ORIGIN attribute, BGP, Database Description media types, 243
352 packet, 264–265 media types, cost, 335
OSI reference model database types, 243 metrics, 284–286
Application layer (7), 2, 8 default routing, 295–298 metrics, redistribution
Data Link layer (2), 2 default routing, com- and, 295
diagram, 7 mands, 334–335 neighbor tables, 234
encapsulation, 13–15 default routing, cost,
lower layers, 9–12 336–337
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 403

Index 403

neighbors, 235 routes, maintaining, route table and, 289

neighbors, startup and, 230–231 path vectors, BGP, 349
225 segmentation, 241 peers, BGP, 349
network design, 301–309 shortest path tree, 227 Physical layer (1)
network failures, 231 show commands, electrical signals, 11
network types, 243, 338–339 hubs, 16–17
245–251 SPF, running, 227–230 repeaters, 16
non-broadcast, multi- startup, 225–226 PING.EXE, 64
access network timers, 241–243 point-to-multipoint net-
(NBMA), 234 type trap, 243–245 work, OSPF, 234
Options field, 300–301 virtual links, 300 point-to-point network,
packet types, 243 OSPF, 233, 247
packets, 240–241, poison reverse
261–269 P IGRP and, 171
partitioned areas, P-bit (NSSA LSAs), OSPF, route looping and, 152
298–299 300 Poll-Interval timer, OSPF,
path types, 244 packet forwarding, 242
path types, deault rout- overview, 16 populating route tables,
ing and, 298 packet types, OSPF, 243 83–84
point-to-multipoint net- packets EIGRP and, 198–204
work, 234 EIGRP, 188, 193–194 OSPF and, 284, 288–291
point-to-point network, OSPF, 240–241, 261–269 RIP and, 142–144
233 overview, 16 static routes and, 93
redistribution, 294–295 routing, 70 ports
redistribution, cost, 336 tracking, 76–81 introduction, 56
redistribution, default partitioned area, OSPF, numbers, 56–57
routing and, 297 238–239, 298–299 TCP, 57–58
RFCs, 383 passive-interface com- UDP, 57–58
route summarization, mand, 157, 216 prefix addressing, 36
291–293 passive route states, prefix notation, IP
route summarization, EIGRP, 191 addresses, 36
cost, 336 path attributes, BGP prefix numbers, IP
route tables, 234 AGGREGATOR, 353 addresses, 32
route tables, destination AS_PATH, 351 Presentation layer (6), 8–9
type, 289 ATOMIC_AGGREGATE, private IP addressing
route tables, populating, 353 overview, 31
284, 288–291 COMMUNITY, 353 range, 30
route tables, route instal- introduction, 350 processors, routers, 19
lation, 289–291 LOCAL_PREF, 353 propagating static routes,
router ID, 236 MULTI_EXIT_DISC, 352 100
router ID, forcing, 335 NEXT_HOP, 352 protocols
router priority, 235 ORIGIN, 352 connection-oriented, 59
router priority, com- path length, routing pro- routed vs. routing, 105
mands, 337–338 tocols and, 107 public addressing, range,
router states, 236–237 path types, OSPF 30
router types, 239, 244 default routing and, 298
overview, 244
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 404

404 Index

Q resources, recommended RIPv1, 139

QoS (Quality of Service), reading, 381–382 RIPv2, 139
Application layer (7), 8 RFC (Request for route tables, populating,
Query packets, EIGRP, Comments) 142–144
188, 217 BGP, 383 route tables, showing,
quick-and-dirty subnet- BOOTP, 385 164
ting, no calculator, broadcast on subnets, routing loop and,
391–392 385 146–149
CIDR, 384 routing loop and, pre-
description, 31 venting, 149–153
R DHCP, 384 split horizon,
RAM memory, routers, 21 DVMRP, 385 enabling/disabling,
range keyword, 332 EIGRP white papers, 385 160
RD (Reported Distance), IGMP, 383 timers, slow conver-
EIGRP, 189 IP, 384 gence and, 145–146
receiving side, data com- OSPF, 383 troubleshooting com-
munication session, 4–5 requirements for IPv4 mands, 164
redirector, Application routers, 385 versions, 139
layer, 8 RIPv2, 383 versions, displaying, 159
redistribute command, route summarization, versions, setting, 159
162 384 RIPv2, RFCs, 383
redistribute igrp 100 tag 1 Subnetting, 384 ROM memory, routers, 21
statement, 162 TCP/IP utilities, 385 route flapping, 150
redistribution, 362 VLSM, 384 route looping, RIP and,
administrative distance RIB (Routing Information hop count, 152–153
values, 366 Base), 350–351 route maps, redistribution
distribution lists, 366 RIP (Routing Information and, 366
EIGRP and, 208 Protocol) route redistribution.
future study, 380 advantages, 138 See redistribution
IGRP, 175 advertising routes, 140 route summarization
metric translation and, Bellman-Ford algorithm, assignment level, 125
365 139 auto-summarization, 126
need for, 363–364 commands, 158–164 bit-level, 129–132
OSPF, 294–295 configuration, initial, capabilities, 120–121
overview, 362–363 154–158 configuration, 161
RIP, 153 configuration, showing, discontiguous networks,
route maps, 366 163 128–129
route tagging, 366 database, showing, 163 EIGRP and, 208, 215
reliability, routing proto- default routing, 153 IGRP, 175
cols and, 107 default timers, changing, incoming packets, track-
repeaters 159–160 ing, 122–123
collision domains disadvantages, 138 introduction, 119–120
and, 17 hop count, 139 longest match, 123
physical layer, 16 IGRP comparison, 169 manual summarization,
Reply packets, EIGRP, 188, load balancing, 153, 160 129–132
193 redistribution, 153, network example 1,
161–163 121–124
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 405

Index 405

network example 2, populating, EIGRP and, RouterDeadInterval

124–127 198–204 packet field, Hello
network example 3, populating, OSPF and, packet (OSPF), 264
127–132 284, 288–291 RouterDeadInterval timer,
network example 4, populating, RIP and, OSPF, 242
132–134 142–144 routers
organization level, RIP, showing, 164 attributes, 19
125–126 show ip route command BGP, 349
OSPF, configuration, and, 81 broadcast domains
332–334 static networking and, 83 and, 19
OSPF, external networks, subnet address, 74 classless IP addressing
292–293 workstation, 71 and, 36
OSPF, inter-area net- route tags, 366 configuration, 91–95
works, 291–292 RIPv2, 140 dedicated, 20–21
RFCs, 384 routed protocols, 105 description, 19
summary LSAs and, 280 ROUTE.EXE, 65 EEPROM memory, 21
route tables router eigrp command, Flash memory, 21
Administrative 208 general-purpose com-
distance/Metric router ID, OSPF, 236 puters as, 20
entry, 82 Router ID packet field, interfaces, 19, 21
BGP, 350 Hello packet (OSPF), keep-alive packets, 146
broadcast information, 263 LAN interfaces, 21
75–76 router igrp command, 181 memory and, 21
Code entry, 82 Router LSAs, OSPF, 240 multi-purpose, 22–23
directly connected net- router priority, OSPF, 235 NAT devices and, 22
works and, 83 Router Priority packet Network layer, 19–23
distance vector routing field, Hello packet NVRAM memory, 21
protocols, 113 (OSPF), 264 operating system and,
dynamic networking router rip command, 19, 20
and, 83 156–157, 159–160 OSPF, 239
EIGRP, 189, 196, 198 router states, OSPF processors and, 20
Interface entry, 82 2-way state, 236 RAM memory, 21
interfaces, 73 attempt state, 236 ROM memory, 21
introduction, 81 down state, 236 setup, initial, 388
IP addresses and, 73 exchange state, 237 TCP, 59
IP addresses and, exstart state, 236 UDP, 59
host, 75 full state, 237 WAN interfaces, 21
loopback address, 73–74 init state, 236 routes, learning, 141
metrics, 73 loading state, 237 routing. See also static
Network, Mask entry, 82 router types, OSPF, 244 routing; dynamic
network masks and, 73 ABRs (Area Border routing
Next hop entry, 82 Router), OSPF, 278 administrative distance,
OSPF, 234 ASBR (Autonomous Sys- 84–85
OSPF, destination type, tem Boundary automated, 104
289 Router), OSPF, 278 convergence, 106
OSPF, path type, 289 backbone router, OSPF, default gateway, 71
OSPF, route installation, 278 default route, 71
289–291 internal router, OSPF,
populating, 83–84, 93 278
21_772739 bindex.qxd 3/3/06 9:29 PM Page 406

406 Index

routing (continued) S split horizon

definition, 70 segmentation EIGRP and, 215
Gateway of Last OSPF, 241 IGRP, 171, 182
Resort, 71 Transport layer and, 10 routing loop and, 151,
metrics, 84 segments, Transport layer 160
multicast, 379 and, 10 SRRT (Smooth Round Trip
route table, 71–72 sending side, data com- Time), EIGRP, 189, 194
routing by rumor, EIGRP munication session, 3–4 standard areas, OSPF,
and, 192 sequence number, 60 237–238, 272–274,
routing loop, prevention, Session layer (5), NetBIOS 303–305
EIGRP and, 206–207 Checkpoints and, 9 statements
routing-loop, 106 show debug command, access-list, 163
routing loop, RIP and, 183 area 1 stub, 317–318
146–153 show ip eirgp neighbor area x nssa, 328
hold-down timer and, command, 217 area x range, 331
150 show ip eirgp topology default-metric 10, 162
poison reverse, 152 command, 217 redistribute igrp 100 tag
split horizon and, 151, show ip interface com- 1, 162
160 mand, 160, 182 static networking, route
triggered updates, show ip interface x com- table population
151–152 mand, 215 and, 83
routing policies, 344–345 show ip protocols com- static routing
routing protocols mand, 159, 182–183 configuration, 91–100
automobiles and, 350 show ip rip database com- default routes, 95–97
broadcast, 117 mand, 163–164 floating routes, 100
classful, 118–119 show ip route command, introduction, 90
classless, 118–119 92, 157 propagating routes, 100
designing, 106–107 SIA (stuck in active) reasons to use, 90
distance vector, 109–114 routes, 191, 205–206 route table popula-
dynamic, 108–119 single area model, com- tion, 93
flat, 118 mands (OSPF) workstations and,
hierarchical, 118 initial configuration, 310 98–100
internal versus external, router output, 310 stub area, OSPF, 238,
344–345 singlepath routing proto- 274–275, 321–324
introduction, 105 cols, 117 stub routers, default rout-
link-state, 114–116 sliding windows, 60 ing and, 369
metrics, 107–108 sockets, BSD Unix submasks, routing and, 73
multicast, 117 sockets, 58 subnet IDs
multipath, 117 speakers, BGP, 349 borrowed bits and, 40–44
singlepath, 117 SPF, running, OSPF, determining, 43
RTO (Retransmission 227–230 subnetting and, 39
Timeout), EIGRP, 189 SPF algorithm, running, subnet masks, IP
RTP (Reliable Transport OSPF, 286–288 addresses, 32
Protocol), EIGRP, 189, SPF Hold-Time timer, custom, 41–42
193–194 OSPF, 242 hosts and, 33–36
RxmtInterval timer, OSPF, SPF tree, OSPF, 227–229 subnetting and, 39
243
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Index 407

subnetting TCP ports, 57–58 triggered updates, routing

ANDing, 46 TCP protocol, 59–60 loop and, 151–152
broadcast addresses, 40 TELNET.EXE, 65 TSUs (Terminal Service
hierarchical addressing TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Units), 23. See also
and, 39 Protocol), 59–60 CSU/DSUs (Channel
host bits, 48 timers Service Unit/Data
host IDs, 40 EIGRP, 193–194 Service Units)
hosts and, 39 IGRP, 170, 181
overview, 37 OSPF, 241–243
quick-and-dirty, no cal- timers active command, U
culator, 391–392 217 UDP (User Datagram Pro-
reasons for, 38–39 timers spf-delay com- tocol)
RFCs, 384 mand, 338 ports, 57–58
routing and, 46–49, 74 timers spf spf-holdtime routing and, 59
steps, 45 command, 338 Transport layer and, 9
subnet IDs, 39, 43 topology tables, EIGRP, undebug all command,
subnet mask, 39 189, 195–196, 198–204 219
subnets needed, 39 totally stubby areas, OSPF undebug command, 183
supernetting and, 50 configuration com- Update packets, EIGRP,
VLSMs, 46–49 mands, 324–325 188
successors, EIGRP, 190 introduction, 238 update timer, convergence
sum of per-link costs, network design and, and (RIP), 145
routing protocols and, 306–307 utilities, TCP/IP, Win-
107 overview, 275 dows-based, 64–66
summary-address com- TRACERT.EXE, 64
mand, OSPF, 329 tracking packets
Summary LSAs, OSPF, source and destination V
240 on different net- variance command,
supernetting work, one router, EIGRP, 181
overview, 38 78–80 vectors, distance vector
subnetting and, 50 source and destination update packets,
switches on same network, 110–111
Data-link layer, 18–19 76–78 version 2 command, RIP,
layer 3 switches, 22 soure and destination on 159
wire speed technology, different network, virtual links
18–19 multiple routers, areas, OSPF, 239
SYN (synchronize packet) 80–81 OSPF, 299, 300
ACK packet, 60 transit area, OSPF, 239 VLSMs (variable-length
TCP protocol, 60 Transmit Delay timer, subnet masks)
OSPF, 243 hierarchical addressing
Transport layer (4) and, 49
T DPUs and, 10 overview, 37
TCP/IP segmentation and, 10 RFCs, 384
IP addressing, 24–56 TCP and, 9 subnetting, repeating, 46
utilities, Windows- UDP and, 9
based, 64–66
TCP/IP model, OSI model
and, 15
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408 Index

W–Z Windows, TCP/IP utili-

Wait timer, OSPF, 243 ties, 64–66
WAN interfaces, WINIPCFG.EXE, 65
routers, 21 wire speed technology,
Web sites switches and, 18–19
Internet standards workstations, static
bodies, 387–388 routes, 98–100
IP address allocation,
387
macro view of Internet,
388
router setup, initial, 388
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