Lecture 6 Thermionic Engines

IT
, M
en o
• Review C h l t
g rm a
• Richardson formula a n e
G /T ion h
• Thermionict engines © lar rs
ig h S o v e
• Schottky yr c t
barrier and
o ndiode
o p ire C
• pnC junction
D and
r g ydiode
9 9 7 ne
7• discussion
.9
2 r 2 ca . 9 l E
o
F ct ri
E le
–WARREN M. ROHS ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW MIT

 Review: Fermi-Dirac Distribution

I T
• Average number of electrons in the state , M
e n o
f = ∑ nAe
1
C h l t
− ( E − μ ) /( k BT )
=
⎛ E −g
μ⎞ m a
Fermi-Dirac

exp⎜⎜an ⎟⎟ + 1er
n = 0 ,1 Distribution

G⎝ k T/T⎠h ion B

t © lar rs
igh S o1
v e
r t n
At T=0K, μ is called
y ec Co Fermi level, E
FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION

o p 0.8

C Dir rgy f=1 for E<μ

f
1000 K
0.6

9 7 97 ne
.9
2 r 2 ca l. 9 E 0.4 f=0 for E>μ

o
F ct ri 0.2 100 K 300 K

E le 0
-0.1 -0.05 0
E-μ (eV)
0.05 0.1

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 Review: Electron Density
I T
h 2 (k x2n+, kM 2
+ k z )
2

E − Ec = he
y

l t o
C
g rm
2am
a n e
G /T ion h
t © lar rs π /a π /a π /a
Nx / 2 Ny / 2 Nz / 2
N = 2 ∑ ∑ ∑ f (E i h 2V o e
g, T ) =t8πS ∫ ∫nv∫ dk dk dk exp⎢− k T ⎥ ⎡ E−μ⎤
r
y ec Co 3
⎣
x
⎦
y z

o p
−Nx / 2 −N y / 2 −Nz / 2 −π / a −π / a −π / a B

∞ C Dir rgy
n= ∫D 9 (7E ) f ( E
9 ,7μ , T )dEn e
.E9 . 9 l E
2 r 2 ca
c

2 πm κtriT ⎞
3/ 2
⎛o *
⎛ E −μ ⎞ ⎛ E −μ ⎞
F
n = 2⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ exp⎜⎜ −
B
⎟⎟ = N exp⎜⎜ −
c
⎟⎟ c

⎝ Eleh
2 c
⎠ ⎝ k T ⎠ B ⎝ k T ⎠ B

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 Different Solids

I T
, M
Energy Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy

e n o Energy

C h l t
g rm a
a n e
G /T ionh
Gap Eg
t © lar rs Donor

ig h So v e Energy Level Acceptor

Acceptor

Fermi

Ferm
Fermi
i
yr ct o n Energy
Energy Level

Level
Level

o p re C
C D i rg y
9 71 k/(π/a)907 ne1 k/(π/a)0 1 0 k/(π/a) 1 k/(π/a)

/a)
0
. 9
2Metal r 2 ca. 9 l
Insulator
E n-type p-type

p-type

o r i
F ct Semiconductor
Semiconductor
Se miconductor Semiconductor

Semiconductor

E le
–WARREN M. ROHS ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW MIT

Work Function and Affinity Light

I T
Electron
, M
en
Metal to
C h l
g rm a
Electrodes

a n e
h
G /T ioCurrent n
Vacuum
t © lar rs
ig h So v e
y r ct o n
o p re C Affinity
C D i rg y
Work Function W

9 7 97 ne E
.9
2 r 2 ca 9
Fermi.LevelfE
l E c

Ef

o
F ct ri Bandgap E g

E le E v

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 Vacuum Electrons Just Outside the Metal
I T
h (k + k, M +k ) 2 2 2 2

Work E − μ −W = e n o x y z

Function W h 2m l t
g C a
n e r m
Fermi Level μ Electron a
particlehFlux
G /T iLeaving on Surface

t © la r r s
ig h S o v e k y =π / a k z =π / a

yr cJt = ∑ o∑
n ∑ v f
1

o p re C p x

C D i rg y k x > 0 k y = −π / a k z = −π / a
FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION

0.8
π /a π /a π /a
9 7 9 7 n e 2V hk
= ∫ ∫ ∫
1000 K
x
dk dk dk f
9 9 E
0.6

2. r 2. cal 8π 3 x y z
0.4
m
0 −π / a −π / a

0.2
o
F ct ri100 K 300 K

0
-0.1 E
-0.05
le 0 0.05 0.1
E-μ(e V)
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 Electron Flux Out of Surface
I T
, M
e n o
C h l t
2
π /a π /a π /a
hk
g 1 a
J =
p
8π ∫ 3∫ ∫ dk dk dk x
n
m a ⎛ E −e
y r
μ⎞
z m x

0 −π / a −π / a
G exp⎜⎝/TkhT ⎟⎟⎠ +io1n
⎜
t © lar rs B

π /a π /a π /a
g h o ⎛ ⎡ veh (k + k + k )⎤
1
⎞

2 2 2 2
2
r i hk S ⎜ − ⎢n ⎟

8π ∫ ∫ ∫ py
≈ t +
x y z
o ⎥

x
dk dk dk exp W
3
o
0 −π / a −π / a
r c
x
e y⎝ ⎣
m
y
C⎜ ⎢
z
2 m ⎥

⎦
k T
⎟

C D i g
B

=
m 7
(k T )9exp
⎛
7 ⎜⎜ − ne⎟⎟
W ⎞r
9
2.π
9
2
h 3
. 9 B
2

⎝l Ek T ⎠
2 r 2 ca B

o
F ct r i
E le
–WARREN M. ROHS ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW MIT

 Electrical Current Density

I T
, M
J =
em ⎛ W ⎞
⎜
2
⎟
⎛ eW
(k T ) exp⎜ − ⎟ = AT exp⎜h− ⎟⎟l to
⎜
n ⎞2

2π h C
e B
⎝ k Ta⎠
2 3
⎝ k T⎠
g
n er
B
m
B
O.W. Richardson

G a or h n
1928 Nobel Prize
Richardson Formula
©
Richardson-Dushman r /T s i
Equationo
h
For Thermionic la ver
t oEmission
r ig tS n
p y ec Co
A=
emk 2
=C
o A ir y
2π 7
B
2 3
120 D
cm K e 2 r g
Richardson
2 Constant
9
h
9 7 n
9
2. r 2. cal 9 E
o
J =F(1 − r ) AT ri ⎛ ϕ ⎞
t exp⎜⎜ − k T ⎟⎟ More General
2
e
le c ⎝ ⎠
E B

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 Contact Potential
T
WS = χ + qϕn
I
, M
Eo

en o Eo

WM

C h l t WS χ

g rm a qϕn
Ec
EF

EF

a n e
h
G /T ion Ev

t © lar rs
a) metal and semiconductor far apart

ig h So v e M S

Eo
yr ct o n
o p re C qφbi
Eo

C D i rg y WM

qϕBn
WS χ

9 7 97 ne EF
Ec
EF

.9
2 r 2 ca . 9 l E qϕn

i
Ev

o r
F ct − e(ϕ − ϕ ') = W − W ' = −eVc
b) metal and semiconductor in intimate contact

E le Courtesy of Jesús del Alamo. Used with permission.

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 Vacuum Diode T
M I
n o,
Cathode Anode
h e t
eV C a l
n g c

r m W a

J a a
G /T ionh e
t © lar W rs c

ig h So v e
J c

y r c t on
o p e
r gy C μ
C ⎛ WD+ieV ⎞ r
J =9 7 exp⎜⎜9−7 ne⎟⎟
AT 2 c c -eV =(W -W )
c a c

.
c
9
2 r 2 ca . 9 ⎝ kE
l T ⎠ B

F o t r⎛i W ⎞
At equilibrium,
c
J = ATeexp⎜ −
2
⎜ ⎟⎟
a

El ⎝ k T ⎠
a
B J=J -J =0 c a

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 Thermionic Generator
I T
T >T , M
c a

e n o
Cathode T c
Anode T a

C h lWt
g m a
J
a n e r a

G /T ion h
t © lar W rs c

ig h S o v e
r μn eV
J

p
c

y ec Co t c o

o
C ⎛ WD+ireV +reV y
μ a

e g ⎞
7
J =9AT exp9
2
⎜
⎜
7
− nc
⎟
⎟
c -eVo=μa-μc
o

9
c c

2. r 2. ⎝ cal9 Ek T ⎠
B c

F o tr⎛ W ⎞ i At equilibrium,
J = ATec exp⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
2 a
a
E la
⎝ k T ⎠ B a
J=J -J =0 c a

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 Thermionic Generator
I T
, M
⎛ W + eV + eV ⎞ ⎛ Wen ⎞ to
AT exp⎜ −
c
2
⎜ c
⎟
⎟ − AT c
exp ⎜ − ho
⎟ =
⎜ Ck T ⎟ al 0 a
2 a

⎝ k T ⎠ g ⎝ ⎠
B c
n er m B a

⎛ T ⎞ W + eV + eV
2 ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = − G
W a h n
⎝T ⎠
c
k T
c

©
c
k T r /T o

sio a

a
ht ola er
B c B a

r ig t S nv
p
Open Circuit Voltage: y ec Co
o
C Dir rgy
W 7⎛ T ⎞7 k T e⎛ T ⎞
V =99 ⎜⎜ 9 a
1⎟⎟ + 2 nln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
−9 c B c c
o
. e ⎝ T .
2 r 2 ca e ⎝ T ⎠ ⎠a l E a

o
F ct ri
E le
–WARREN M. ROHS ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW MIT

 Under Operation
I T
, M
Cathode T Anode T
e n o
c a

C h l t
a
J = AT exp⎜⎜ − ng
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ W ⎞
J a
2 W +ceV +
k T e ⎠
eV
rcm
⎟ − AT exp⎜⎜ −
2
⎟⎟ a

⎝a
c ⎟ a

h
G⎛ W +/TeV ⎞ ion ⎛ W ⎞
B c ⎝ k T ⎠ B a

t
= AT © exp⎜⎜ −lar s
⎟⎟ −rAT exp⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
2 a 2 a

h o k T e
c a
J c

r ig S ⎝
n v ⎠
B c ⎝ k T ⎠ B a

p y c t o
o r e C
C DiPower Output r g y P = JV

9 7 97 ne
.9
2 r 2 ca
R .
load
9 l E
o
F ct ri
E le
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 Heat Transfer: Electron Heat Flux
I T
Kinetic Energy:
, M
π /a π /a π /a
⎛h k ⎞ h 1 e n o
J =
2
∫ ∫ ∫ dk dk dk ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ C l t 2 2
x
k ,c
8π 3
⎝ 2mg⎠ exp⎛⎜ Em
x
a
−μ ⎞
y z
0 −π / a −π / a
n ⎜r ⎟⎟ + 1
a
G /T ion h e⎝ k T ⎠ B

=
2k T
t © lar r s
e
B c
J c
ig h S o v e
y r c t o n
Total Heat frompCathode C Wa
o ire to Anode:
y
⎛7W
C D ⎞ r g
J 9 =⎜ − V9+
a 7 n⎟ Je
2 k T B c

.9
q ,c

2 Heat ⎝ .9
e
l
2fromcCathode
eE ⎠
cW c

Total
o r i a to Anode: μ
r
F ⎛ Wct 2k T ⎞
eV c

μa
J = ⎜le + a
⎟J B a

E e e
q ,a
⎝ ⎠
a

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 Net Heat Input
I T
, M
Cathode T
c
Anode T a
n
Q = J −hJ e + Q to+ Q
h q ,c
C a l
q ,a rad cond

J
n g rm
a
a
Gtransfer
Q --- h e
Radiationn heat
©
rad
r /T sio
between cathode
ht and o la er
J c

r ig S n v
anode

p y ct o
o ire yQ C
cond---Conduction heat
C D rg loss through leads, and
9 7 97 ne gas in between
.9
2 r 2 ca R9
. load l E
o
F ct r i
E le
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 Efficiency
IT
Power
η= h e to βa = βc

Qh C a l θ=0

g rm 80

Thermal efficiency - ηt percent

a n e θ = 0.2
When radiation is neglected G /T ionh 60

t © lar rs
ig h o v e 40
θ = 0.4

y r c o n
o p re C
CeV =W Di r y
20 θ = 0.6

θ = 0.8

9 7 9 7 a a

n e
9
2. r 2. cal
S.W. Angrist,
9 E 12 15 18

βa =
eVa
kTa
21 24

o ri
Direct Energy Conversion,

F ct
Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1965 Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

E le
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 Experimental Demonstration
I T
, M
e n o
C h l t
a
Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
g rm
a n Please see Fig. 3 in Hatsopoulos, George N., and

e
Joseph Kaye. "Measured Thermal Efficiencies of

G /T ionh
a Diode Configuration of a Thermo Electron Engine."
Journal of Applied Physics 29 (1958): 1124-1125.

t © lar rs
i g h So v e
yr c t o n
o p r e C
C D i rg y
9 7 9 7 n e
2 . 9
Hatsopoulos2
. 9 l E
o r i ca
and Kaye, JAP, 1958.

F ct r
E le
–WARREN M. ROHS ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW MIT

 Real Device Issues T

M I
Due to Spacen
,
T >T
h e Charge
to
c a
C a l Additional δ
Cathode Tc
Anode Ta
n g rm
a
G /T ion h e W a

J a
t © lar rs
ig h S o Wv
e
yr ct o n c

J
o p ire C
c

C D rg y μ eV
c o
μ
9 7 97 ne a

.9 . 9
2 r 2 ca high temperature
• Large work l
function, E
• Cesium
F o r
to reduce
t i space charge, but reliability problem
c
• Vacuumeoperation or plasma operation (filled with gas)
El
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 Recent Trends
I T
, M
e n o
C h l t
g rm a
a n e
G /T ionh
t © lar rs
ig h So v e
y r c t o n
o p re C
C Di rgy • Negative electron
9 7 97 ne affinity materials
.9
2Negative 2 . 9 l E • Small gap devices
o r Electron
i c a
Affinity Materials
• Solid-state
(Diamond)
F c tr thermionics
e
materials, 15, l2082 (2006)
Smith et al., Diamond
E
and related

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 Schottky Barrier
I T
, M
Vacuum Vacuum
enSchottkyo Barrier
C h l t
g m a
Affinity
a n er
Work Function W
G /T ion h
t © lEar rs c

Fermi Level E Δ
ig h S o E
v e Δ
E c
f

yr c t
Bandgap E
o n f

o p re
g
C f

C D i rg y E Metal Semiconductor

9 7 97 ne v

.9
2 r 2 ca
Metal . 9 l E
N-type Semiconductor Interface

o
F ct ri
E le
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 P-type Schottky Barrier
I T
, M
e n o
C h l t
g rm a
a n e
G /T ion h
t © lar rs
ig h S o v e
y r c t o n
o p r e C
C D i rg y
9 7 97 ne
.9
2 r 2 ca . 9 l E
o
F ct ri
http://w3.ualg.pt/~pjotr/Images/Schottky.png

E le Courtesy of Peter Stalllinga. Used with permission.

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

Schottky Diode Richardson Formula
I T
⎛ Δ , M⎞ ⎡ ⎛ eV ⎞ ⎤
J = AT exp⎜⎜ −n ⎟⎟ ⎢exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
2

E
h e⎝ k T ⎠⎢⎣to ⎜⎝ k T ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
Δ c

C a l B B

E f
n g rm
Ga h e n
E
© r /T s io
Δ
c

eV h
t ola er
E
r ig t S nv
f

p y ec Co
o
Forward Bias

C Dir rgy
9 7 97E ne
.9 Δ .9
2 E r 2 ca
c
l E
of

F ct eV
r i
le
E Bias
Reverse
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 pn Junction
I T
Ec Ec
, M Negative
Electron Energy Increasingly
Ef
e n o
C h l t
Build-In Potential
Ef
g rm a
a n V e p-Type
G /Th ion
Ev Ev
bi

n-TYPE
t
p-Type © lar rs
igh S o v e
y r ct o n
o p- - ir e C
+ + +C + -
-D r g y n-TYPE

9 7 9 7
- -
ne
.9 + + +
. 9+

2 + r+2+ + c-a-
-
-
-
l
- E Space Charge
Region
Hole Energy
o r i
t Region
F Space Charge Increasingly Positive

le c
E n-Type p-Type
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 pn Junction Basics
I T
, M
• For nondegenerate semiconductor e n o
Ch l t
g rm a
⎛ G
n
Ea− μ ⎞ he
n = N exp⎜⎜ − c
/T⎟
⎟ ion
c
© r
t ⎝ ola ⎠ er
k T s
i h
g t⎛ Sμ − E n⎞v
B

r
py= N exp c ⎜⎜ − Co ⎟⎟
o p v
ire ⎝ yk T ⎠
v

C D rg B

9 7 97 ne ⎛ E ⎞
.9 . 9 pn l E
2 r 2 ca N N exp⎜⎜⎝ − k T ⎟⎟⎠ = n
= c v
g 2
i

o
F ct ri B

E le
–WARREN M. ROHS ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW MIT

 pn Junction Basics: Built-in Potential

I T
Electron Energy Increasingly Negative
, M
⎛ E −μ ⎞
n
N = Ne exp⎜⎜ −o ⎟⎟ c ,n
Build-In Potential D
C h l
⎝ tc
k T ⎠
g m a B

V p-Type
a n er
bi
h
G E/T − μ =ioknT ln⎛⎜⎜ N ⎞⎟⎟ c

t © lar rsc ,n
⎝
B
N ⎠
ig h So v e D

y r c t o n ⎛N ⎞

n-TYPE
o p ir C
e y E − μ = E − k T ln⎜⎜ v
⎟

⎟
C D rg c, p g
⎝N
B
A ⎠

9 7 ne
7 Space9Charge
2
Hole
.9
Energy 2 a. 9
Region
l E
Increasingly r
Positive ic
FeVo = cEtr − E = E − k T ln⎛⎜ N N ⎞⎟ = k T ln⎛⎜ N N ⎞

E
bi lec, p c ,n g B ⎜N N ⎟
v c
⎜ nB
A
2
D
⎟

⎟
⎝ A D ⎠ ⎝ i ⎠

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 pn Junction Basics: Space Charge Region
I T
, M
2eεn⎛ N +
Electron Energy Increasingly Negative
o ⎞
= h ⎜ t N
⎟⎟Vbi
e ⎜⎝alN N
s A D
w
Build-In Potential
g rmC A D ⎠
a n e
V p-Type
G /T Sideh
One
o n Only
bi

t © ar r s i
h ol v e 2ε
i
r ctg S nw = eN V s
y
p ire C o bi

n-TYPE C
o y
B

D r g
9 7 Space97Charge ne Debye Length
2 . 9 2 . 9 l E
o r Region
i c a 2ε
Hole Energy
F Positive
Increasingly
c t r w= s
k T B

E le 2
e N B

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

 pn Junction I-V
I T
M
J = J s (e − 1)
eV / k T ,
n o
B
h e t
C a l
ng r m
Saturation Current a
G /T ion h e
⎛ 1 ha t © lar ⎞ r s
o
1 a e ⎛ E ⎞
J = eN N ⎜⎜rig +
S h
n v⎟⎟ exp⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
e G

y τ t N oτ ⎠ ⎝ κ T ⎠
s c v
⎝ N c
o p ire A h
C D e B

C D r g y
9a7---hole diffusivity
h
9 7 n e
(m /s) 2

9 e
. 9
2. τ r---hole
a ---electron
E
diffusivity
l
2 recombination
o
h
i c
τ ---electron
a time

F ct e r recombination time

E le
–WARREN M. ROHS ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW MIT

 Compare Schottky diode and pn diode

I T
, M
en o p-type
Ec

C h l t electron

g rm
C a ψe
B
diffusion
Δ
a n hole
e
diffusion A
V ψh D

c E
G /T ion h Ev

t © lar rs n-type
x
E f
ig h S o xC
v e xA xB xD

y r ct o n
⎡ ⎛ eV ⎞ ⎤ o
p re C
J = J ⎢exp⎜
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ k 7
s
⎟ −C
T ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
1⎥ D
7 ne
i
r g
J
y
= J s (e eV / k T
− 1)
B

.99 B

. 9 9 E
2 r⎛ 2Δ ⎞ ca l ⎛ 1 a 1 a ⎞ ⎛ E ⎞
o ⎟⎟ i = ⎜ + ⎟ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
J = AT exp
s
2
⎜⎜ −
F ⎝ k cT t⎠ r J
s eNc N ⎜
⎝N τ
v
N
h
⎟ exp e
τ ⎠ ⎝ κ T⎠
G

e
B A h D e B

E l
–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
 p-type
p- type
Ec
Current and
ψe
electron
el ectron Energy I T
,M
C diffusion
hole V
ψh
B
Distribution
diffusion A
en oD

C h Ev
l t
n-type
g rm a x
xC xA xB
a n e xD

h
G /T ion
Energy Source
Energy
Distribution

t © lar rs
J
ig h So v e Possiitive
tive
Positive

yr ct o n
o p re C xc xA 0 xB xD x

C D i rg yJn

9 7 97 ne Negative

.9
2 r 2 ca . 9 lJpE
o
F ct ri x
xc
E le xA xB xD

–WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

2.997 Direct Solar/Thermal to Electrical Energy Conversion Technologies

Fall 2009

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