DATA PROCESSING AND WELL LOGGING INTERPRETATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Well logging, also known as borehole logging is the practice of making a detailed record (a well
log) of the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole. The log may be based either on visual
inspection of samples brought to the surface (geological logs) or on physical measurements made
by instruments lowered into the hole (geophysical logs). Well logging can be done during any
phase of a well's history; drilling, completing, producing and abandoning. Well logging is done in
boreholes drilled for the oil and gas, groundwater, minerals, geothermal, and for environmental
and geotechnical studies.
We need to clearly establish the areas of application of logs
1. Description of sedimentary series:-
 Their mineral composition and lithology
 Their texture
 Their sedimentary structure
 The petrophysical characteristics of the reservoir
 The nature of reservoir fluids
2. The formation of sedimentary series (sedimentology) attempting to reconstruct the deposional
environment from.
 A facies type analysis
 Analysis of sequences
 Facies correlation
3. Transformation of sediments, the effects of diagenesis, their identification, compaction studies.
4. The organisation of sedimentary series (stratigraphy)
 Study of their order and relative age
 The significance of rupture (discontinuities)
 Stratigraphic correlation
5. The deformation of sedimentary series (strutural geology)
 Folds
 Faults
 Fractures
6. Geophysical, geothermal and geochemical applications.
7. Role and importance of logs in geological synthesis

4.2 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION CONCEPTS

Any given rock formation has numerous unique physical properties associated with it.
Only those which can be measured and are useful will be considered in this course. They are:
Porosity (Φ):
The void space between grains of rocks that is generally filled with liquids or gases
Resistivity (R):
The resistance to electrical current flow presented by a unit volume of rock.
Water Resistivity (RW): The electrical resistance of the water filling the pore space in the rock.
This value varies with water salinity and temperature.
Permeability (K):
The ability of the rock to pass fluids through it
Shale volume (VSH):
Shale is usually more radioactive than sand or carbonate, gamma ray log can be used to calculate
volume of shale in porous reservoirs. The volume of shale expressed as a decimal fraction or
percentage is called Vshale.
Water Saturation (SW):
The percentage of the pore space filled with water (as opposed to hydrocarbon or air). Water
saturation is the fraction (or percentage) of the pore volume of the reservoir rock that is filled with
water. It is generally assumed, unless otherwise known that the pore volume not filled with water
is filled with hydrocarbons. Determining water and hydrocarbon saturation is one of the basic
objectives of well logging.
4.21 POROSITY DETERMINATION
Total porosity may be made up of primary and secondary porosity. Effective porosity is the total
porosity after the shale correction is applied. Rock porosity can be obtained from the sonic log, the
density log, or the neutron log. For all these devices, the tool response is affected by the formation
porosity, fluid, and matrix. If the fluid and matrix effects are known or can be determined, the tool
response can be determined and related to porosity.
Therefore, these devices are often referred to as porosity logs.
All three logging techniques respond to the characteristics of the rock immediately adjacent to the
borehole. Their depth of investigation is shallow - only a few centimetres or less – and therefore
generally within the flushed zone.
As well as porosity, the logs are affected by:
 Volume and nature (lithology) of matrix material.
 Amount and nature of pore space contents (pore geometry, water, hydrocarbons).
 Volume and nature of shales.
1. Porosity from Density log
For a clean formation of known matrix density, ρma, having a porosity, Φ, that contains a fluid of
average density, ρf, the formation bulk density.
ρb = Φρf + (1 - Φ) ρma clean wet zone
Where:
ρb = is the measured bulk density (from LDT)
ρma = is the density of the matrix
ρf = is the density of the fluid.
Φ = is the percent volume of pore space (porosity)
(1 - Φ) = is the percent volume of matrix.
This can be written as:
ρma − ρb
Φ= (4.2a)
ρma − ρf
Where:
ρma = depends on lithology.
ρb = is measured by the density log.
ρf = depends on fluid type in pore volumes

2. Porosity from sonic log

Wyllie Time-Average Equation
After numerous laboratory determinations, M.R.J. Wyllie proposed, for clean and consolidated
formations with uniformly distributed small pores, a linear time-average or weighted-average
relationship between porosity and transit time
𝐭 𝐥𝐨𝐠 = Φt f + (1 − Φ)t ma
Or
tlog −tma
Φ= (4.2b)
tf −tma
Where;
t log = is the reading on the sonic log in µsec/m.
t ma = is the transit time of the matrix material
t f = is the transit time of the saturating fluid (about 620 µsec/m for freshwater mud systems).
Φ = is the porosity or volume occupied by pores.
(1 − Φ) = is the volume of the matrix
t f = 189 µs/f, For sandstone t ma = 90 µs/f

3. Porosity from neutron

Neutron logs are used principally for delineation of porous formations and determination of their
porosity. They respond primarily to the amount of hydrogen in the formation. Thus, in clean
formations whose pores are filled with water or oil, the neutron log reflects the amount of liquid-
filled porosity.
Gas zones can often be identified by comparing the neutron log with another porosity log or a core
analysis. A combination of the neutron log with one or more other porosity logs yields even more
accurate porosity values and lithology identification-even an evaluation of shale content.
Mathematically

Log10 Φ = aN + B (4.2c)
Where-
Φ is true porosity, N is neutron tool reading and a&B are constant.

4. Estimation of Porosity from Combination of Density and Neutron Log

φdc = φd – Vcl ∗ φdcl (4.2d)
φnc = φn – Vcl ∗ φncl (4.2e)
φ + φdc
φe = nc for oil (4.2f)
2
2 2
(φ ) + (φdc )
φe = √ nc for gas (4.2g)
2
Where;
φd = density porosity
φn = neutron porosity
Vcl = volume of clay
φdcl = density porosity for clay
φncl = neutron porosity for clay
φdc = density porosity corrected for clay
φnc = neutron porosity corrected for clay
φe = effective porosity
4.22 ESTIMATION OF RESISTIVITY OF WATER (RW)
1. Rw by formation fluid sample:
Salinity of the fluid sample is converted into Rw at formation temperature with the help of chart
1.
 Chart 1
2. Rw by SP log:
R
SP = −K. log Rmfe (4.2h)
we
Where K = 61 + 0.13×Td
R mfe = 0.85×R mf at Td if R mf (at Td) > 0.1Ωm, otherwise it is found from the chart.
From R we , R W is obtained with the help of chart 2.

Chart 2
3. Rw by Archie’s equation:
R
S W 2 = a φ2 W = 1 in water bearing zone
R T
Then
φ2 R T
RW = (4.2i)
a

4. Rw by ratio method:
S Rxo RW
(S W )2 = = 1 in water bearing zone
xo Rmf RT

R mf R T
RW = (4.2j)
R xo

4.23 ESTIMATION OF SHALE VOLUME

Shale is usually more radioactive than sand or carbonate, gamma ray log can be used to calculate
volume of shale in porous reservoirs. The volume of shale expressed as a decimal fraction or
percentage is called Vshale.
Shale is mixture of clay (50%), fine silica (25%), feldspar (10%), carbonates (10%), iron oxide
(3%), organic matter (1%) and other material (1%). Most reservoir rocks contain some amount of
shale. The extremely fine particles of clay have very large surface area and bind large water to
their surfaces. The bound water is immovable but contributes to the electrical conductivity. Shale
distribution in a permeable formation binds substantial fraction of pore water and, therefore,
reduces porosity and permeability. Effective porosity excludes clay bound water since it can
neither be displaced by hydrocarbons nor it can flow. Shale or clay may be distributed in the
reservoir rock as laminated, dispersed or structural (Figures 4.23). Dispersed clay disseminated in
the pore space has stronger effect than others. The clay platelets are negatively charged as a result
of ion substitution in the lattice and broken bonds at the edges (Dewan, 1983). This gives rise to
excess conductivity to the shales. Due to excess conductivity, shale can mask presence of
hydrocarbons. The volumetric fraction of clay in a reservoir rock is referred to as clay or shale
volume Vsh. The porosity and water saturation are to be corrected for clay by estimating clay
volume Vsh and using appropriate equations.

Figure 4.23 Forms of shale classified by manner of distribution in the formation Pictoral
representations above, volumetric representations below
The clay volume can be estimated by gamma ray log, SP, resistivity, neutron and density neutron
combination. The relations used are derived by material balance tool response equations as shown
below
Calculation of the gamma ray index is the first step needed to determine the volume of shale from
gamma ray log.
Various Equation for Vshale Calculation
1. Vsh from Gamma Ray
The gamma ray log has several nonlinear empirical responses as well as linear responses. The non
linear responses are based on geographic area or formation age.
All non linear relationships are more optimistic that is they produce a shale volume value lower
than that from the linear equation.
The GR tool response equation is
GR = φGR F + VSH GR max + (1 − φ − Vsh )GR min
if φ = 0 then
GRlog − GRmin
Vsh = (4.2k)
GRmax − GRmin
Larionov (1969) for Tertiary rocks:
Vsh = 0.083(23.71 𝐺𝑅 − 1) (4.2L)

2. Vsh from SP: Similar to above,

(SP − SPmin )
Vsh =
(SPsh − SPmin )
(SP − SSP) SP
Vsh = =1− (4.2m)
(0 − SSP) SSP
3. Vsh from Resistivity
(σ−σma )
Vsh =
(σsh −σma )
(σ − 0) σ R sh
Vsh = = = (4.2n)
(σsh − 0) σsh R
4. Vsh from Neutron:
(φ − φNma )
Vsh =
(φNsh − φNma )
(φ − 0) φ
Vsh = = (4.2o)
(φNsh − 0) φNsh
5. Vsh from Density- Neutron:
φN = φ. φNf + Vsh φNsh + (1 − φ − Vsh )φNma
If φNf = 1, and φNma = 0
Then, φN = φ. 1 + Vsh φNsh + (1 − φ − Vsh ). 0
Or, φN = φ + Vsh φNsh
Or, φ = φN − Vsh φNsh
Similarly,
φ = φD − Vsh φDsh
Thus,
φN − Vsh φNsh = φD − Vsh φDsh
(φN − φD )
Vsh = (4.2p)
(φNsh − φDsh )
Where;
(ρma −ρsh )
φDsh is determined as φDsh = by taking ρma equal to 2.65 if reservoir rock is sandstone
(ρma −ρf )
and 2.71 if it is limestone. The least of all values provided by different clay indicators is taken as
Vsh.
4.24 ESTIMATION OF WATER AND HYDROCARBAN SATURATION
1. Archie Equation
All water saturation determinations from resistivity logs in clean (non-shaly) formations with
homogeneous inter-granular porosity are based on Archie’s water saturation equation.
The basic interpretation problem, given the corrected resistivity of the un-invaded formation R T
and the porosity 𝜑, is the evaluation of the Archie relation. In its simplest form, it can be written
as:

a RW
SW n = (4.2q)
φm R T
Where;
m= cementation exponent
n= saturation exponent
R W = resistivity of water
SW = water saturation
R T = resistivity of uninvaded zone (formation)
φ = porosity
If the matrix values for the formation are not known, there may even be some considerable doubt
about the porosity values to be associated with the resistivity values measured. Finally, there can
be uncertainty about the cementation and saturation exponents, m and n, to be used.
Graphical methods
a. Hingle plot
In hingle cross plot technique, assuming that a porosity measurement is available, even if the
matrix values are unknown, R W is assumed to be constant but unknown, a plot can be constructed
which will give porosity and water saturation directly. Simplified saturation expression of
1
Equation (4.2q), with m = n = 2, indicates that 𝜑 will vary as at a fixed value of water
√𝑅𝑇
saturation. This leads to the construction of a plot, shown in Fig.4.21, of inverse square root of
resistivity versus porosity. Since we can rewrite Eq.(4.2q)
1 1
= SW φ (4.2r)
√𝑅𝑤 √𝑅𝑇

It is clear that the 100% water-saturated points will fall on a straight line of maximum slope. Less-
saturated points, at any fixed porosity, must have a larger resistivity and thus fall below this line.
Once these points have been identified and ignored, the line corresponding to Sw = 100% can be
drawn, as shown in Fig.4.21 It is relatively easy to construct lines of the appropriate slopes
corresponding to partial water saturations.
 Figure 4.21 The Hingle plot, which combines resistivity and porosity to estimate water
saturation.
The value of Rw can be determined immediately from inspection of the graph. In the construction
of Fig.4.21, the uppermost line corresponds to Ro, since it is fully water-saturated and satisfies the
relationship.
1
F= 2
φ
b. Pickett / log-log plot
Taking the log of both sides of the equation (4.2q) and rearranging results in:

1 1
log φ = − log(R T ) + [log(a) + log(R W ) − nlog(SW )] (4.2s)
m m
Thus at a constant water saturation, a log–log plot of porosity versus Rt should result in a straight
line (fig.4.22) of negative slope whose value is the cementation exponent, and should be in the
neighborhood of 2.
If we consider the value of (a) to be unity, then we can write:

1 1
log φ = − log(R o ) + [log(R W )] (4.2t)
m m
 Figure 4.22 a log–log representation of resistivity and porosity. It is useful for determining
the cementation exponent that best describes a given formation
2. Indonesian Equation
The Indonesian water saturation equation is a modification of classic archie’s equation. The
Indonesian equation is used to calculate water saturation in shaly sand cases. The Indonesian
equation is defined as;

V m
{1− sh }
1 Vsh 2 φe 2 n
=[ + ] . SW 2 (4.2u)
√𝑅𝑇 √R sh √aR w
Where;
R T = formation resistivity
R w = water resistivity
R sh = shale resistivity
Vsh = shale friction
φe = effective(shale corrected) porosity
SW = water saturation(fraction of effective porosity)
a = cementation factor in Archie′ s equation(generally assumed 1 )
n = saturation exponent
m = cementation exponent Archie′ s equation
4.3 a, m, n – PARAMETERS

1. Cementation factor (a)

The constant ‘a’, called tortuosity factor, cementation intercept, lithology
factor or, lithology coefficient is sometimes used. It is meant to correct for variation
in compaction, pore structure and grain size.
‘a’ is co-efficient ranging between 0.6 - 2.0 depending on lithology.

2. Saturation exponent (n)

The saturation exponent ‘n’ usually is fixed to values close to 2. The saturation exponent models
the dependency on the presence of non-conductive fluid (hydrocarbons) in the pore-space, and is
related to the wettability of the rock. Water-wet rocks will, for low water saturation values,
maintain a continuous film along the pore walls making the rock conductive. Oil-wet rocks will
have discontinuous droplets of water within the pore space, making the rock less conductive.

3. Cementation exponent (m)

The cementation exponent models how much the pore network increases the resistivity, as the rock
itself is assumed to be non-conductive. if the pore network were to be modelled as a set of parallel
capillary tubes, a cross-section area average of the rock's resistivity would yield porosity
dependence equivalent to a cementation exponent of 1, however, the tortuosity of the rock
increases this to a higher number than 1. This relates the cementation exponent to
the permeability of the rock, increasing permeability decreases the cementation exponent. The
exponent m has been observed near 1.3 for unconsolidated sands, and is believed to increase with
cementation. Common values for this cementation exponent for consolidated sandstones are 1.8
< m < 2.0.
The cementation exponent is usually assumed not to be dependent on temperature.

Measuring the exponents

In petro-physics, the only reliable source for the numerical value of both exponents is experiments
on sand plugs from cored wells. The brine conductivity can be measured directly on produced
water samples. Alternatively, the brine conductivity and the cementation exponent can also be
inferred from down-hole electrical conductivity measurements across brine-saturated intervals
(SW = 1) Archie's law can be written
log(CT ) = log(Cw ) + m log φ (4.3a)
Hence, plotting the logarithm of the measured in-situ electrical conductivity against the logarithm
of the measured in-situ porosity ( so-called pickett plot), according to archie's law a straight-line
relationship is expected with slope equal to the cementation exponent ‘m’ and intercept equal to
the logarithm of the in-situ brine conductivity.
 CASE STUDY- 1

WELL-AA
Objectives
Complete formation evaluation of well including well logging interpretation, estimation of
averages reservoir parameters and identification of hydrocarbon pays from well log data.
Given Data
The logs available is GR, caliper, SP, Neutron, Density, Resistivity. X-Plot (RHOB-NPHI) & X-
Plot (THOR-POTA)
Rw = 0.15 a=0.62 n=2 m = 2.15
Reservoirs with water saturation greater than 75% are water bearing, the intervals having shale
content greater than 45% and effective porosity less than 6% is considered as poor reservoirs
Identify?
1. Hydrocarbon bearing intervals;
2. Identification of type of mineral:
3. Estimation of mineral and fluid volumes:
4. Following reservoir properties estimation:

Depth Rt GR Φn(l.m. RHOB Vclay Φe Sw(%) Sw(%) Hp remark

interval (log) p.u.) (gm/cc) (%) Archie’s Indones (m)
( m) API Eq. ian
Eq.
Figure b X-Plot (THOR-POTA)

Figure c X-Plot (RHOB-NPHI)