CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT

AND UTILISATlON
AND UTILISATION OF PLANT GUMS,
SINS AND
RESINS AND ESSENTIAL
ESSENTIAL OILS.

Proceedings of a regional conference

for Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya

AIDGU
AIDGUM 9~
CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT
ANI
ANDUTILIS1 rThJN OF PLANT
UTILISATION
GUMS,
_715MS,RESINS
RESINSAND
ANDESSENTIAL
ESSENTIAL
OILS.

Proceedings of
of a regional
regional confei-ence
conference for Africa
held in Nairobi,
Nairobi, Kenya
::enya
6-10
6-10 October I997
1997

edited by
o. Mugah, B. N.
J. O. N. Chikamai,
Chikamai, S.
S. S.
S.Mbiru
Mbiru and
and E. Casadei
 11

Foreword
The Regional
Regional Conference for Africa
Conference for Africa on Conservation, Management and
Conservation, Management and Utilisation
Utilisation of
Plant Gums and Resins, hosted
hosted by Kenya Forestry
Forestry Research Institute
Institute (KEFRI),
(KEFRI), was
was held
held
in Nairobi, Kenya
Kenya from
from 66 to
to 10
10 October
October 1997.
1997.

Coordinated by KEFRI,
Coordinated by KEFRI, aa number
number of
ofinternational
international and
andbilateral
bilateralagencies,
agencies, namely:
namely:
Association for International Development of Natural Gums (Aidgum), FAO, Promotion
of Sustainable Forestry Management
Management -- (GTZIKEFRIlFD)
(GTZ/KEFRI/FD) andand Third
Third World
World Academy
Academy of
Sciences (TWAS)
Sciences (TWAS) collaborated
collaboratedby
by providing
providing funds,
funds, sponsoring
sponsoring participants
participants and/or
and/or by
by
direct attendance.

The outcome of of the Conference

Conference was substantial, with clearclear recommendations
recommendations for action.
action.
We have pleasure in sharing
sharing it with all interested persons and
interested persons and institutions.
institutions. WeWe take
take this
this
opportunity to
opportunity to acknowledge
acknowledge with with thanks
thanks the
the contribution
contribution of all those
those who
who attended
attended thethe
Conference and
Conference and their active participation in the discussions,
active participation discussions, which made this meeting aa
remarkable success. We Wethank
thank all
all those
thosewho
who collaborated
collaborated with,
with, and
and supported
supported the
the efforts
efforts
of KEFRI
KEFRI in in organising this Conference.
organising this Conference. We We are grateful
grateful to all
all the
the members
members of of the
the
secretariat for
secretariat for their devoted service. Finally, we fully appreciate the contribution of
service. Finally, of J.O.
lO.
Mugah, B.N. Chikamai, S. S. S.
S. Mbiru, E.E. Casadei
Casadei for reviewing
reviewing and
and editing
editing the
the Conference
Conference
report.

No doubt, the
the perspectives
perspectives onon conservation,
conservation, management and utilisation
utilisation of
of plant
plant gums
gums
and resins
and resins as
as they emerged
emerged from
from the discussions
discussions at the Conference
Conference andand the light
light they
they
threw
threw on how to to address
address aspects
aspects ofof production
production and
and quality
quality control and the
control and the need forfor
linkages
linkages will help
help national
national and
and international
international agencies
agencies in
in desig,ning
designing and
and implementing
implementing
viable programmes.
programmes. FFAO AO isis committed
committed to to pursue
pursue the outcome of of the Conference
Conference and to to
support
support the implementation
implementation of its its recommendations,
recommendations, in collaboration
collaboration with
with partner
partner
agencies and countries.

Karl-Hermann Schmincke
Director
Forest Products Division
Forestry Department, FAO
 iii
111

FOREWORD
II

I: BACKGROUND
PART I: BACKGROUNDTO
TOTHE
THE CONFERENCE
CONFERENCE AND
RECOMMENDATIONS. 11
1.1 Overview 22

1.2 The need for a regional

regional conference
conference 2

1.3 Outcome/Recommendations
OutcomelRecommendations of
of the Conference 3
1.3.1 Gum Arabic 3
1.3.2 Resins: Myrrh and
and Frankincense
Frankincense 7

PART II: CONFERENCE

CONFERENCEPAPERS
PAPERS 9

CONSERVATION AND MANGEMENT

Organisation of
Management and Organisation of Gum
Gum Arabic Industry in Sudan 10
10
Abdel Nour / M. E. Osman

Production and Markets of

of Gum
Gum Arabic
Arabic from French Speaking West African Countries 15
15
D. Muller // I. Wata

Recent Advances on Classification and Status of

of the Main Gum- Resin Producing
Species in the Family Burseraceae 18
18
F. N. Gachathi

Plant Gums, Resins and Essential Oil

Oil Resources in Africa: Potentials for Domestication 23
D. Ladipo

Indigenous Knowledge and its Application in Resolving Conservation and Utilisation

Problems 33
E. Barrow

Indigenous Knowledge and Utilisation Potentials of

of Selected Gum, Resin and Oil Plant
Species of Tanzania 38
F. Makonda / R. Ishengoma

Some Experience on Adaptive Research Input on Natural Resource Use: The Case of
of
Gums and Resins in Mukogodo Rangelands, Laikipia District, Kenya 45
R. Ngethe // A.
A. Kariuki
Kariuki / C. Opondo

Resin Production
Experiences in Benzoin Resin Production in Sumatra, Indonesia 56
E. Katz / M. Goloubinoff
Goloubinoff / M. R. Perez
Perez // G.
G. Michon
 iv

QUALITY AND
AND REGULATORY ASPECTS

Production, Markets and Quality Control of

of Gum Arabic in Africa: Findings and
Recommendations from an FAO Project 67
B. Chikamai

The Chemical Characterisation of

of Myrrh and Frankincense and Opportunities for
Commercial Utilisation 75
Karamallah
A. KaramaUah

Preliminary Report on Essential Oils from Frankincense, Myrrh and other Plants of
of
Ethiopia 79
E. Dagne

International Regulations for Natural Products used as Food Additives 85

E. Casadei

Gum Arabic - Life in a Saturated Market 95

I. Holmes

Aspects of Gum Exudates

Chemotaxonomic Aspects Exudates from
from some
some Acacia
Acacia Species 97
G. Mhinzi

NETWORKS AND LINKAGES

FAO's Global Programme on the Development of Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP's)

(NWFP's) 102
P. Vantomme

The Role of IIGAD

GAD in Promoting Collaboration Networks among Member Countries 107
R. Kigame

Role of
of Networks in Advancing Natural Products Research in Africa: The Example Of
Of
NAPRECA 111
E. Dagne

and its
GARA and its Initiatives
Initiatives in the Development of Plant
Plant Gums
Gums and
and Resins
Resins in Kenya 116
A. Hassan / V. Odipo

PART III:
PART III: LIST
LIST OF
OF PARTICIPANTS
PARTICIPANTS 118
PARTI:I: BACKGROUND
PART BACKGROLNDTOTGTHE
THECONFERENCE
COI TERErCE
D RECOMMENDATIONS.
AND
 2

1.1 Overview

role and value of

The role of plant gums and resins
resins in
in Africa
Africa cannot
cannot bebe over-emphasised.
over-emphasised. The
resources are
resources are found
found inin hot and dry
dry regions,
regions, where
where they
they are valuable
valuable in various ways. In
various ways.
countries bordering
countries bordering the
the Sahara,
Sahara, the
the plants
plants have
have proved
proved useful
useful as windbreaks
windbreaks and shelter
belts against desert encroachment
encroachment and hence desertification.
desertification. Their canopies intercept rain
drops while
drops while the root
root systems
systems are
are effective
effective in
in reducing
reducing soil
soil erosion,
erosion, thereby
thereby stabilising
stabilising
soils. Species
soils. Species in
in the
the genus
genus Acacia
Acacia improve soils due to their ability to fix nitrogen. The
nitrogen. The
foliage and
foliage and pods are valuable dry season fodder
valuable dry while the stem
fodder while stern has wide
wide application
application in
fencing, wood energy
fencing, energy and construction. The
and construction. The environmental benefits of
environmental benefits of these
these plant
plant
resources in the region are therefore significant.

However, the
However, the most valued commodities economic terms
commodities in economic terms are the gums and resins. The
most important ofof these are gum arabic, myrrh and frankincense.
frankincense. Gum arabic is a product
of Acacia
Acacia senegal,
senegal, A.A. seyal
seyal and
and closely
closely related
related species.
species. Virtually
Virtually all the gum arabic of of
commercecomes
commerce comes from
from Africa
Africawith
with Sudan
Sudan accounting
accountingfor forup
up toto 80%
80% of thethe world
world
production followed
production followed by by Chad
Chad and Nigeria. About
and Nigeria. About 12 otherother countries
countries in thethe Sahel,
Sahel,
stretching from
stretching from SenegallMauritania
Senegal/Mauritania in in West
West Africa
Africa toto Somalia
Somalia inin the
the Hom
Horn of Africa and
southwards to
southwards to Tanzania
Tanzania areare also
also producers.
producers. Gum arabic has wide application in the food
and pharmaceutical
and industries and
pharmaceutical industries and in miscellaneous technical applications.
miscellaneous technical applications. InIn the foodfood
industry (foods
industry (foods and
and drinks),
drinks), it isis used
used asas aathickening,
thickening, stabilising,
stabilising, emulsifying
emulsifying and
suspending agent.
suspending agent. In
In the
the pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical industry,
industry, it is used as a binding agent in tabletstablets
and as a suspending and emulsifying
emulsifying agent
agent inin creams
creams andand lotions. Some of
lotions. Some ofthe
the technical
technical
applications are in the printing and textile industries where advantage is taken of of its
its film-
film-
forming
founing and sizing properties respectively.

Myrrh is produced by species

species in the genus
genus Commiphora.
Commiphora. The mainmain source
source of oftrue
true myrrh
myrrh
C. myrrah found in Somalia,
is C. Ethiopia and
Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya.
Kenya. Myrrh,
Myrrh, like
like resin
resin isis also
also produced
produced
by Commiphora
by habessinica,C.C. confusa,
Commiphora habessinica, confusa, C.
C. africana
africana and
and C.
C. incisa.
incisa. Additionally,
Commiphora holtiziana
Commiphora holtiziana andand C.
C. pseudo
pseudopaoli produce resins
paoli produce resins commercially
commercially referred
referred to
to as
opoponax ,, which are
opoponax are used
used as
as tick
tick repellent.
repellent. Frankincense
Frankincense on the other hand is produced
by species
species in the
the genus
genus Boswellia.
Boswellia. The main
main source
source of
of frankincense
frankincense from Africa is B. B.
papyrifera found
found inin Ethiopia,
Ethiopia, Sudan
Sudan and
and Somalia.
Somalia. Boswellia
Boswellia neglecta from East East and
and the
the
Horn of Africa
Hom Africa also
also produce
produce commercial
commercial incense.
incense. TheThe main
main uses
uses of myrrhmyrrh andand
frankincense are as sources of of fragrances and pharmaceuticals.

1.2 The need for a regional conference

Over the
Over the years,
years, and
and particularly
particularly in
in the
the recent
recent past,
past, there
there has
has been
been a decline
decline in the use of
the above-mentioned natural products
above-mentioned natural productsinin favour
favour of
of synthetics.
synthetics. The
The latter
latter are preferred
because
because of their consistent quality and
consistent quality and generally
generally lower
lower prices.
prices. The
The natural
natural products
products are
characterised by unreliability of supply accompanied by unpredictable prices and variable
quality. Nevertheless,
quality. Nevertheless, gums
gums and
and resins
resins remain the products
products of choice if
if these constraints
constraints
are addressed.
addressed. GumGum arabic,
arabic, for
for example,
example, has
has functional
functional properties
properties which
which synthetics
synthetics
 3

cannot
cannot match.
match. Additionally,
Additionally, growing
growing health
health consciousness
conSCIOusness among
among consumers
consumers is
IS
of natural products.
favouring increased use of

Africa has enonnous

enormous resources with the potential of of producing these natural commodities
on a sustainable basis. IfIfproperly
sustainable basis. properlydeveloped,
developed, the
the resources
resources will
will provide
provide reliable
reliable supply
supply
and stabilise
and stabilise the market prices.
market prices. What What is required
required is is aaco-ordinated
co-ordinated strategy
strategy on
conservation and
conservation and development
development of of these
these resources.
resources. This
This would
would be
be in line
line with the Rio
Rio
Convention on Biodiversity and Agenda 21.
and Agenda 21. It w-as was the
the recognition
recognition of
of the opportunities
and challenges facing most of of the producing African countries
countries that led to the organisation
of conference. The
of this conference. The main
main objectives
objectives of
ofthe
the conference
conference were:

.. To bring together various stake-holders in plant gums and resins including producers,
consumers, representatives from
consumers, representatives from the
the food industry,
industry, relevant
relevant international
international agencies,
agencies,
organisations and leading experts

., To exchange
exchange lcnowledge
knowledge and experience
experience concerning
concerning conservation,
conservation, management
management and
and
of the above-mentioned resources and products
utilisation of

To liaise
., To liaise with
withinternational
international regulatory authoritieswith
regulatory authorities with aa view
view to
to identifying
specification requirements

., To develop project ideas that

that would
would improve
improve the
the production
production and
and quality
quality of
ofgums
gums and
and
resins
resins at rural
mral and market levels
levels in order
order to
to improve
improve food
food security
security and standards
standards of
living at community level

1.3 Outcome/Recommendations
OutcomeiRecommendations of the Conference

The Conference had two

Conference had two main
rnain sessions
sessions focusing
focusing on
onplant
plantgums
gumsand
andresins.
resins. A workshop
was
was held for
for each
each session
session totodiscuss
discusspertinent
pCliinentissues
issuesand
anddevelop
developrecommendations.
recommendations.
Major
Major issues
issues on plant gums
gums centred
centred on gum
gum arabic,
arabic, the
the main
main product
product ofofcommerce
commerce in in
Africa.
Africa, Similarly,
Similarly, issues
issues on
on resins
resins focused
focused on myrrh and and frankincense.
frankincense. The outcome
outcome of
of
the Conference
Conference is thus based on the three three commodities
commodities withwith the last two being grouped
grouped
under resins and
under resins and is presented
presented in thethe fonti
fonn of
ofdraft
draft proposals
proposals with
with details
details of
ofworking
working
groups under each session given as as annexes.
annexes.

1.3.1 Gum Arabic

1.3.1

Gum arabic-producing countries

countlies are facing problems in relation to to commercialisation
commercialisation andand
ensuring added
ensuring added value
value to the
the product
product in in relation
relation totointernational markets. Most of the
international markets. the
countries of
countries of the
the Africa region
region feel
feel isolated
isolated and
and cannot
cannot readily
readily access
access the
the technology,
technology,
quality control and market opportunities
opportunities available. These countries
available. These countries need
need further
further regional
regional
cooperation to exchange information,
infonnation, training, research and development opportunities.
 44

Objective

To
To create
create aa sub-regional
sub-regional network to enable
network to enable countries
countries to
to develop
develop their
their system
system of
of
sustainable production,
sustainable production, marketing
marketing and
and improvement
improvement of their products
products toto international
international
standards.
standards. The
Thenetwork
network should
shouldpromote
promote the
therelationship
relationship between
between the
theprimary
primaryproducer,
producer,
the processor and the end-user.

Inputs

4& Identification of
Identification of contact point(s) at
contact point(s) at national
national level
level represented
represented by anan appropriate
appropriate
institution which is active in this sector
4& Definition of
of the coordination mechanism
mechanism by which the network should should operate
operate and
requesting of support
requesting support from
from appropriate
appropriate international
international organisations to enable
organisations to enable the
the
operate effectively
network to operate
4& Drawing together:
together:
~ English-speaking countriesof
English-speaking countries of the
the region
region wishing
wishing toto develop
develop their
their crum
gum
resources
~ French-speakingcountries
French-speaking countriesofof the
the region
region wishing to develop
wishing to develop their
their gum
gum
resources
4& Co-ordinating efforts in the collection, processing, documentation and dissemination
of information
of

Activities

1. Set up the network initially by Kenya, as a follow-up to

to the Regional Conference
Conference

2. Organise workshop to set out the protocol for operation and seek support
support from
from various
various
donors (such as FAO, National Aid/Development
donors Agencies, AIDGUMlAIPG,
AidJDevelopment Agencies, AIDGUM/AIPG, and and the
Private Sector to pursue the objectives defined).

3. Pursue priority objectives, namely:

namely:
4& Improvement of of production and distribution ofof gum arabic
4& Establishment of a buffer stock of gum in producer countries sufficient for 2-3
years
4& Introduction of appropriate
Introduction appropriate technology forfor identification,
identification, collection,
collection, storage
storage
and quality control
4& Development of of research in gum modification
modification and
and improvement
improvement
1& Initiation of appropriate training
1& Establishment ofof aa marketing and application
application information
information system
system

4.
4. Establish Information Systems
1& Prepare a basic manual which sets out the various primary functions performed
by farmers
farmers and
and extension
extension workers
workers in
in gum
gum arabic
arabic production
production and
and primary
primary
quality control
1& Establish a regular newsletter
 5

Organise workshops and seminars to create awareness on product

on product
development
Undertake resource
Undertake resource surveys
surveys and
and create
create databases
databases on national
national and
and regional
regional
resources detailing types, distribution and stock density

Expected Outputs
tit Improved quality and pool ofof production ofof gum
gum with
with aa buffer
buffer stock
stock that
that gives
gives
assurance to consumers
tit international standards
Conformity with intemational standards
tit Improved exchange of of information among gum arabic-producing countries
tit Simplified channel ofof commercialised gum, i.e., from
from producer
producer to to end-user
end-user in
in
of information exchange and
terms of and related issues
issues
tit Classification of gum on the basis of application to enhance marketability

Time Frame
Time
tit Two years to establish network
Two

Annexes to
Annexes to the
the draft proposal based
based on
on the
the outcome
outcome of working groups

Annex 11
Annex Basic Training
A Basic Training Manual

Objective

To prepare a basic
basic manual
manual which
which sets
sets out
out in
in an
anillustrative
illustrative manner
mannerthe
thevarious
variousprimary
primary
functions performed by
functions performed by farmers
farmers and
and extension workers in gum
extension workers gum arabic
arabic production
production and
and
primary quality control.

Inputs

tit Elaboration of
of first draft manual, circulation and piloting in the field
tit Preparation of
of manual in final forms and publication, in the appropriate languages

Annex 2 Education and Training Programme

Objective

To provide
To education and
provide education and training
training for
for the
the person involved in
person involved in the
the chain of
of gum
gum arabic
arabic
production
production from
from planting,
planting, collecting, sorting, cleaning,
collecting, sorting, cleaning, storing,
storing, processing,
processing, quality
quality
control and end-use marketing.

Inputs

tit Collection and preparation of

of training resources

tit Identification of the various levels at which training is required

 6

Ell of a Training of
Organisation of of Trainers workshop to ensure maximum multiplier
multiplier effect
effect

Ell of exchange of
Facilitation of of training experts among countries of
of the region
region

Ell Encouragement of the introduction of

of gum chemistry and
and technology
technology into
into the
the formal
formal
and higher education curriculum

Ell institutions in individual

Identification of institutions individual countries
countries which
which can
can collaborate
collaborate in training
programmes
prog,rammes

Annex
Annex 33 Quality Control

Objective

Develop national quality

Develop national quality control
control systems
systems for
for gum
gum arabic
arabic from
from production
production (primary
(primary
end-product (certification of
quality control) to end-product of product).

Inputs

• Training in field testing and basic laboratory methods

• Establishment of
of a Standards and Reference Laboratory in individual countries

• Preparation of
of guidelines for inspection and sampling of
of product

Ell Development of
Development of practical
practical chemometric systems for
chemometric systems for species
species identification
identification and
and
characterisation

Ell Facilitation of
of co-operation within the Region to achieve international standards

Annex 4 Resource Survey

Objective

To establish
establish the production
production of gum arabic
arabic in the region,
region, and identify the future
future market
(resource map).
production opportunities by surveying the plant gum resources (resource

Inputs

• Carrying out the survey based on existing forestry

Carrying forestry records
records

• Facilitating a wider survey, using new technologies, such as satellite images and aero-
aero-
photographic exploration

• Establishment of
of a data base for types, distribution and stock density
 7

1.3.2 Resins:
1.3.2 Resins: Myrrh
Myrrh and Frankincense

Resins, just like gum

Resins, just gum arabic,
arabic, are
are available
available in
in several
several African
African countries,
countries, and potential
potential to
utilise them
them asas commodities
commodities of commerce
commerce exists.
exists. However,
However, their
their utilisation is hampered by
a number of factors relating to production,
production, quality
quality control
control and
and marketing.
marketing. For
For instance,
instance, the
the
resource type, their quantities and distribution are not clearly known.

Objectives

1. To identify ways of improving the production,

production, marketing
marketing and
and quality of
of resins

2. To establish national/regional bodies which

national/regional bodies which will
will co-ordinate
co-ordinate resource surveys,
production, marketing
production, marketing and
andquality
quality control
control of
of resins

Inputs

l1li Establishing contact points in each country (at national level) by identifying
identifying an
an institution
institution
which is active on the different aspects of
of interest

l1li Collecting information

Collecting information atat national
national and sub-regional level regarding
sub-regional level regarding resins and
and ensuring
ensuring
its dissemination to interested parties

l1li Defining co-ordination

Defining co-ordination mechanisms
mechanisms which
which will
will assist
assist in
in promoting
promoting the production and
and
marketing 0off resins

Activities

1. Establish regional network centres

2. Establish information systems:-

=> to prepare a simple manual for rural communities
=> to establish a regular newsletter
=> to undertake resource surveys
=> to create databases

Organise workshop(s)
3. Organise workshop(s) to to set
set out
out the
the protocol
protocol for
for operation
operation and
and seek
seek financial
financial support
support that
that
development in:-
will focus on research and development
a) production
l1li Improve production methods
Improve production methods in in terms
teims of extraction, handling of the
extraction, handling
sorting and
product, cleaning, sorting and grading
grading of the
the product,
product, storage,
packaging and pricing
l1li Conduct research
Conduct research onon land tenuree and
land ten and property
property rights
rights linked
linked to the
the
production
production ofofresins
l1li Issue on sustainability should be explored
 8

b) marketing
• marketing in terms
Conduct research on marketing terms of where the product goes, in
what form and for what use
• product
Determine the potential of the resin product
• Search for new markets
• Secure the base and research on consumer acceptance

c) quality control
Identify simple
• IdentifY simple methods
methods which
which can
can be
be used to characterise resins in
characterise resins
producer countries
• Set up standards between producers and users and
and establish
establish regulations
regulations
on quality and purity

Outputs

1. Foilliation
Formation ofof Regional Network
Network Centres
Centres

2. Improved
Improved exchange
exchange ofof information
information among
among resin-producing
resin-producing countries
countries through
through the
the
foimation
formation of
of a database,
database, establishment
establishment ofof aa newsletter
newsletter for
for the
the scientific
scientific comminfity
community and
and
ofaa simple
production of simple manual
manual for
for the rural communities

3. Improvement and development of of the resin industries, from the local communities to the
end user, through conformity with international standards

Time Frame

Approximately 2-3 years to establish network

Conference Papers
Conference
The Conference comprised
comprised essentially
essentially three
three main
main thematic
thematic areas
areas namely
namely

1&Conservation and management of of the resources

• Quality and regulatory aspects
• Linkages and networks
PART II: CONFERENCE PAPERS
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382743 10

NAGEMENT AND ORGANISATION OF GUM A

MANAGEMENT ii , BIC
ARABIC
INDUSTRY IN
IN SUDAN
SUDAN

ABDELNOLTR1
H.O. ABDEL NOUR] AND OSMAN2
AND M.E. OSMAN2
11 State
StateMinister,
Minister,Ministry
Ministry of
of Agriculture
Agriculture and
and Forestry,
Forestry, Sudan
Sudan
22 Gum
Gum Arabic
Arabic Company,
Company, Sudan
Sudan

Introduction
Sudan is
Sudan is the acknowledged world leader in gum arabic arabic production. It contributes
contributes between
between
70 and
and 90%
90% of ofthe
thetotal
totalworld production. In 1995
worldproduction. 1995 alone
alone itit produced
produced 51,564
51,564 tonnes
tonnes
comprising 45,564 tonnes of of gum hashab (i.e., from A. A. senegal)
senegal) and 6,000 tonnes from from gum
gum
talha (i.e.,
(i.e., from
from A.A. seyal).
seyal). ThisThis was
was in excess
excess of thethe average
average world demand
demand of of 40,000
40,000
tonnes.
tonnes. Not
Not only
only does
does itit produce
produce far
far more gum than any other country but its gum is of the the
best quality and thus sets the standards
standards by
by which
which gums
gums from
from other
other sources
sources are
are judged.
judged. This
This
success is
success is as a result
result of
oftwotwo main
main factors:
factors: ideal
ideal environmental
environmental conditions
conditions suitable for the
the
growth of
growth of A.
A. senegal
senegal and
and aa long
long history
history of
of sound
sound production
productionpractices.
practices. This paper outlines
aspects of management
aspects management and organisation of of the gum arabic industry in the country.
country.

Management
Management of
of the Gum Arabic Resources
Gum arabic
Gum arabic from
from Sudan
Sudan is is aa product
product of
ofA.
A.senegal
senegaland
andA.A.seyal.
seyal.There
Thereisis only
only one
one variety
varietyof of
A. senegal
A. senegal in
in Sudan,
Sudan, i.e.,
i.e., var.
var.senegal
senegalwhich
whichisisthe
thesource of hashab. In the case of Acacia
sourceofhashab. Acacia
seyal, both varieties, i.e., var. seyaZ
seyal and fistula
fistula are found in the country with var. seyal
seyal being
being
the main source of talha.
talha. Production
Production of of gum
gum arabic
arabic is concentrated in the gum belt between
latitudes 10° and 14° North spanning 12 states with an estimated
estimated area
area of
of520,000 1an2 .
520,000km2.

Management of
Management of the
the Acacia
Acacia senegal for gum production falls into
production falls into either ofof two
two systems:
systems:
hashab owner
hashab owner or hashab
hashab renter.
renter. Hashab
Hashab owners
owners are
are either
either small-
small- or
orlarge-holder
large-holder farmers.
farmers.
The former ma1ce
make up the
the majority
majority of
of gt.un producers across
gum producers across the
the gum
g,umbelt.
belt. They own
own small
small
holding orchards" which are part of
holding "gum orchards" of the A.
A. senegal rotation system and practise
practise gum
production in one of
ofthree
three ways:

• Tap gum by
by themselves; this is the most dominant form
foiiii of production
• Hire labour
labour to
to carry
carry out
out the production
production operations
• Share-crop
Share-crop production
production with
with the
the gum
gum workers
workers

Large-holder farmers
Large-holder farmers include
include traditional hashab owners,
traditional hashab owners, sheiks,
sheiks, well-to-do
well-to-do families
families and
and
mechanised
mechanised scheme owners. They depend
owners. They depend on
on hiring
hiring labour
labour and on
on share-cropping
share-cropping for
production.

Collection of
Collection of gum
gum is carried
carried out by daily payment
payment or or share-cropping
share-cropping ofof the
the produce.
produce. The
The
latter is more prevalent in the dry
dry areas
areas and
and Darfur
Darfur region.
region. It is an arrangement
arrangement where two
thirds of
thirds of the
the produce goes to
produce goes to the
the owner
owner andand one
one third
third to the
the collector
collector of
of the
the gum.
Sometimes a 50:50
Sometimes 50:50 sharing
sharing arrangement
arrangement isis undertaken.
undertaken. This
This applies
applies when
when the
the hashab
hashab
plantations are remotely located or the owner is not providing food or water to the workers.
 11

The hashab
The hashab renter
renter system
system includes
includes those
those renting
renting forest
forest administration
administration plantations
plantations and
and
property owners,
property owners. TheThe two
two prominent
prominent groups
groups of of the
the first
first category
category are resident local
are the resident local
entrepreneurs and financially capable migrants from Kordofan known Imown as "Kardafa".
"Kardafa", There
There
are also the individual
individual carnel
can1el owners who associate themselves
themselves with a handful
handful of
ofworkers.
workers.
All three gjoups
All groups rent
rent hashab
hashab plantations,
plantations, support
support the organisation
organisation of the labour
labour groups
(whom they usually draw from their places of origin) origin) and act as g,uarantors
guarantors toto the improved
labourers at the village
labourers at village shops.
shops. AA form
[Olm ofof liability
liability is demanded by local shops to extend the
credit support.
support. The local entrepreneur, when not
entrepreneur, when not a merchant,
merchant, and
and the
the migrant
migrant organises
organises
from Kordofan are often figures
figures known to the the shop-owners,
shop-owners, whilstwhilst the camel
camel owner
ovvner would
be given credit against the value ofof the camel.

Organisation of the Industry

a) Overview

One ofof the greatest strengths

strengths of
of the present Sudanese gum arabic industry is the consistency
it offers end-users
end-users inin tenns of
of both quality and price
quality and price at
at the
the point
point of
of export.
export. This is due,
due, in
large
large rneastu-e,
measure, toto thethe fact
fact that
that production
production of gum
gum arabic
arabic isisactively
activelycontrolled
controlled from
from
beginning to end by a single body, the Gum GlUn Arabic
Arab c Company (GAC).

The
The GAC's
GAC's activities begin at
activities begin at the
the start
start of
of each
each gum
gum collection
collection season,
season, usually
usually around
around
September/October, when it announces the export price (FOB Port Sudan) to be set
September/October, set for
for the
the
coming year,
year. The
The level
level atatwhich
which itit isis to
to be
be set
set isis decided
decided as
as aa result
result of
ofmarket
market intelligence
intelligence
gained through a network of
gained of overseas agents and other sources, which enables estimates estimates to
be made of of likely demand for for gurn
gllln arabic, and the anticipated availability of gum from
availability of from thethe
resource. Likely
resource, Likely production
production levels
levels cancan be be predicted
predicted quite
quite accurately
accurately fromfrom such
such factors
factors asas
rainfall (which is not only necessary for the trees but important for the farmer/collector farmer/collector andand
his family) and market prices for the farmers farmer's other
other crops
crops (which
(which will
will affect
affect his
his willingness
willingness
to collect gum).

Using the export price (in (in US$)

US$) and
arld the
the appropriate
appropriate exchange rate rate as a starting
starting point,
point, the
the
total estimated costs (at
(at Port
Port Sudan)
Sudan) ofofcleaning,
clearling, handling
har1dling and
andpreparing
preparingthetheg,um
gum for
for export
export
are deducted
deducted toto give a Port Sudan procurement
procurement price.
price. From this
this are
are deducted
deducted the costs of of
up-country cleaning,
cleaning, handling
handling and transport
transport to to POlt
Port Sudar1
Sudan to arrive at the basic floor
floor price
price
which is set for the gurn auctions at
gum auctions at origin.
origin. Costs at Port Sudan include those incurred as as aa
of cleaning,
result of cleaning, quality
quality control,
control, storage,
storage, weight
weight losses,
losses, fiunigation,
fumigation, t-ransport
transport and loading,
export duty, insurance and other financial
financial charges,
charges, and
and GAC
GAC profits.
profits. Those incurred before
arrival at Port Sudan include various fees and commissions, cleaning, packing, handling har1dhng and
transport costs, the cost represented by gum weight loss en route to Port Sudan,
trar1sport costs, the cost represented by gum weight loss en route to Port Sudan, and
and
merchants' profits.
profits,

At the up-country
up-country markets
markets the collectors
collectors or small village traders to whom whom they they have
have sold
sold
gum, bring
gum, bfing sacks
sacks of gum for auction and sell
auction and sell to
to the highest
highest bidder,
bidder. The
The bidders
bidders are
are other,
other,
traders who,
larger traders who, if
if successful,
successful,clean
cleanand
andsort
sortthe
thegum
gm and
and then sell itit on
then sell on to
to the
the GAC.
GAC. The
GAC, in tum, re-clean and grade
grade the gum at their warehouses in Port Sudan and and prepare
prepare it
export. If the bidding at auction
for export. auction does not reach the guaranteed
guaranteed floor
floor price (set by the
GAC at the start of
ofthe
the season), then the GAC intervenes to to buy
buy the
the gum
gum themselves.
themselves.
 12

b) Production Methods
Methods

Hashab is
Hashab is collected from A.
collected from A. senegal
senegal by by tapping
tapping while
while talha
talha is from
from natural
natural exudation.
exudation.
Tapping begins
Tapping begins when
when thethe trees
trees are
are just
just starting
starting to
to shed
shed their
their leaves,
leaves, usually
usuallyabout
aboutthethe end
end ofof
October or
October or the beginning
beginning of November
November although
although thethe exact
exact timing
timing depends
depends on on the rains.
rains.
Older methods
Older methods ofof tapping
tapping involved
involvedmaking
makingsmallsmallincisions
incisionsintointothe
thetree
treewith
withan anaxe.
axe. To
avoid the
avoid the damage
damage thatthat this
this could
could dodo to the
the tree,
tree, methods
methods were developed which use
developed which use a
specially designed tool, a 'sunki'.
specially designed tool, a'sunki'. Through promotion by the extension services
services the method
method
has largely
has largely replaced
replacedthethe older
olderones.
ones. The sunki
sunki has
has a metal head fixed fixed to aa long
long wooden
wooden
handle. The
handle. The pointed
pointed end
end of
ofthe
the head
head is
is pushed
pushed tangentially
tangentially into the stem or branch so so as
as to
to
penetratejust
penetrate justbelow
belowthe thebark,
bark,and
andthen
thenpulled
pulledup upsoso as
as to
to strip
strip aa small
small length
length of bark
longitudinally from the
longitudinally from the wood.
wood. Damage to the wood wood should
should be be minimal.
minimal. Several
Several branches
branches
are treated in a similar mmmer
manner at one tapping and in the course of a day one person can can tap
tap
about 100 trees. In subsequent years, years, other branches
branches or the reverse side of of the
the previously
previously
treated branch are tapped.

For trees,
For trees, which
which have
have been planted from seed,
planted from tapping starts
seed, tapping starts at
at age 4-5 years;
years; for
for those
those
year,
planted as seedlings, tapping can start in the third year.

this superficial
After tIns superficial injury,
injury, ears
ears of
of gum
gum fom1
fonn over the exposed smJacessurfaces and m'eare left to dry
and harden.
harden. After
After 55weeks
weeks the
the first
first collections
collections ofof gum
gum areare made,
made, with
with further
further collections
collections
from the same trees at approximately 15-day intervals until
IS-day intervals until the
the end of February, making five
or six collections in total.
total. The
Theland
landtenure
tenuresystem
system and
and respect
respect for
for local
local tradition
tradition generally
generally
ensures that the people who carry out the tapping
ensures that tapping also reap the the rewards
rewards of ofcollecting
collecting the
the
g,iun.
gum. However, after the bulk of of the gum has been harvested, the odd tears of of gum,
gum, which
which
continue toto be produced by the tree,
tree, can
can be
be collected
collected by by any
any other
other person.
person. Trees
Trees in
in wadis
wadis or
or
elsewhere, where the
elsewhere, where the leaves
leaves had
had not been shed shed earlier,
earlier, may be be tapped
tapped andand subsequently
subsequently
harvested at a later date than the others.

As far as possible,
possible, the tears
tears are
are picked
picked by hand
hand from
from the
the stems
stems and
and branches
branches where
where they
they
have formed,
have formed, mld
and not
not by knocking
knocking toto the ground where they
ground where they can pick up dirt.
dirt. They are
placed in an open basket by the collector, use of plastic
collector, the use plastic sacks
sacks is discouraged
discouraged since they
they
have been found to increase the risk of moisture retention
retention and
and mould
mould formation.
formation.

At present,
present, little cleaning
cleaning or sorting is undertaken
sorting is by the
undertaken by the producer (collector)
(collector) of the gum.
Since he is paid at the auction
auction according to the weight of
of gum rather than on
011 quality
quality criteria
criteria
(within limits, since
(within limits, since his
his gtun
gum would
would not
not be accepted
accepted for
for auction
auction if itit were
were grossly
grossly
contaminated), there is no great incentive for him to spend spend time
time cleaning
cleaning and
and sorting
sortingit.
it.
Some degree
degree of cleaning and sorting rnay be
sorting may be undertaken
undertaken byby small
small village
village traders
traders toto whom
the producer sells him gum, but it is usually undertaken
undertaken by
by the traders after it has been
the large traders
sold at
at auction
auction and
and prior
prior to
to them
them selling
selling itit to
to the
the GAC.
GAC. IfIfthe
the GAC
GAC intervenes
intervenes toto buy
buy the
the
gum at auction because it has not reached the floor price, price, then the company undertakes the
cleaning and sorting at its own warehouses in in the
the regional centres in
in the
the gum belt.
 l3
13

Cleaning and
Cleaning and sorting
sorting is
is done by hand, usually by women,women, who who sort
sort it on the
the ground
ground into
into
piles of
of whole tears and smaller pieces, separating
and smaller pieces, separating any excessively dark gum and and removing
removing
pieces bark and
pieces of bark and other
other foreign
foreign matter.
matter. Gum sorted in this this way by the trader is sold on
on to
to
the GAC and bagged and transported
GAC and bagged and transported to warehouses at
to its warehouses at Port Sudan asas 'Selected'
'Selected' and
'Cleaned' gum, distinct from
'Cleaned' gum, from 'Natural'
'Natural' gum. Unlike
Unlike somesome other countries,
countries, separation
separation of
mixtures
mixtures of gum from different botanical
from different botanical sources
sources (such
(such asas A.
A. senegal and A.
A. seyal) is not
necessary because it is kept quite
quite separate
separate during
during its
its collection.
collection.

On arrival at the GAC dept at at Port

Port Sudan,
Sudan, every
every consignment
consipment of ofgum hashab isis re-cleaned,
gumhashab re-cleaned,
sorted
sorted and graded in preparation for export.
in preparation for export. Until 1991 this
Until 1991 operation was carried
this operation carried out
manually. Since
manually. Since then,
then, itit has
has been mechanised using a system system of of conveyor belts and shaking
and sieving
and machines. The
sieving machines. The traders'
traders' bags
bags ofofcleaned
cleaned gum upturned onto
gum are upturned onto anan inclined
inclined
moving belt,
moving belt, which
which takes
takes the gum up to to the
the shakers
shakers and
and sieves;
sieves; a person is present at the the
start of
start ofthe
the belt
belt to
to remove
remove any any lumps
lumps that
that are
are very large.
large. After
After separation
separation of
ofthe
the dust
dust and
and
under-sized pieces
under-sized pieces byby sieving,
sieving, the the remaining
remaining lumps
lumps of gum
gum pass
pass on a belt between lines of
women who give them a final inspection - any remaining foreign mater
remaining foreign mater (such
(such as
as stones)
stones) or
or
dark coloured
dark colouredpieces
piecesare are removed
removed by by hand.
hand. At At the
the end
end of
of the
the conveyor
conveyor belt the gum is is
bagged and weighed ready for export or it is transferred to to the kibbling machine for further
processing.

The outputs from the cleaning and sorting operations

outputs from are graded and sold according
operations are according to the
the
following main
following main designations;
designations; export
export prices for 1994/95
prices for 1994/95 are
are also
also indicated
indicated (per tonne,
tonne, FOB
FOB
Port Sudan):

Hand Picked Selected (HPS) US$4850

Cleaned US$4200
Siftings na
Dust US$2760
Red na

HPS gum is in thethe form

form of
ofclean,
clean, whole
whole tears
tears (but
(but not
not the
the very
very largest)
largest) which
which have
have been
been
carefully selected
carefully selected and
and which fetch aa premium
premium price. Cleaned gum
price. Cleaned gum is the gum gum which
which isis
bagged at the end ofof the conveyor belt, and may comprise whole or broken lumps.
comprise whole or broken lumps. SiftingsSiftings
are
are the
the smaller pieces
pieces of sieved gum, and dust is the fine fine material which passes
passes through
through he
finest sieve.
finest sieve. Red
Red gum
gum isis the
the dark
dark gum
gum removed
removed by by hand
hand from
from the
the other
other lumps.
lumps. Exported
Exported
gum is packaged in new 50-kg jute bags.

c) Monitoring and Quality Control

The intrinsically
intrinsically high
high quality
quality of Sudanese gum arabic
arabic (hashab),
(hashab), combined with an efficient,
efficient,
long-established system
long-established system of
of collection
collection and
and post-harvest
post-harvesthandling,
handling,means
means that
that the
the problems
problems ofof
quality control
quality controlare
arenot
not as
as great
great in
in Sudan
Sudan as
as they
they are
are for
for some
some other
other countries.
countries. A well-
well-
organised extension service ensures that the people who who tap
tap the trees and collect the gum do
it in the correct manner (for example, no mixing of of gum
gum from
from different
different botanical
botanical sources,
picldng the gum from
picking the from' the tree rather than off the ground,
ground, placing it in baskets
baskets rather than
bags) and these aspects play an important part in determining the quality
closed bags) quality of
ofthe
the gum
gum
 14

which arrives market for

arrives at the market for auction.
auction. Traders who purchase the the gum
gum (or the GAC) will will
also do so only ififititmatches
matches their
theirown
ownvisual
visual criteria
criteria for
for cleanliness
cleanliness and
and this,
this, too,
too, instils
instils in
in
the producer a sense
sense of
of quality
quality consciousness (although not,
consciousness (although not, perhaps,
perhaps, asas great
great asas if there
there
were a financial incentive to produce
incentive to produce high
high quality
quality gum).
gum). In In turn,
turn, the
the traders
traders who
who clean
clean and
and
sort the gum before selling it on to the GAC
GAC know that they will be penalised if, during the
re-cleaning, the gum is found to be below the expected quality.

During the
During the course
course of the last fewfew years
years aa more
more rigorous
rigorous system
system for
for quality
quality control
control and
certification has been
certification has been put
put in place at at the
the GAC's
GAC's cleaning
cleaning and
and processing
processing facility
facility at
at Port
Port
Sudan. AApurpose-built
Sudan. purpose-built laboratory
laboratory was established
established in early 1992
1992 and equipped
equipped with new
equipment.
equipment. The Thelaboratory
laboratory isis small,
small, but
but clean
clean and
andair-conditioned
air-conditioned and
and has
has aawell-stocked
well-stocked
chemical
chemical store.
store.

All gum is sampled when it arrives

arrives atat Port Sudan, in in aa proper,
proper, statistical
statistical manner,
manner, each
each of 21
of2l
bags out of
bags ofevery
every 400
400 are
areemptied
emptied and andsub-sampled
sub-sampled by by quartering;
quartering; thethe combined
combined sub-
sub-
samples
samples areare further
further sampled
sampled to
to give
give aa representative
representative I-kg 1-kgsample.
sample. Half of this sample
sample is
grotmd
ground to to a powder
powder to provide
provide thethe material
material for analysis;
analysis; i.e. loss on on drying
drying and
and optical
optical
rotation. The
rotation. Thelatter
latterparameter
parameter isis sufficient
sufficient to identify
identify any
any gum
gum talha
talha in
in aa mixture
mixture with
with gum
gum
hashab. TheThebags
bagsof ofup-country
up-country gumgum are
are each
each labelled
labelled with
with aanumber
number which
which identifies
identifies the
the
trader, so any problem brought to light by the quality control measures can be discussed and
resolved with the trader concerned.

During mechanical
During mechanical cleaning
cleaningaa sample
sample of of gum
gum is taken
taken every
every hour
hour for
for analysis
analysis (optical
(optical
rotation and acid-insoluble matter). Finally,
acid-insoluble matter). Finally, during
during bagging
bagging aa sample
sample is
is taken
taken for
for analysis:
analysis:
loss on drying,
drying, optical
optical rotation, acid-insoluble matter and
acid-insoluble matter and total
total ash are determined and the
details
details are recorded
recorded onon aa Certificate
Certificate ofofAnalysis. This is
Analysis. TIus is presented with each
presented with each batch
batch of
kibbled, HIPS
HPS ororcleaned
cleanedgum
gumthat
thatisisexported.
exported. A sample of
of each export batch (identical to
the sample analysed for certification) is kept for reference for one season.
season.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382745 15

PRODUCTION AND
PRODUCTION ANDMARKETS
MA " k TS OF
OF GUM
GUMARABIC
ARA IC FROM
FRENCH SPEAKING WEST AFRICAN COUNTRIES

D. MULLER! ISSOUFOUWATA
MULLERI and ISSOUFOU WATA 22

'Applications Techniques
!Applications Techniques Forestieres,
Forestieres, France
France
Ministry of
22Ministry of Water
Water and
and Environment,
Environment, Niger
Niger

Introduction
About 30% of of the
the world
world production
production of
ofgum
gum arabic
arabic comes
comes from
fromthe
theFrench-spealcing
French-speaking west
African countries (FSWACs). The main producers are Chad, Niger, Burkina
African countries (FSWACs). The main producers are Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso,
Faso, Mali,
Mali,
Senegal and
Senegal and Mauritania with some exports
exports recorded for Cameroon and the Central African
Republic. The
RepUblic. The main
main sources
sources of
ofgum
gum arabic
arabic are
are Acacia
Acacia senegal
senegal (hard
(hard gum)
gum) and
and A.A. seyal
seyal
(flaky
(flaky gum).
gum). Commercialgum
Commercial gum arabic
arabic includes
includes some
some gum
gum from
from Acacia
Acacia leata,
leata, A.A.
polyacantha
polyacantha and
and A.A. dudgeoni.
dudgeoni. Europe
Europeisisthe
themajor
majordestination
destination of
ofexported
exported gum
gum arabic
arabic from
from
FSW ACs though USA has emerged as an important destination in the last 2-3
FSWACs 2-3 years.
years.

Production
Table 1 provides
Table provides 7-year
7-year arumal
annual average
average production
production data (1980-1994)
(1980-1994) of gum
gum arabicarabic (by
(by
botanic source)
botanic source) from
from six
six FSWACs. Since very little
FSWACs. Since little of
of the
the gurn
gum produced
produced isis consumed
consumed
domestically (except
domestically (except perhaps
perhaps Senegal),
Senegal), export
export levels
levels are
are also
also a good indicator of of domestic
production. Table 22 gives
production. Table gives the
the export
export levels
levels of
of gum
gum arabic
arabic from
from FSW
FSWACs.
ACs. There was an
upward trend
upward trend in
in the
the production
production ofof gum
gum arabic over the
arabic over the 6-year period (1991-1996).
6-year period (1991-1996). The
production reachedaa peak
production reached peak level
level of
of more
more than
than 9400
9400 tons
tons (about
(about 30%
30% of of thethe world
world
production)
production) in 1996. Chad is the main
main producer
producer ofof gum
gum arabic
arabic and
and in
in 1995,
1995, itit became
became the
the
second most important producer
producer after
after Sudan.

Gum arabic of
Gum of commerce from Chad is produced
produced from
from both
both Acacia
Acacia senegal
senegal and
and A.
A. seyal.
seyal.
Over the last 2-3 years,
Over years, increasing
increasing amounts
amounts of
of gum
gum arabic
arabic fi-om
from Chad have been coming
coming
from A.
from A. seyal.
seya!. Cameroon
Cameroon and and the Republic
Republic of
of Central
Central Africa
Africa (RCA)
(RCA) have
have recorded
recorded
significant quantities
significant quantities of
of exported
exported gum
gum arabic.
arabic. Cameroon
Cameroon isis said
said to
to export
export flaky gum,
gum, i.e.,
i.e.,
seyaZ. It is believed
from Acacia seyal.
from believed that most of
of the
the gum
gum from
from Cameroon
Cameroon and the RCA RCA
originate from Chad and Sudan
Sudan respectively.

Based on the 7-year annual averages (Table 1), production in the other FSWACs was in the
following descending order: Senegal, Mali, Mauritania,
Mauritania, Niger and
and Burkina
Burkina Faso.
Faso. However,
However,
production data over the 6-year period (1991-1996) have revealed lower annual averages.
production averages.
Official records show
Official records show that
that most
most of the gum arabic
arabic from
from Senegal
Senegal and Mauritania
Mauritania is from
from
Acacia senegal while
while Mali
Mali exports
exports both
both A.
A. senegal and
and A. gum. It is believed
A. seyal gurn believed that
that
most of
of the gum arabic
arabic from
from Senegal
Senegal comprises
comprises re-exports
re-exports from
from Mali
Mali and Mauritania. It is
andMauritania.
also said that about 200 tonnes/year
tonnes/year of gum arabic in Senegal is used in the local food
food and
and
pharmaceutical industries.
 16

Table 1:
Table 1: Summary of of gum
gum arabic
arabic data
data for
forfive
fiveFrench-spealcing
French-speaking West African
African countries,
countries, showing
showing
botanical
botanical source,
source, production, imports into the EC, and main European markets

Country Main botanical

CountryMain Annual
Armual Armual
Annual imports to EC
EC.
Source production and main European Markets
Chad A. senegal
senegal 3,500 EC 3,500
A. seyal
seyal 1,500 France 2,800
UK 600

Mali A. senegal
senegal 500 EC 140
seyal
A. seyal France 45

Mauritania A. senegal
senegal 400 EC 180

Niger A. senegal
senegal 300 EC 150
A. seyal
seyal France 115

Burkina
Burlcina Faso
Faso senegal
A. senegal 200-300
A seyal
seyal

Senegal A. senegal
senegal 700 EC 450
France 300
UK 130

2: Export of
Table 2: of gum arabic from FSWA
FSWA countries (in tonnes)
1991 1992 1993 1994
1994 1995 1996*
Chad 2188 2450 3696 4662 7021 7315
R.c.A.
R.C.A. 74 78 33 119 126 639
Senegal 262 261 459 362 662 213
Mauritania 32 48 55 166 258 256
Cameroon 95 647 841
841 1031 161 560
Niger 27 155
155 228 240 110 242
Mali 112 31 77 249 295 229
R.c.I.
R.C.I. 00 00 26 50 15 20
TOTAL FSWAC
TOTAL FSWAC 2790 3670 5415 6879 8648
8648 9474
TOTAL World 37089 31764 27348 41789 38568 32590
%lWorld
%/World 7.52 11.55 19.8 16.46 22.42 29.07
* Some
Some data
data are missing

Production of
Production of gum
gum arabic
arabic in
in Niger
Niger is is far below the
the 1980s level when itit was among
among the
the
five top producing
five top producing countries
countries in
in the
the world.
world. It produces both A.A. senegal
senegal and A. seyal gum.
gum.
A sig,nificant
A amount of
significant amount of gum arabic
arabic - aa mixture
mixture of
of hard
hard and
and flaky
flaky gums
gums comes
comes from
from
Burkina Faso.
Burkina Faso. One
One significant
significant development
development in in Niger
Niger is the production
production of
of aa specialised
 17

product under
product under the
the trade
trade name
name 'clean
'clean sifted
sifted Niger
Nigergum'.
gum'. The product is a mixture of of 60%
flaky gum and
flaky gum and 40% hard gum destined
destined toto satisfy the demand
satisfY the demand of a limited
limited number
number of
importers
importers in
in the industrialised
industrialised countries.
countries. Burkina Faso has been excluded from from the wide
arabic. ItIt has
marketing circuit of gum arabic. has contributed
contributed though in a discontinuous and indirect
indirect
ways (with border countries such as Mali and Niger acting as go
ways go betweens)
betweens) toto supplying
supplying
the world market.

Markets
The
The European
European Community
Community (EC) (EC) isis the
the main
main regional
regional market
market for gumgum arabic
arabic from
from
FSWACs (Table
FSWACs (Table 3). France isis the
3). France the leading
leading importer within the
importer within the EC
EC which
which in 1996
1996
accounted for 54% ofof the total imports
imports from
from FSWACs.
FSWACs. UK is the second largest importer
though in 1996 the total amount imported fell
amount imported fell below
below the
the 6-year
6-year annual
annual average.
average. Imports
Imports
into
into Germany
Germany have shown a general
general increase
increase over the last
last 44 years.
years. Belgium-Lux and and
Italy are other emerging markets in the EC.

Outside the
Outside the EC, USA
USA is is the
the single
single most
mostimportant
important trading
trading partner.
partner. In 1996
1996 alone,
alone, it
for 33% of
accounted for of the total imports
imports from
from FSWACs.
FSWACs. Chad Chad is
is the
the main
main supplier
supplier of
ofgum
gum
arabic to
arabic to USA.
USA. ItItappears
appears thatthat this
this increase
increase is
is the
the result
result of
oftwo
two main
main factors
factors namely
namely thethe
TCP project by FAOFAO which raised the awareness of of the potential and value of
of gum arabic
in Chad. This
Thiswas
wasfollowed
followed by byimprovements
improvements in in the
the production
production and
and quality
quality of
of locally
locally
produced gum arabic. At Atabout
aboutthethe same
same time
time aa workshop was held by USAID in 1994 1994 in
N'Djanena which offered USA with opportunities of a ready source of of good
good quality
quality gum
gum
arabic. In
arabic. In addition
addition to
to USA,
USA, small
small quantities
quantities ofof gum
gum arabic
arabic have been exported to South
India and
Korea, Sweden, India and Pakistan though in a sporadic manner.

Table 3: Countries importing raw gum arabic from the FSWAC; figures are in tonnes
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 6-year annual average
France 1739 2107 3505 4741 4483 5431 3668
U.S.A. 0 18 60 341
341 1415 2425 710
Germany
Geimany 37 49 827 432 1139 705 532
U.K. 1008 1476 894 1103
1103 1396 880 1126
Belgium-Lux 0 0 0 39 49 66 26
Italy 0 00 33 00 0 38
FAO LIBRARY AN: 382747 18

RECENT ADVANCES
ADVANCES ON CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION AND
AND STATUS OF
OF
GUM- RESIN
THE MAIN GUM- RESIN PRODUCING
PRODUCING SPECIES
SPECIES IN
IN THE
THE FAMILY
FAMILY
CEAE
BURSERACEAE
BURSE

FRANCIS N. GACHATHI
Kenya Forestry Research Institute
20412
P.O. Box 20412
Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract
Burseraceae isis a family
Burseraceae family of 17 genera with some 560 species, which are widespread
species, which widespread in the
tropics especially
tropics especially in in Africa,
Africa, Malaysia
Malaysia and South South America.
America. These These areare trees
trees or or shrubs
shrubs
characterised by aromatic resins from the the bark
bark used
used even
evenin inBiblical
Biblicaltimes
timesfor
forfranlcincense,
frankincense,
perfumes. The
myrrh and perfumes. The main
main resin-producing
resin-producing species
species are found in the the genera
genera Boswellia
Boswellia
and Commiphora
and Commiphora which which are are common
common in the the hot
hot drylands. Despite early recopition,
drylands. Despite early recognition,
classification and nomenclature
classification and nomenclatureof ofmembers
membersof of the
the two
two genera,
genera, and
and particularly
particularly those
those of
Commiphora have
Commiphora have remained unstable. They
remained unstable. They have
have beenbeen described
described by botanists
botanists as as
difficult, frustrating
taxonomically difficult, frustrating oror confusing.
confusing. This is is largely
largely because of of the nature of ofthe
the
plants themselves,
plants themselves, appearing
appearing leafless
leaflessand and in
in aa drought-dormant
drought-dormantcondition
conditionforfor much
much of of the
the
This has led to the
year. This the practice
practice ofofdescribing
describing species
species from
from inadequate
inadequate andand often
often sterile
sterile
material. As As aa result,
result, some
some species
species have
have been
been described
described by by different
different botanists
botanists under
under
different names. Also,
different names. Also, sterile
sterile plants
plants from
from other
other genera
genera have been described
described as species of of
either Boswellia
Boswellia or or Commiphora.
Commiphora. For example, example, six plants described
described by Engler (the chief chief
worker on the genus Commiphora) as new species of of Commiphora belonged in fact to other
genera and in
genera in other
other families. Several plants
families. Several plants within
within thethe two
two genera therefore have been been
known, simultaneously
simultaneously or or successively,
successively,by bytwotwoorormore
moredifferent
differentnames.
names. This instability of
This instability of
plant names
plant names is aa real
real disadvantage
disadvantage as all all information
information about plants and their products
about plants products is
communicated by name.
communicated name. Recent
Recent taxonomic revisions of the family
taxonomic revisions family Burseraceae
Burseraceae have have
resulted
resulted in the union of of two
two or
or more
more species
species previously
previously considered
considered distinct,
distinct, splitting
splitting what
what
was considered previously to be one species into two or more species or outright rejection of of
wrong
wrong names brought
brought about
about byby mis-identification.
mis-identification. Most Most names
names of the members
members of of the
the
family
family Burseraceae
Burseraceae areare therefore
therefore marred
marred byby numerous
numerous synonyms,
synonyms, subspecies,
subspecies, varieties,
varieties, long
long
descriptions and additional
descriptions additional notes.
notes. The aim of
The aim ofthis
this paper is to survey the recent advances
advances on on
classification and look
classification and look atat the
the status
status ofof the
the main
main resin-producing
resin-producing species
species in the the family
family
Burseraceae with particular reference to the region region ofofTropical
Tropical East
East Africa.
Africa.

Introduction
Production of gum
Production of gum resins
resins from
from members
members of the
the family
family Burseraceae
Burseraceae is ofofeconomic
economic
importance
importance in some
some tropical
tropical countries.
countries. Although substantial quantities especially
Although substantial quantities especially of
frankincense
frankincense and myrrh myrrh from
from the genera Boswellia
Boswellia and Commiphora are
and Commiphora are harvested
harvested annually
for sale,
for sale, little
little is
is known
known about
about the
the status
status of the
the main gum resin-producing
resin-producing species
species within
within the
the
family. Recent
family. Recent classifications
classifications place
place the
the family
family Burseraceae
Burseraceae Kunth in in the Order Sapindales
the Order Sapindales
Bentham
Bentham and and Hooker.
Hooker. This
This isis aanatural
natural group
group consisting
consisting of
of1515 families
families characterised
characterised by
by
their woody
their woody habit,
habit, compound
compound or or cleft leaves,
leaves, two whorls
whorls ofof stamens,
stamens, a well-developed
well-developed
 19
19

nectary-disk and a syncarpous

nectary-disk and ovary with
syncarpous ovary with a limited number (1-2) of ovules in each locule
number (1-2)
(Cronquest, 1981).
1981).

The family
The family Burseraceae
Burseraceae consists
consists of 17 genera
genera and
and about 600 species
species which are widespread
in the
the tropics
tropics but
but especially
especially well
well represented
represented inin tropical
tropical America,
America, Malaysia
Malaysia and
and north-
north-
eastern Africa. include Bursera,
Africa. The largest genera include Bursera, the type
type genus
genus confined
confmed to
to tropical
tropical
America with a centre of
America with of greatest
greatest diversity
diversity in
in Mexico
Mexico and
and Commzphora which is widely
Commiphora which widely
spread in the less humid parts ofof tropical Africa and Madagascar with fewer species in West
Africa, Iran, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka
Lanka and
and Brazil
Brazil (Gillett,
(Gillett, 1991).
1991).

Diagnostic features
features
The family Burseraceae is composed of of trees and shrubs with
with prominent vertical
vertical resin
resin ducts
ducts
the bark.
in the bark. TheTheleaves,
leaves, which
which areare compound,
compound, are are spirally
spirally arranged
arranged and crowded at twig-
tips. The flowers
flowers are rather small and and are
are either
either solitary
solitary or inflorescences usually at
inflorescences usually at the
twig-ends, regular
twig-ends, regular with parts in threes to fives, bisexual or more often often unisexual,
unisexual, the
the plants
plants
often dioecious.
often dioecious. TheThe sepals
sepals are
are fused
fused and
and are
are either
eitherimbricate
imbricate oror valvate,
valvate, petals
petals free,
free, also
also
valvate or
valvate or imbricate.
imbricate. The
The stamens
stamens areare equal
equal to or
or double the number of of petals and usually in
two whorls. The
two whorls. The ovary
ovary is
is superior
superior with three
three to
to five
five carpels
carpels and
and two
two to
to five
five locules.
locules. The
fruit is
fruit is usually
usually aa drupe,
drupe, sometimes
sometimes aa capsule.
capsule. Seeds are without endosperm.

Classification and chief

Classification and chief genera
Burseraceae can be conveniently divided into three tribes as follows:
follows:

Protieae. Drupe
Drupewith
withtwo
twototofive
fivefree
freeororadhering
adheringbut
butnot
notfused
fused parts:
parts: six
six genera,
genera, including
including
Protium and Tetragastris.

Drupe with endocarp

Burserae. Drupe endocarp completely fused, exocarp
completely fused, dehiscing by
exocarp dehiscing by valves:
valves: five
five
genera, including Boswellia,
genera, Boswellia, Bursera and
and Commiphora.

Drupe with
Canariae. Drupe
Cauariae. with completely
completely fused
fused endocarp:
endocarp: six
SIX genera,
genera, including Canarium,
including Canariurn,
Dacryodes, Haplolobus and Santiria.

Of the three tribes,

tribes, Burserae
Burserae is
is of economic
economic importance
importance as
as far
far as
as gum resins are
gun resins are concerned.
concerned.
Frankincense comes
Frankincense Boswellia, myrrh from Commiphora,
comes from Boswellia, Commiphora, while varnish
varnish is
is obtained
obtained
from Bursera.
fi-om Bursera.

Burseraceae in tropical East

East Africa
Africa
The
The most recent
recent work on Burseraceae
Burseraceae in in East
East Africa
Africa is that ofof Gillett,
Gillett, (1991)
(1991) "Flora
"Flora of
of
Tropical East
Tropical East Africa
Africa (FTEA)
(FTEA)". " . Within
Within the flora
flora area,
area, the
the farnily
family is
is represented
represented by three
three
genera: Canarium
genera: Canarium with 2 species, Boswellia with
species, Boswellia 4, and Commiphora
with 4, Commiphora with with 66.
66. Canarium
Canarium
schweinfurthii Engl.
schweinfurthii Engl. which
which is is a tall tree attaining
attaining 40 m with a straight cylindrical trunk and
compound leaves
compound leaves isis found
found in Uganda
Uganda and and northern
northern Tanzania
Tanzania around
around Lake
Lake Victoria.
Victoria.
madagascariense Engl.
Canarium madagascariense Engl. ,which
,which differs
differs from
from C.C. schweifurthii
schweifurthii in its fewer leaflets
seems
seems to be approaching extinction. It has only been collected
approaching extinction. twice since
collected twice since 1949
1949 in west
Usambara, Tanzania (Gillett,
Usambara, Tanzania (Gillett, 1991). Boswellia
Boswellia and
and Commiphora,
Commiphora, which
which produce
produce
frankincense and myrrh
frankincense and myrrh respectively
respectively areare well
well adapted
adapted to the hot hot drylands
drylands usually below
 20

2000 m,
2000 m, becoming most munerous
numerous in north-eastern
north-eastern Kenya
Kenya and extending
extending into Somalia and
Ethiopia.

Problems
Problems associated
associated with
with identification
identification of
of Boswellia
Boswellia and
and Commiphora
Commiphora
species
Despite their
Despite their early recognition, classification and
recognition, classification and nomenclature
nomenclatureof of members
members of of the two
two
genera, Boswellia
genera, Boswellia and and Commiphora
Comnuphora in in tropical
tropical East
East Africa
Africa have
have remained
remained unstable.
unstable. They
They
have been described by various botanists as taxonomically
have taxonomically difficult,
difficult, frustrating
frustrating or simply
confusing. This
confusing. This is
is largely
largely because ofof the nature
nature of of the plants themselves, appearing leafless
and in drought-dolinant
and conditionfor
drought-dormant condition for much
much of of the
the year and and the
the difficulty
difficulty of ofobtaining
obtaining
complete specimens
complete specimens showing
showingboth
both male
male and
and female
female flowers, leaves, fruits
flowers, leaves, fruits and bark,
bark, the
the
identifying members
useful characters in identifying members of of these
these groups.
groups. TheThe flowers
flowers andand fruits
fruits are
are seldom
seldom
produced with
produced with the
the leaves
leaves and
and are
are therefore
therefore difficult
difficulttoto identify.
identify. The situation
situation is worsened
further by
further by the fact that Commiphora
Commiphora is a gregarious
gregarious genus and where one species is found, found,
several others
several others are
are likely
likelytotooccur
occurasaswell
well(Beenje,
(Beenje,1994).
1994). This
This has
has led
led to
to the
the practice
practice of
of
from inadequate
describing species from inadequate and
and often
often sterile
sterilematerial.
material. As a result some species have
described by different
been described different botanists
botanistsunder
under different
differentnames.
names. Also, sterile plants from from other
genera have been described as as species of either Boswellia
Boswellia or or Commiphora.
Commip hora. For For example,
example, six
plants described
plants described byby Engler
Engler (the
(the chief
chief worker
worker on on the
the genus Commiphora)
Commiphora) as new species of
Commiphora belonged in fact to other genera and were in other families: two to to Lannea
Lannea and
and
two to Sclerocarya
two Sclerocarya (Anacardiaceae),
(Anacardiaceae), one to to Platycelyphiurn (Papilionaceae) and
Platycelyphium (papilionaceae) and one
one to
Combretum (Gillett, 1973).1973).

Even today
today sterile
sterile plants
plants of
of Lannea
Lannea continue
continue toto be
be mistaken
mistaken for
for Commiphora.
Commiphora. In In Lannea,
Lannea,
string and
the bark is tough like string and nearly
nearly always
always some
some ofthe
of the hairs
hairs are
are stellate.
stellate. Such bark does
not occur in Cornmiphora
Commiphora and and neither
neither do
do such hairs.
hairs. Also,
Also,sterile
sterilespecimens
specimensof ofBoswellia
Boswellia
neglecta S. Moore
neglecta S. Moore Rae readily
readily confused with Lannea
confused with Lannea alata Engl.
Engl. which
which often
often occurs
occurs
together with it and may be distinguished
distinguished by
by its
its narrowly
narrowly winged
winged leaf-rachis.
leaf-rachis. Several
Several plants
plants
within the two genera therefore have been known, simultaneously or successively, by two or
names. Recent
more different names.
more classifications separate
Recent classifications separatethe
the two
two genera
genera using
using the
the fruit as
as
follows:

Fruit aa (2)3(4-5)
Boswellia: Fruit (2)3(4-5) -- valved
valved pseudocapsule,
pseudocapsule, releasing
releasing 11 - seeded
seeded nutlets
nutlets on
on
dehiscence; calyx-lobes and petals 5, stamens 10;10; leaves
leaves pinnate;
pinnate; true
true spines
spines absent.
absent.

Commiphora: Fruit
Commiphora: Fruit aadehiscent
dehiscent drupe,
drupe, splitting
splitting into
into 2(-4)
2(-4) valves
valves disclosing
disclosing aa 1(-2)-seeded
1(-2)-seeded
stone which is usually surrounded (at least at the base) by a red oror orange,
orange, fleshy
fleshy pseudoaril.
pseudoaril.
Calyx-lobes and petals
petals 4,
4, stamens
stamens 88 (rarely
(rarely 4).
4). Leaves simple, 1-3-foliate, or pinnate;
pinnate; spines
spines
often present.

The species of
of Boswellia
Boswelliaproducing
producing frankincense
frankin cense
The genus
The genus Boswellia
Boswellia Roxb.
Roxb. ex
ex Colebr.
Colebr. isis composed
composed ofof 20
20 or soso species
species extending
extending from
from
Coast to India and south to
Ivory Coast to N.E.
N.E. Tanzania and N. Madagascar but most numerous in in
N.E. tropical
N.E. tropical Africa.
Africa. These
These are
are unarmed
unarmed shrubs
shrubs or
or small
small to
to medium-sized
medium-sized trees
trees exuding
exuding a
watery aromatic
watery aromatic substance
substancefrom
fromthethebark
barkwhich
whichslowly
slowlyhardens
hardenstotoaaresin
resinon
onexposure.
exposure. In
tropical East
tropical East Africa,
Africa, the genus Boswellia
Boswellia is represented by four four species:
species: B.
B. papyrifera,
papyrijera, B.
B.
 21
21

rivae, B. neglecta and B.

rivae, B. B. microphylla.
microphylla. These are easily distinguished by
by the
the number,
number, shape
shape
of their leaflets.
and size of

True
True frankincense
frankincense isis obtained
obtained from
from B.
B. carteri Birdw,
Birdw, and some other species
species g,rowing
growing in
northern Somalia,
nOlihem Somalia, Dhofar and and Hadhramaut.
Hadhramaut. In tropical
tropical East Africa,
Africa, the
the main
main species
species
producing frankincense
producing frankincenseisis B.B. papyrijora,
papyrifora, found
found in
in Ethiopia,
Ethiopia, Sudan
Sudan and Somalia and and B.
B.
neglecta S. Moore
Moore (B. (B. hilderbrandtii Engl.) which is
is abundant in dry bushland of northern
northem
Kenya.
Kenya. The
The latter
latter grows
grows on
on basement
basement complex
complex or lava and red sandy
sandy soils
soils at altitude 200-
1300 m
1300 m with
with less than 600 mm of
of annual rainfall.

species of
The species of Commiphora
Commiphora producing
producing myrrh
The genus Commiphora Jacq. comprises about 190 species, common in the drylands. These
drylands. These
are generally small to medium-sized dioecious trees
trees with outer bark often peeling in papery
flakes scrolls exposing
flakes or scrolls exposing the
the green
green or
or bluish
bluish under
underbark.
bark. The leaves are compound, spirally
arranged and usually clustered at the ends of
ofthe
the short and spiny - tipped shoots.

In East
In East Africa
Africa the
the genus
genus Commiphora
Commiphora is represented
represented by by about
about 6666 species. This is
species. This is a
taxonomically difficult
taxonomically difficult group
group and
and classification
classification ofof the
the different
different groups
groups is made possible by
first treating
first treating the
the entire
entire group
goup into
into 1414 sections
sections byby use
use of
ofcombined
combined characters
characters and
and then
then
applying aa delimiting
applying delimiting key to each each section. These sections
section. These sections are
are as follows:
follows: Rosratae (1),
(1),
Abyssinicae (13), Commiphora
Abyssinicae (13), Commiphora (3), (3), Coriaceae (1), Campestres (7), (7), Africanae
Africanae (7),
Latifoliolatae (10), Pedunculatae (1), Arillopsidium
Latifoliolatae (10), Arillopsidium (8), (8), Ugogenses
Ugogenses (1),(1), Hildebrandtianae
(4), Hemprichia
(4), Hemprichia (6),
(6), Ciliattae
Ciliattae (1)
(1) and
and Opobalsameae
Opobalsameae (2) (2) species.
species. The different species
species are
are
distinguishedby
distinguished by their
their resin
resin and
and colour
colour ofof the
the bark
bark asas well
well as
as details
details of spines
spines and leaves
leaves
always available.
which are not always available.

Several species of
Several species Commiphora produce
of Commiphora produce gum
gum resins
resins which
which are
are used locally,
locally, particularly
particularly by
by
the Islamic communities. The
Islamic communities. The chief
chief Commiphora
Commiphora gum of of economic
economic importance
importance is myrrh,
produced by by C (C myrrha
C. myrrha (C. myrrha var.
var. molmol).
molmol). This is an important
important article ofof commerce
in N.E.
N.E. Kenya
Kenya which is locally
locally known
known as as Molmol
Molmol (Somali).
(Somali). Other
Other species producing myrrh
species producing myrrh
but of less value include C
ofless C. habessinica (C madagascariensis), C.
habessinica (C. C schimperi
schimperi (C.(c. buraensis),
buraensis),
C africana (C.
C. (c. pilosa) and C.C confusa.
con/usa. These
Thesespecies
species are
are quite
quite abundant
abundant inin northern
northern Kenya.
Kenya.
Gum resins
Gum resins from
from C C. holtiziana
holtiziana spp.
spp. holtziana
holtziana (C(C. caerurea)
caerurea) and C. pseudopaoli
C pseudo paoli (C.
(C paolii)
are lcnown
are known as as opoponax
opoponax andand are
are used asas tick repellent. These are of
tick repellent. of commercial
commercial value
value
especially in
especially in the
the USA
USA where
where they
they are
are used
used onon domestic
domestic animals.
animals. The
The same
same resins
resins are
are used
used
against snake bite.
against bite. There are also other species such as C incisa(C candidula), C.
There are also other species such as C. incisa(C. candidula), C
campestris var. camppestris(C scheifieri) which produce gums that are locally chewed.
camppestris(C. scheffleri) chewed.

Conclusion
Over the last few years, itit has
has been
been increasingly
increasingly evident
evident that
that the
theproduction
productionofoffranlcincense
frankincense
and myrrh from Boswellia
Boswellia and and Commiphora
Commiphora genera of Burseraceae is gaining in economic economic
importance particularly for
importance for some
some tropical
tropical African
African countries.
countries. Although
Although substantial
substantial quantities
quantities
of these products
products are
are harvested annually, little
harvested annually, little isis officially
officially known
known about
about the
the status
status of
of the
the
trees themselves. Recent
trees themselves. Recent classifications such as
classifications such as "An
"An Integrated
Integrated Systems
Systems ofofFlowering
Flowering
Plants" by Arthur Cronquist
Plants" (1981) and "The Flora of Tropical East Africa" by Jan
Cronquist (1981) Jan Gillett
Gillett
(1991) have greatly
(1991) have greatly contributed
contributed toto the the understanding
understanding of of the
the members
members of the the family
family
 22

These are natural classifications

Burseraceae. These with high
classifications with high level
level of productivity and all
productivity and all the
groups which they delimit are natural.
natural. Useful
Useful aromatic
aromatic resins
resins for
for instance
instance occur
occur in
in the
the tribe
tribe
Burserae where
Burserae where frankincense and myrrh
frankincense and myrrh are
are restricted
restricted to
to the two
two genera,
genera, Boswellia
Boswellia and
Comrniphora respectively.
Commiphora respectively. Also, gum resins commercially known known asas opoponax
opoponax used
used as
as tick
tick
repellent occur within
repellent within Section
Section Hemprichia
Hemprichia of Commiphora. It is
ofCommiphora. is therefore
therefore possible
possible to
predict with some degree ofof accuracy which group
group contains
contains what
what product
product byby investigating
investigating aa
single species and hence restrict the areas of
of investigation within the family.

References
Beentje, H.J.
Beentje, H.J. 1994.
1994. Kenya
Kenya Trees,
Trees, Shrubs
Shrubs and Lianas.
Lianas. National
National Museums
Museums of
of Kenya,
Kenya,
Nairobi, 722pp.

Cronquest,
Cronquest, 1981.
1981. An
Aninteg,rated
integrated system
system of
of classification flowering plants
classification of flowering plants (with
(with a new
foreword by Armen
Annen Takhtaj an). Columbia
Takhtajan). Columbia University Press, New York.

Gillett, J.B. 1991.

Gillett, lB. 1991. Flora
Flora of
ofTropical
Tropical East
East Africa
Africa - Burseraceae. A.A. Balkema,
Balkema, Rotterdam,
Rotterdam,
Brookfield. 94 pp.

Gillett,
Gillett, J.B.
J.B. 1973. Commiphora
CommiphoraJacq.
Jacq. (Burseraceae)
(Burseraceae) - Englerian species which
which disappear.
disappear.
Kew Bull. Vol. 28(1), 25-28.
25-28.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382749 23

G
PLANT GUMS,
S, RESINS
RESINS AND
AND ESSENTIAL
ESSENTIAL OIL
OIL RESOURCES
RESOURCES IN
AFRICA: POTENTIALS FOR
FOR DOMESTICATION

D. O. LADIPO
Centre for Environment, Renewable Natural Resources Management, Research and
Development (CENRAD)
Development
PMB 5052, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
Nigeria

Introduction
The forests of of Afi-ica
Afiica areare full
full of
of plants
plants and
and particularly
particularly treetree species
species that people within and
around
around them utilise for for various
various purposes.
purposes. Gum,Gum, resin
resin and
and essential
essential oil-producing
oil-producing plants
plants
faun
form part
part of
of these important species (see Fig. Fig. 1).
1). Extraction
Extraction fromfrom wild
wild sources still forms
over 95% of of the total
total production
production but but deforestation
deforestation is causing
causing great
great concern
concern as as genepools
genepools
are becoming smaller
smaller and
and smaller
smaller with
with the
theimminent
imminenttiu-eat
threat of
of severe genetic
genetic degradation
degradation
or extinction
extinction in in the case
case ofof some
some of ofthese
theserelatively
relatively wildwild species.
species. Genetic resources
resources
collection and conservation has commenced in some cases but the full full potentials
potentials of ofthese
these
products are
products are still to
to be
be realised,
realised, despite
despite their
theirimmense
immense socio-cultural,
socio-cultural, economic
economic and
scientific importance.
importance. LeakeyLeakey and and Izac (1996)
(1996) in in considering
considering the the domestication
domestication and
commercialisation of
commercialisation of non-timber
non-timber forest
forest products enumerated
enumerated some some evolutionary
evolutionary stepssteps
which extends
which extends from
from raw
raw extractivism
extractivism of of wild
wild products
productstoto biotechnology.
biotechnology.In In the
the case
case of
of
gums, resins
gums, resins andand essential
essential oils, markets
markets are are available, so so thethe development
development of
commercialisation does does not
not feature
feature here
here although
although we we may
may need
need to to help
help market
market expansion
expansion
in future. From the wild
future. From wild toto the
thesemi-domesticated
semi-domesticated stages, stages, farmers
farmers themselves
themselves have have
exerted some
exerted some selection
selection pressure
pressure based
based on acquired
acquired experiences
experiences in the field field including
including
markets, local or international.
markets, local international. This
This isis indigenous
indigenous knowledge
knowledge(IK). (IK). Domestication is not
phenomenon. It is an old process which started very many centuries ago
a new phenomenon. ago for
for many
many
plant species.
species. Simon
Simon (1996) suggested that
(1996) suggested that itit must
must be seen as as aacontinuum
continuum - from
'unmolested or unmodified state' state' to
to management
management of oftrees
trees in
in forests
forests (in-situ)
(in-situ) to
to cultivation
cultivation
of semi-domesticated to mono cultural plantations of advanced
monocultural
The definition of of Harlan (1975) simplifies it as it says, "to domesticate is is to
to naturalise
naturalise toto
human conditions and this involves human-induced changes in the genetics of ofaa plant".
This paper reviews
reviews present
present efforts
efforts and identifies needs and
identifies needs and potentials
potentials for
for the change in
genetics'
genetics' or genetic
genetic improvement
improvement of of gum,
gum, resin
resin andand essential
essential oiloil plants
plants in Africa
Africa toto
facilitate
facilitate full
full domestication.

Degradation
Degradation of
of native genetic resources
The vegetation
vegetation of
of most
most African
African forests
forests has
has been
been subjected
subjected to
to uncontrolled
uncontrolled exploitation
exploitation
(IUFRO, 1989)
(IUFRO, decades. In the
1989) for many decades. the drier
drier Sahelian
Sahelian areas where
where many
many gum-
gum- andand
tarmin- producing species
talmin- producing species abound,
abound, annual
annual fires
fires and
and droughts have also increased
droughts have increased in in
severity and
severity and frequency
frequency inin the
the past
past 22decades,
decades, causing
causing significant
significant changes
changes in in local
local
ecologies and
ecologies and vegetations.
vegetations. This
This has
has resulted
resulted in
in serious
serious loss
loss of genetic resources
resources and the
creation of
creation of a poor socio-economy
socio-economy forfor the
the rural
rural poor
poor who
who depend
depend on these trees or or their
their
products for survival.
 24

Gums Res ns
Resins Essentail Oils

Acacia senegal Allanblackia parviflora

Allanblac1da parviflora Ocimum
Ocimum gratissimum
A.
A. albida Amphimas pterocarpoidas Piper
Amphimaspterocmpoidas Piper guineensis
A.dudgeoni Berlinia grandiflora
A. farnesiana
A. farnesiana Copaifera salikounda
A. hockii
A. Daniellia thurifera
A. polycantha
A. polycantha Garcinia kola
A. nilotica
A. Zanthoxylum xanthoxyloides
Burkea africana Nauclea latifolia
Albizia zygia Pseudospondias microcarpa
Combretum
Combretum nigricans Pterocarpus ernaceus
Spondias mombin Carapa procera
Sterculia setigera Ceiba pentandra
pentandra
Stercula tragacantha Tetraplaura tetraptera
Albizia adianthifolia
Albizia
Anogeisus leiocarpus
Balanites aegyptica
Cola gigantea
Dialium guineensis
Diospyrus mespiliformis
Entada africana
Hidegardia barteri
Piptademiastrum africanum
Entandofragma spp

1. Inventory
Figure 1. Inventory of
of Native Gum, Resin
Resin and Essential Oil
Oil Producing
Producing Plants

Apart from
Apart from deforestation which has
deforestation which has resulted
resulted inin loss
loss of vital
vital germplasm,
germplasm, Africa is not not
politically stable and many wars
and many wars which
which areare fought
fought on
on the
the continent
continent contribute
contribute to
to loss
loss of
genetic resources either in the
the field
field or
or in
in storage.
storage.
Can genetic resources
resources be safely stored in Africa now? Yes, Yes, but
but duplicate
duplicate copies
copies need to
need to
be put away (IPGRI) for security.
(IPGRl) for security. AsAs deforestation
deforestation andand change
change in in conditions
conditions continue,
continue,
we will continue to lose vital germplasm, resources that are the building blocks for for future
future
development. IUFRO
development. IUFRO (1989)
(1989) recognised
recognised thisthis problem
problem and suggested
suggested conservation
conservation and and
research on some multipurpose trees with DANIDA's contribution for seed
research seed storage.
storage. In
Nigeria, this project did not take off, but the document is still available and can can be
be useful.
useful.
IUFRO (1989) suggested immediate
immediate effort
effort on genetic
genetic improvement and the development
of effective
effective silvo-pastoral
silvo-pastoral management
management systemssystems for
for these
these continually
continually degraded
degraded and and
stressed natural woodlands.
 25

Past Attempts on Genetic Improvement

FAO (1980)
FAO proposed aa project
(1980) proposed project in Senegal
Senegal and
and Sudan,
Sudan, among
among other countlies, for
other countries,
collection of
collection of the genetic
genetic resources
resources of some species including
some tree species including Acacia nilotica,
nilotica, A.
A.
tortilis, Prosopis spp and the well-known
tortilis, Prosopis spp and the well-known gum-producing
gum-producing tree,
tree, Acacia The
senegal. The
Acacia senegal.
collection areas in these countries were identified and the taxonomic status of the species
and their variants determined.
determined. This project commenced a significantly robust and soundly
scientific approach to saving the continually degrading genepools of these species. Table
scientific
1I shows
shows the
the state
state of
of field
field plantings
plantings of
of some gum-producing species,
some gum-producing species, particularly A.
particularly A.
in many
senegal, in many countries
countries in
in Africa.
Africa.
In 1988,
In 1988, FAO
FAO developed
developed a project
project plan for
for many
many dryland
dryland MPTs
MPTs (see FAOFAO Project
Project
GCP/RAF/2341FRA), for
GCP/RAF/234IFRA), for Tanzania
Tanzania and
and many
many other African countries.

Table 1:
1: Some Records ofof past general or provenance trials on some gum producing tree
species in Africa (Modified after IUFRO, 1989)
1989)

Species Year planted Location (Country)

senegal
Acacia senegal 1973 Nigeria
Mauritania
Niger
1974 Senegal
Senegal
1975
1975 Senegal
Senegal
1976
1976 Senegal
Sudan
Parkia
Parha biglobosa
biglobosa 1977 Burkina Faso
1984
1984 Burkina Faso
1991 Burkina Faso, Nigeria
1986 Mali

This plan recommended the following steps: steps:

a) Genetic resources collection
collection (ex-situ and in-situ)
b) Genetic resources conservation
c) Provenance trials, progeny trials and eventual breeding
It also suggested clonal development and and selection based on robust clonal trials and and then
then
the establishment
the establishment of clonal
clonal seed orchards.
orchards. The species
species listed included
included Acacia senegal,
senegal,
obviously because of its
obviously because its importance
importance forfor the
the production
production ofof gum
gum arabic.
arabic. Considering
Considering that
that
gum
gum arabic
arabic was mainly collected from the wild, FAO (1988)
collected from (1988) reported that in in Tanzania
Tanzania
only 4040 kg ofof seed was demanded while for
demanded while for Azadiracta
Azadiracta indica,
indica, demand
demand was
was 600
600 kg
kg per
annum. This shows
annum. This shows the
the low
low level
level of planting
planting practiced
practiced for
for most
most of of these
these MPTs.
MPTs. InIn A.
A.
senegal, five
senegal, five provenances
provenances werewere identified
identified (Arusha,
(Arusha, Singida,
Singida, Ilangani, Tabora and
Ilangani, Tabora
Mbinga) in this proposal.
A network
network of 14 14 countries
countries (2(2 regions)
regions) was
was suggested,
suggested, and
and itit covered
covered Burkina
Burkina Faso,
Faso,
Cameroon, Chad,
Cameroon, Ethiopia, Gambia,
Chad, Ethiopia, Gambia, Kenya,
Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger,
Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal,
Senegal,
Somalia, Sudan and Tanzania.
Somalia, Sudan Twelve of these
Tanzania. Twelve these countries
countries were
were involved
involved in the network
network
suggested by IUFRO (1989) on Acacia senegal (see Table 2).
 26

On IUFRO's
On TIJFRO's (1989)
(1989) request,
request, countries
countries suggested
suggested thethe species in which
species in which theythey were
were
interested but
interested but this process was
was probably wrong. It is
probably wrong. is thus
thus valuable
valuable that
that aa preference
preference
survey on
survey on gum, resin and
and tannin
tannin including
including essential-oil
essential-oil bearing trees be carried out in
be carried
each of
of the countries.

Table 2: Status of
2: Status ofin-country
in-country activities
activities in
in breeding
breeding and
and related
related research
research (Modified
(Modified after
after
IUFRO, 1989)
Country Biology
Biology of Clonal and Seed I Veg I
Tissue ! Conserve
tree spp Progeny Ordered!
Ordered Prop. Culture i
!
dey. I
dev.
Burkina Faso x x x x x
Cameroon x x x
Chad x x
Ethiopia x
Gambia x
Kenya x x x x x x
Mali x
Mauritania x
Niger x x x x
Nigeria x x x x x x
Senegal x x x x x x
Somalia
Sudan
Tanzania x x x x x

The Process of Genetic

Genetic Improvement
Improvement
produce gums.
Many plants produce gums. Various
Various presentations
presentations at this meeting have already described
gum-producingtrees
gum-producing trees and
and mentioned
mentioned the the various
various typestypes which
which include:
include: GumGum karaya
karaya
(Sterculia gum),
(Sterculia gum), S. S. villosa,
villosa, GumGum arabic
arabic (Acacia
(Acacia senegal
senegal gum),
gum), A. A. senegal,
senegal, GumGum
combretum (Combretum
combretum (Combretum gum), gum), Combretum nigicans; and Gum
Combretum nigicans; Gum talha
talha (Acacia
(Acacia gum),
gum), A.
A.
seyal and A.
A. sieberiana.
sieberiana. The situation
situation is the same same with resin
resin and
and essential-oil
essential-oil producing
1).
plants (Fig. 1).
Where many plants
Where many plants are
are involved
involved in in the production
production of useful products, we
useful products, we need
need to
to go
through various
through various processes
processes in order to get to to the
the priority
priority species
species andand goals
goals ofofproducing
producing
improved products (Fig.(Fig. 2). It is vital that
that aa list
list of
ofwanted
wanted species
species andand traits
traits be
be generated
generated
for each country.
country. ThisThis process
process of ofspecies
species prioritisation
prioritisation is is well
well documented
documented by ICRAF ICRAF
(Jaenike et al.,
a!., 1996)
1996) and
and can
can help
help to
to identify
identify priority
priority species
species inin each
each ofofthe
the countries.
countries.
Booth and Wickens
Booth Wickens (1988)
(1988) described non-timber uses
described non-timber uses of
of selected arid zone trees and
selected arid and
shrubs in Africa.
Africa. They
They provided
provided aa clear
clear account
account of of the
the uses
uses and
and the environmental
environmental needs
of
of various multipurpose
multipurpose species,
species, including
including those
those of of Acacia
Acacia senegal.
senegal. Their
Their account
account on
on A.
A.
senegal has provided
senegal provided the synthesis
synthesis of ofinformation
information critically
critically needed
needed forfor developing
developing aa
improvement and
viable approach to the genetic improvement and domestication of of this species.
species.
Besides, it is important that the the criteria
criteria for
for consideration
consideration be be identified
identified andand discussed
discussed with
with
farmers, users and in this case by foreign industries that use them and know what product
farmers, product
consumers need.
consumers need. In the the case
case ofofgums,
gums, the theinvolvement
involvement of ofthe
theFAO/WHO
F AO/WHO Expert Expert
Committee'
Committees son onFood
Food Additives
Additives is vital. The support
vital. The support of the US National Academy Academy of
Sciences will also be invaluable so that the desired traits are considered for research, and
followed strictly.
followed strictly. Acacia senegal (the (the gum
gum arabic
arabic producing
producing tree) will be be used
used as
as an
 27

example here.
example here. However,
However, for
for a multipurpose tree such as Acacia
multipurpose tree Acacia senegal,
senegal, desirable
desirable tree
include: fast growth,
criteria may include: resistance, high gum yield, production of
growth, drought resistance, of high
high
quality non variable gum, and resistance to pests and diseases.
The process ofof genetic improvement will continue to follow the pattern described in Fig.
3, where
3, where range-wide
range-wide germplasm collection and
gernlplasm collection and conservation
conservation will
will be
be carried
carried out and
and
inherent variability fully identified and
and captured. Genetic resources collection will follow
captured. Genetic
the
the recommendations
recommendations of of FAO
FAO (1988),
(1988), based on on prior
plior and
andadequate
adequateeco-geographic
eco-geographic
survey. Accessions will
survey. Accessions will need
need to
to be duplicated
duplicated at various
various locations
locations to prevent
prevent loss
loss in
in
Africa as a result of
ofconstant
constant instability.
instability.

STAGE 11
STAGE
Stage)
(Identification Stage)
TROPICAL FORESTS
(COUNTRIES)

ED
Villages Other Communities
Ethnobotanical
Surveys (IK)

Identified species for

specific products

Prioritization
Prioritizatio nII
lJ

Scientific evaluation of
product to ascertain quality
or potentials (Screening
products)
PnontisationnIl
Pnontlsatlo II
,It

Selected
Selected 'few' species
species and
identified trait preferences

t
Stage II
Proceed to Stage

Figure 2: Processes involved

Processes involved in
in obtaining
obtaining priority
priority species
species and
and determining goals
of producing improved products
 28

The
The next phase
phase (Phase
(Phase III)
III) will
will include
include the
the process
process for
for carrying
carrying out
out actual
actual genetic
genetic
improvement (see Fig. 4). It will need to first
first review and evaluate
evaluate the
the values
values in
in the
the works
works
already carried out in these countries. For example, in Tanzania, where provenances have
already been identified and work on them planned and carried out, breeding and selection
proceed. Selection
can proceed. Selection should
should be carried
carried out
out at
at this stage together with all other support
support
activities such
activities such as
as vegetative
vegetative propagation which can
propagation which can result
result in early
early clonal
clonal trials.
trials. The
The
development of
development of seed
seed orchards
orchards to
to ensure
ensure seed
seed supply for commercial
commercial planting
planting and the
production ofof high-quality gums or or other products as may be the case should
should also
also be
be fully
fully
considered. The final phase (Phase IV) will
considered. The final phase (Phase IV) will be the integration of
integration of the materials
materials produced
from the processes
from processes described
described in Figures
Figures 2 to 44 into
into appropriate
appropriate production
production systems.
systems. In In
this case, institutions such
such as
as ICRAF
ICRAF andand National
National Research
Research Systems,
Systems, (NARS),
(NARS), including
including
NGOs can proceed to work.

STAGE II
(Genetic Improvement)

Selected 'few'
'few' species
species and
and identified
identified
trait preferences

1
Exploration (wide range)

Inter-population Intra-population
variabilitys-tudies
variability studies variability studies
Provenance trials 1 1 Progeny trials
Further
Conservation tests
le~l~
Conservation
(Live gene banks) (Live Gene Banks)

Figure 3. The
Theprocess
process of
ofgenetic
genetic improvement
improvement
 29

Phase III

Collection and Exchange

DIVERSEPR
DIVERSE PRODUCTS
ODUCTS
of germplasm
of

Provenance / Progeny
Trials

Se ection / Conservation
ISelection

Breeding I\ Vege ative Propagation (VP)

Vegetative

Progeny Evaluations Cloud Evaluations

I I

IInput
nput of
of other genes
(Hybridisation)

Further Breeding* I Seed Orchard Development

Deve opment I

1
Release of quality seed

UNIFO
UNIFORM PRODUCTS

* Further breeding to solve specific problems (pests, diseases, etc.)

Figure 4: A regional
regional Research
ResearchApproach
Approach(VVest
(West and East/South)
East/South) for
for A.
A. senegal
senegal
 30

The improved
The materials produced
improved materials produced willwill have
have toto be integrated into a viable
integrated into viable production
production
system.
system. Wiersum (1996) suggested the consideration of tree morphology. He suggested suggested
that this will need to be manipulated
manipulated as it is aa major
major component
component of the plant's
plant's ability
ability to
to
produce in its immediate
immediate environment.
environment. Wiersum (1996) was referring to the the integration
integration
of these trees in agroforestry systems
of systems andand for
for this,
this, his
his assertions
assertions are
are viable.
viable.
This phase (Fig. 5)5) as
as suggested
suggested in
in the
the present
present paper
paper will,
will, however,
however, consider
consider inin addition
addition
to agroforestry
agroforestry system, the intensive
intensive monoculture
mono culture production systems which have so so far
far
been practiced in Africa with Acacia senegal, in its present small trial plantings.

Phase IV
(Production System)

mproved Materials
Improved

Intensive Monoculture
System
.\Agroforestry System

NARS AND NATIONAL -Trees in a row

SYSTEMS
DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS - Parklands System
- Multistreta Systems
(ICRAFand NARS)

Figure 5: Integration
Integration of
of improved
improved materials
materials into
into aa viable
viable production system

is common
It is common to to consider
consider seed
seed orchards mainly as
orchards mainly as reliable sources of
reliable sources of seed
seed for
for
afforestation, orchards are
afforestation, such orchards are also established to make genetic management of forests
possible. Good
Good "seed
"seed production
production areas"
areas" can
can as
as well
well be
be useful
useful if careful
careful selection
selection of
individuals with desirable heritable
helitable traits is
is made
made from
from parent
parent trees
trees or stands
stands in
in the
the forest.
forest.

Through mass selection,

Through mass selection, genes
genes can accumulate
accumulate if reselections
res elections are
are confined
confined toto stands
stands
generated
generated by such selections
selections in the previous generation but
generation but this process
process can be saddled
saddled
with various
various problems.
problems. Therefore,
Therefore, a strict
strict program
program forfor seed
seed orchard
orchard development
development in in
order
order to ensure
ensure the
the continued
continued supply
supply ofof quality
quality seed
seed for
for development
development is is suggested
suggested
(Ladipo et.
et. al. 1993).
1993).
 31

Strategy
Strateg,y
Recent regional
Recent regional efforts
efforts on
on some Multi-purpose
Multi-purpose tree tree species
species such as Par/da
Parha biglobosa
biglobosa
(EEC) and Milicea excelsa (ITTO) show that it is possible and productive to
(EEC) and Milicea excelsa (ITTO) show that it is possible and productive to take
take a
regional rather than
regional rather than aa national
national approach
approach to to research
research on ongenetic
genetic improvement
improvement and and
domestication. Using
domestication. Using Acacia senegal
senegal as as an
an example, a 14 14 country collaboration (Table 2)
is recommended.
recommended. For For ease
ease of research
research management,
management, aa West West andand East/South
East/South Africa
Africa
approach for
approach for research collaboration is suggested but full exchange of germplasm between
of gellnplasm between
both zones (East/West)
(East/West) is required and exchange of expertise between the groups groups (sub-
(sub-
regions)
regions) will also be encouraged. It is important
encouraged. It is important to consider this, because in the past, lack
of sufficient
sufficient research
research collaboration
collaboration caused
caused major
major deficiencies
deficiencies inin research
research approach.
approach.
Particularly, there
Particularly, there has never been sufficient exchange or interaction between researchers researchers
or experts within the
the continent
continent or
or within
within regions.
regions. This has caused a lot of of duplication and
fimds, which could have been better used to further research.
waste of funds,
With the efforts of
of the FAO, and IPGRI and other international agencies or or organisations,
organisations,
these problems
these problems can
can be
be solved
solved as
as they
they will
will act as "links-men" and the proper proper potentials
potentials
inherent in these vital non-wood forest
forest resources
resources adequately realised.
realised.

Needs
Training is
Training is needed
needed in
in order
order to
to allow
allow proper
properresearch
researchdevelopment.
development. On this issue, the need
to identify the key areas ofof research requiring immediate training oror support
support is
is thus
thus vital.
vital.
Although this paper has dealt
Although this dealt with
with Acacia
Acacia senegal as an
senegal ,, as an example,
example, the
the process
process forfor
domestication suggested
domestication suggested above
above cancan be
be applied
applied to
to other species
species such as those
those producing
producing
resins or essential oils.

References

Abbiw,
Abbiw, D.D. K.,
K., 1990.
1990. Useful
Useful plants
plants of
ofGhana
Ghana:: West
West African
African uses
uses of
ofwild
wild and
and cultivated
cultivated
Teclmology Publications and The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
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Booth, F.
Booth, F. E.
E. M.
M. and Wickens G. E.,
Wickens G. E., 1988.
1988. Non-timber
Non-timber uses of
of selected
selected arid zone trees
and shrubs
and shrubs inin Africa.
Africa. FAO
FAO Conservation
Conservation Guide
Guide No. 19. Food
No. 19. Food and
and Agriculture
Agriculture
ofthe
Organization of 176.
the United Nations, Rome. pp. 176.

Brenan, J.J P. M., 1983.

Brenan, 1983. Economic
Economic plants. Biologist,30(2),
Biologist,30(2), 75-79.
75-79.

FAO,
F AO, 1988.
1988. Evaluatioln
Evaluatioln and
and development
development of
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genetic resources
resources of
ofdryland
dryland Multipurpose
Multipurpose
of the Govt. of
Woody Species. Project of of Tanzania.
Tanzania. GCP/RAF/2341FRA.
GCPIRAF1234IFRA. pp61.

Harding,
Harding, D., 1982.
1982. Conservation
Conservation of genetic Resources Biologist 29 (5), 268 - 269.
of genetic

Harlan, J.J. R.,

Harlan, R., 1975.
1975. Crops
Crops and
and Man.
Man. American
AmericanSociety
Societyofof
Agr, onomy/Crop Science.
Agronomy/Crop Science.
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ICRAF, 1994.
ICRAF, 1994. Annual Report.
Annual Report. International Centre
International Centre for
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Research in
111 Agroforestry
Agroforestry
(ICRAF) Nairobi, Kenya.
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IUFRO, 1988.
1988. Tree
TreeImprovement
Improvement and
and Silvo-pastoral
Silvo-pastoral Management
Management in in Sahelian
Sahelian and
and North
North
Africa; Problems, Needs
Sudanian Africa; Needs and Research Proposals.
Proposals. Compiled by C. Cossalter,
Cos salter, D.
D.
Krugman and
E. Iyamabo, S. L. Krugman and O. Fugali. (Ed. D. E.E. Iyamabo).
Iyamabo). International Union of
Research Organizations.
Forestry Research Organizations. pp
pp 196.
196.

IUFRO, 1989. Tree

IUFRO, 1989. Tree Improvement
Improvement and
and SiNo-pastoral
Silvo-pastoral Management
Management inin Sahelian
Sahelian and
and North
North
Sudanian Africa. Problems,
Problems, Needs
Needs and
and Research
Research Proposals
Proposals (Ed.
(Ed. D.
D. E.
E. Iyamabo).
Iyamabo). pp
pp 196.
196.

Jaenicke, H., Franzel,

Jaenicke, H., Franzel, S.
S. and
and Boland, D. J., 1996.
Boland, D. 1996. Towards
Towards aa method
method to
to set
set priorities
priorities
among species
among species for
for tree
tree improvement
improvementresearch:
research:aacase
casestudy
studyfrom
fromWest
WestAfrica.
Africa. Journal
Journal ofof
Tropical Forest Science, 490-506.

D. O., Esegu,
Ladipo, D.O., Esegu, F.
F. and E.
E. A.
A. Oduwaiye,
Oduwaiye, 1993.
1993. The
The production
production of
ofquality
quality tree
tree seed:
seed:
In Proceedings
Proceedings of an
an International
International Workshop
Workshop on Seed
Seed Procurement
Procurement and
and Legal
Legal
Regulations for forest reproductive material
material in tropical and subtropical
sUbtropical countries.
countries. Ed.
Ed. H.
Wolfpp
Wolf 555.
pp 555.

Lanly,
Lanly, J. P., 1988.
1988. InInNon-timber
Non-timberuses
uses of
ofselected
selected arid
aridzone
zonetrees
trees and
andshrubs
shrubsininAfrica.
Africa.
F.E.
F.E. M. Booth
Booth and
and G.G. E.
E. Wickens.
Wickens. Food
FoodandandAgricultw-e
Agriculture Organization
Organization ofof the
the United
United
Conservation Guide) pp 176.
Nations, Rome (FAO Conservation 176.

Leakey, R.R.B. and A.M.N. Izac,

Izac, 1996.
1996. In Domestication
Domestication and
and Commercialisation
Commercialisation of
ofnon-
non-
timber forest products in
in Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry Systems.
Systems. FAO,
F AO, Rome,
Rome, 1-6.
1-6.

Seif El Din and Manar Zarroug, 1996.

1996. In Domestication and Commercialization
Commercialization of
of non-
timber Forest Products in agroforestry systems FFAO
AO Rome,
Rome, 176-182.

Simmons,
Simmons, A. A. J., 1996.
1996. In
InDomestication
Domestication and
and Commercialisation
Commercialisation of
of non-timber
non-timber forest
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products in
products in Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry Systems.
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FAO, Rome,
Rome, 8-22.
8-22.

Wiersum K.F., 1996.

1996. Domestication
Domestication of valuable
valuable tree species
species in
in agroforestry
agroforestry systems:
systems:
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 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382751 33

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ITS

OWLEDGE AND ITS APPLICATION
APPLICATION IN
RESOLVING CONSERVATION AND
AND UTILISATION
UTILISATION PROBLEMS

EDMUND G.C.G.c. BARROW,

Community Conservation Coordinator
African Wildlife Foundation,
Foundation,
P.O.Box 48177, Nairobi, Kenya.

Local Knowledge Ignored

Semi-Arid Lands
Arid and Semi-A_rid Landsoccupy
occupyextensive
extensiveareas
areasof ofAfrica,
Africa,upup to
to 80%
80% in thethe IGAD
IGAD
countries and between
countries and between 30 30 and 90%
90% in other African
African countries.
countries. Our
Our knowledge
knowledge basebase for
for
lacking. Emphasis
such lands is woefully lacking. Emphasis has been
been placed
placed on
on technological
technological fixes to what
fixes to what
are, more often than not, social issues
issues (Barrow,
(Barrow, 1996).
1996). Land
Land conversion
conversion and excision
excision to
seemingly more productive
seemingly more productive land
land uses,
uses, such
such as irrigation
irrigation and
and dryland
dryland agriculture
agriculture is is
preferred to improving
preferred improving natural
natural resource
resource management.
management. Change Change has been been externally
externally
imposed,
imposed, thereby ignoring the wealthwealth of
oflocal
local lcnowledge
knowledge and and management
management experience
experience
which exists
which exists across the drylands
across the Africa. By
drylands of Africa. Byignoring
ignoring that
that knowledge
knowledge base,
base, through
through
external
external interventions, education systems
interventions, education systems which
which favor
favor others,
others, are
are being
being marginalised
marginalised
from
from their better
better lands. This perpetuates
lands. This perpetuates a neo-colonial
neo-colonial and and paternalistic
paternalistic perspective
perspective
derived from agrarian and industrial-based "modern" society,
industrial-based "modem" society, and
and is probably the single
most important contributing factor to the demise
contributing factor demise of of the
the ASALs,
ASALs, their
their perpetual
perpetual famine
fanline
dependency.

To understand the ASALs we must understand how people

understand how people survive and thrive,
tmive, why they
do what they do, and what niechanisms
mechanisms both technical and social they have put put in
in place
place to
to
of the limited resource base they have at their disposal - a resource base limited
make use of limited
by the unforgiving climate. This
unforgiving climate. This isis aawide
widesubject,
subject, encompassing
encompassing anan understanding
understanding of
pastoralism, dryland
pastoralism, dryland natural
natural resource
resource management
management and and conservation
conservation (Ellis and
and Swift,
Swift,
1988). For
1988). For this
this presentation focusisis going
presentation focus going toto be
be placed
placed on how
how and
and why
why people
people
inhabiting the
inhabiting the drylands
drylands of Africa
Africa conserve, use and manage
conserve, use manage trees,
trees, with
with aaparticular
particular
emphasis on the topic ofof this conference.

Risk and Resilience

Resilience Central to Dryland Natural Resource Management
Pastoralism
Pastoralism is
is based on risk spreading
spreading and resilience
resilience - two interdependent
interdependent factors
factors vital
vital to
sustainable
sustainable management
management of natural
natural resources
resources in
in such
such harsh environments, yet
harsh environments, factors
yet two factors
which are misunderstood
which misunderstood and misrepresented. For successful
misrepresented. For successful dryland
dryland natural
natural resource
resource
management, risk
management, risk spreading,
spreading, mobility
mobility and
and resilience
resilienceneed
needtoto include
include some
some or all
all of
of the
the
following attributes:

• wet, dry season grazing areas, and dry season forage reserves
• keeping
keeping of multi
multi species
species of
oflivestock
livestock including
including grazers
grazers (sheep,
(sheep, cattle,
cattle, donkeys)
donkeys) and
and
browsers (goats, camels)
• access rights, group or individual, to areas of
of land, rich resources e.g.
e.g. trees
• water rights (and
(and salt)
 34

41> practising low input opportunistic crop production

41> malcing
making useuse of
of and storing wild fruits and foods
foods and
and other
other natural
natural products
productssuch
suchasasg,ums
gums
and resins, especially those of of trees
41> to sell stock and buy grain (and vice versa)
ability to
• dividing herds into smaller units
• social structure
struct-urethat
thatenables
enables sharing
sharing and
and lending
lending oflivestock
of livestock
linkages with
• linkages with other types
types of resource
resource user
user to
to make
make best
best use of that resource for instance
manuring of ofagricultural
agricultural land,
land, and
and use
use of
ofcrop
crop residues.
residues.

Role of
Role of Woody
Woody Species,
Species,Timber
Timberand
and Non-Timber
Non-Timber Forest
Forest Products
Products
All detailed studies of
of uses and
and perceptions
perceptions of
of trees
trees by
by rural
rural people,
people, especially
especially those
those in
in the
the
drylands, show
drylands, show that there is an
that there an extensive
extensive ethnobotanical
ethnobotanical lcnowledge, with a keen
knowledge, with keen
appreciation of
appreciation of species'
species' properties
properties (Weber
(Weber and Hoslcins,1983; Leach and
Hoskins,1983; Leach and Mearns,
Meams, 1988; 1988;
Rochleau et
Rochleau et at.,
al., 1988; Chambers, et
1988; Chambers, et at.,
al., 1989; Barrow, 1996).
1989; Barrow, 1996). Trees
Trees are
are used
used for
for a wide
variety of
variety of purposes,
purposes, and and nowhere
nowhere more
more so so than in the
the drylands
drylands where
where woody
woody vegetation
vegetation
better, and produces
survives better, produces more in thethe drier times.
times. This
This detailed
detailed and
and extensive knowledge
knowledge
about individual
individual tree
tree species and their management is reflected in their people's
people's life
life styles,
styles,
the extent
and the extent of their dependence
dependence onon trees.
trees. There
There is ample
ample evidence across the drylands of
that many different tree species in different systems have been deliberately managed
Africa that
by the local people.

tree species
Some tree species are more important than others since they can survive and and produce
produce well
through the long dry seasons when they are
even through are particularly
particularly important, including drought
drought
times. Indeed,
times. Indeed, the
the woody vegetation may constitute
constitute the most valuable
valuable resource that
that such
such
arid and semi-arid lands areas have and within such areasareas riverine forest
forest and other rich patch
areas
areas of vegetation may be the the most
most important
important (Ecosystems,
(Ecosystems, 1985;
1985; Barrow,
Barrow, 1987;
1987; Forestry
Forestry
Department Turkana District, 1989; Barrow 1990; Gerden and Mtallo, Mtallo, 1990; Barrow, 1996).
This knowledge
This knowledge reflects
reflects the
the life
life styles
styles and
and the
the extent
extent of
of their
their dependence
dependence on the
the woody
woody
vegetation including

41> dry timber for woodfuel and charcoal

charcoal
• building timber for houses, fencing and thatching
• food for livestock particularly in the dry season
• fruits and foods
wild fruits foods for people
• use of gums and resins for food, cultural uses
food, medicinal and cultural uses as
as well
well as
as for
for trade
trade
• veterinary medicines for a variety of livestock diseases
oflivestock
41> human medicines for a variety of of diseases
41> making of household utensils
41> amenity for shade to act as a meeting place
• variety of
of cultural
cultual values,
values,water
waterpurification,
purification, and
and ceremonial
ceremonial purposes
41> access and ownership rights to trees

Dryland natural resource management strategies have evolved so as to make optimal optimal use of
a wide
wide range
range of
of opportunities
opportunities which
which mitigate risk and improve
mitigate risk improve resilience. A range
resilience. A range of
species, a wide anay
livestock species, airay of
of food species available at
at different
different times
times of the year and the
 35

use of
of natural products for trade among other factors, contribute to
factors, contribute to this.
this. Yet many of
of these
production strategies are
production strategies are not
not recognised,
recognised, not
not valued,
valued, and
and there are
are continued
continued attempts
attempts to
to
substitute them.

Dryland Natural
Natural Resource
Resource Management
Management To
To Have
Have Local Level "Value"
For dryland natural resource management to be important and develop, it has to have value,
economic value
economic value at
at a local
local and national
national level. However, this
level. However, this value
value has
has to be balanced with
risk and resilience.
resilience. Livestock have an obvious and important
Livestock have important value.
value. However,
However, the value of
other natural
natural products may be locally, but usually are not nationally, understood.
understood. To regain
some of its viability,
some viability, the gross
gross pastoral
pastoral product
product has to
to be
be better
betterrecognised,
recognised, improved
improved
economic options
economic options need to be in place for the production and marketing of of pastoral products
products
and national
and national governments must facilitate
governments must facilitate the
the enabling
enabling environment pastoralism so
environment pastoralism so badly
badly
needs. Not
needs. Not to do
do so,
so, will
willperpetuate
perpetuate the
theexpropriation
expropriation of
ofthe
themost
mostproductive
productive drylands,
drylands,
denigration of pastoralism
denigration of pastoralism asas a land use, and
and continued
continued famine and aid dependency
dependency in the
the
drought-prone lands
vast drought-prone ofAfrica.
lands of Africa.

Gums and Resins in Dryland

Dryland Natural Resource Management:
The role of
of gums and and resins
resins is one
one component
component of of aa number
number of ofnon-timber
non-timber forest
forest products,
products,
which if integrated
which integrated and and balanced
balanced with
with other
other opportunities
opportunities for for dryland
dryland management,
management, can can
contribute to
to the economic well-being and long-term
long-term viability
viability ofof such
such areas.
areas. There are well
documented examples
documented examples of of the
the use
use of g-ums
gums andand resins
resins inin Africa,
Africa, some
some of which are are being
being
presented
presented in these proceedings (Hammer, 1982;
proceedings (Hammer, Eckholm et
1982; Eckholm et ai.,
al., 1984;
1984; Seif el Din, 1987a;
1987a;
Din, 1987b). The trick is not to ignore
Seif el Din, ignore local
local knowledge, but to understand
understand itit so
so as
as to
to
be able
able to assist
assist in
in adapting
adapting and
and improving
improving it;
it; not
not to
to ignore
ignore local
local land-use
land-use systems
systems but to to
strengthen and
strengthen and support their integrity;
integrity; not to bypass local social
social structures,
structures, but understand
understand
and provide
and synergy for
provide synergy for them;
them; and
and not toto substitute
substitute or or expropriate,
expropriate, but to to enable
enable local
local
ownership.

If this workshop is to have impact on dryland

chyland natural
natural resource management, it is
is going
going have
have
to

II understand the wider issues of

understand of dryland
dryland natural
natural resource
resource management,
management, where gums
gums and
and
resins are one component;
II assist with improved, but based on existing, production techniques;
II recognise and foster local ownership of of land and resources
resources (ownership may be single, but
based on
more likely based on aa group;
group; itit is
is mostly
mostly de can be de jure);
de facto, but can
II create viable and functional marketing networks for gums and and resins; and
II demonstratethat
demonstrate that gums
gums andand resins
resins cancan make
make a contribution
contribution toto land
land use and
and national
economies that is worth the investment.

If
If we cannot start to
to improve
improve dryland
dryland natural
natural resource
resource management,
management, by acknowledging and
by aclmowledging
valuing the wide range of of economic
economic options
options including
including those
those from livestock, produce from
from livestock, from
wild plants and
and trees,
trees, limited
limited cropping,
cropping, conservation,
conservation, and tourism; by ensuring
and tourism; ensuring that an
an
enabling
enabling policy environment
environment is is in place; and by building on the potential and opportunities
found in the local lcnowledge
knowledge base,
base, then of the drylands can only worsen - a plight
then the plight ofthe
 36

not of
of existing land users' making, but
but externally, and maybe unwittingly, driven by national
aovernments and donors.
governments

References:
Barrow, E. G. C., 1987. Report of results and findings
ofresults findings from
from a survey on 'Ekwar' carried out
from November
fi-om November 1986
1986 to
to July
July 1987.
1987. Lodwar,
Lodwar, Forestry
Forestry Department,
Department, Turkana district: 20.

Barrow, E. G.
Barrow, E. G. C., 1990.
1990. "Usufruct rights
rights to
to trees:
trees: The
The role
role of `Ekwar'
'Ekwar' in
in dryland
dryland Central
Central
Human Ecolog,y
Kenya." Human
Turkana, Kenya." Ecology 18(2): 163-176.

Barrow, E. G. C., 1996. The Drylands of Africa: Local

of Africa: Local Participation in Tree
Tree Management.
Management.
Initiatives Publishers, Nairobi, Kenya.

Chambers,R.,
Chambers, R., A.
A. Pacey,
Pacey, et al.,
aI., Eds., 1989. Farmer
Eds., 1989. Farmer First:
First: Farmer
Farmer Innovation
Innovation and
and
Agricultural Research. London,
Agricultural London, Intermediate
Intermediate Technology
Tec1mo10gy Publications.

Eckholm,
EckhoIm, E. and G. Foley, 1984. energy crisis
1984. Fuelwood: the ener,D) crisis that
that won't
won't go
go away. London,
London,
Earthscan.

Ecosystems, L.,
Ecosystems, L., 1985. Turkana District
District Resources survey 1982-1984.
1982-1984. Nairobi, Report
Report for
for
Republic of
of Kenya, Ministry of
of Energy
Energy and
and Regional Development, Turkana
Turkana Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation
Project: 261.

Ellis, J.
Ellis, J. E. and
and D.
D. M.
M. Swift,
Swift, 1988.
1988. "Stability
"Stability of
ofAfrican
African pastoral
pastoral ecosystems:
ecosystems: alternative
alternative
paradigms and implications for development."JJ Range
for development." Range Management 41(6): 450-459.

Forestry
Forestry Department
Department Turkana
Turkana district, 1989. Draft
district, 1989. Draft forestry policy and
forestry policy and guidelines
guidelines for
for
Turkana district.
Turkana district. Based
Based on the
the recommendations
recommendations from district,
district, divisional
divisional and
and location
location
seminars on
seminars on forestry
forestry and
and woody
woody management for chiefs,
management for chiefs, leaders,
leaders, elders,
elders, women
women andand
extension agents. Lodwar, Forestry Department, Turkana District.

Gerden, C. A. and S. Mtallo, 1990.

1990. Traditional
Traditional Forest reserves in
in Babati
Babati District,
District, Tanzania.
Tanzania.
A study
A study in
in human
human ecology.
ecology. Uppsala,
Uppsala, Sweden,
Sweden, Forestry
Forestry Trees
Trees and People
People and
and Swedish
Swedish
University of Agricultural
University Agricultural Sciences
Sciences - International
International Rural Development
Development Centre
Centre Working
Working
Paper 128: 50.
50.

Hammer, T.,
Hammer, T., 1982.
1982. Reforestaton
Reforestaton and
and community
community development
development in in the Sudan.
Sudan. Bergen,
Bergen,
Norway, Christen Michelsen Institute. DERAP Publication
Publication No.
No. 150.
150.

Leach, G.
Leach, G. and R. Mearns, 1988.
1988. Beyond the woodfuel
Beyond the woodfuel Crisis.
Crisis. People,
People, Land
Land and
and Trees
Trees in
Africa. London, Earthscan.

1988. Agroforestry in Dryland

Rochleau, D.and F. Weber, 1988.
Rochleau, Dryland Africa. Nairobi, ICRAF Science
Science
of Agroforestry.
and Practise of
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G., 1987.
Seif el Din, A. G., 1987. Gum
Gmn Hashab and land Tenure
Tenure in Western
Western Sudan.
Sudan. Proceeding of
of
International Workshop
Workshop on Tenure
Tenure Issues in Agroforestry. J.J. B.
in Ag,roforestry. B. Raintree.
Raintree. Nairobi,
Nairobi, ICRAF
ICRAF
and Land Tenure Centre.
Centre.

G., 1987.
Seif el Din, A. G., 1987. The
The natural
natural regeneration
regeneration of
of Acacia
Acacia senegal
senegal (L)
(L) wild.
wild. Khartoum,
Khartomn,
of Khartoum.
University ofKhartomn.

Weber, F.
Weber, F. and M. Hoskins, 1983. Agroforestry
Agroforestry inin the
the Sahel.
Sahel. AA concept
conceptpaper
paper based on the
Niamey Agroforestry Seminar,
Seminar, 23
23 May
May toto 9 June 1983.
1983. Virginia,
Virginia, Department
Department of
ofSociology,
Sociology,
Blacksburg, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
FAO LIBRARY AN: 382753 38
38

KNOWLEDGE AND
INDIGENOUS I(NOWLEDGE UTILISATION POTENTIALS
AND UTILISATION
OF SELECTED GUM,
GUM, RESIN AND
AND OIL
OIL PLANT
PLANT SPECIES
SPECIES OF
TANZANIA

F.B.S. MAKONDA and R.c.R.C. ISHENGOMA

Department of
of Wood
Wood Utilisation,
Utilisation, Faculty of
of Forestry
Forestry
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
Agriculture, Tanzania
Tanzania

Abstract
This paper discusses indigenous knowledge and
indigenous knowledge and utilisation
utilisation potentials
potentials ofof selected
selected plants
plants of
Tanzania, producing
Tanzania, producing gums,
gums, resins
resins and oils.
oils. The
The selected
selected gum-producing
gum-producing plantplant species
species
senegal, A.
include Acacia senegal, A. seyal,
seyal, A.
A.spirocarpa
spirocaipa and A.A. tortilis
tortilis whose
whose 60%60% of the produce is is
used in the food industry.
used The resin
industry. The resin plants
plants are
are Pinus
Pinus elliottii,
elliottii,P.P. patula
patula and P.P. caribaea
caribaea
whereas selected oil
whereas oil plants
plants include
include Allanblackia
Allanblackia stuhlmanii,
stuhlmanii, A. A. ulug,urensis,
ulugurensis, Adansonia
Adansonia
digitata, Eucalyptus spp.
digitata, Eucalyptus spp. and
and Jatropha
Jatropha curcas. Studies
Studies on uses of of such
such products
products inin other
other
African countries are mentioned and discussed in this paper for
this paper for comparison and reflection of
the potential uses of
of Tanzania's forested land.

Introduction
Tanzania (mainland) has an area covering 88.6 million hectares;
hectares; almost 50% of of this area
area is
is
covered by forests
covered forests and
and woodlands
woodlands (MLNRT,
(MLNRT, 1989). Only 0.3%
1989). Only 0.3% of the forested
forested area is
is
covered by plantation forests,
covered forests, with
with the
the rest
rest being
being natural forests. The distribution
natural forests. distribution of the
vegetation cover is: Woodlands (42,891,000 ha), Mangrove
(42,891,000 ha), Mangrove forests
forests (80,000 ha);
ha); and Forests
other than mangroves (1,400,000
(1,400,000 ha) to give a total of
of 44,371,000 ha.

Many of the Tanzanian indigenous and exotic

indigenous and exotic tree
tree and
and shrub
shrub species
species found
found in these forest
forest
producers of
types are potential producers of gums,
gums, resins
resins and
and oils.
oils. These
These forest
forest resources
resources contribute
contribute to
the livelihood
livelihood of
of mankind
mankind by by providing
providing Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest
Forest Products
Products (NWEPs)
(NWFPs) ofof various
various
sorts including gums, resins
sorts resins and
and oils.
oils. The pharmaceutical,
pharmaceutical, fragrance,
fragrance, food,
food, agricultural,
agricultural,
epoxy resin and coating uses are constantly searching for for such natural products from plants.
plants.
Developing countries
Developing countries should
should use
use their
their forest
forest resources
resources to raise
raise their GDP. In Peru, for
their GDP. for
example, NWFPs yield 90%
NWFPs yield 90% of
ofthe
the use
use potential (Statz,
(Statz, 1997).
1997).

Humankind has always depended on plant products by utilising

Humankind utilising indigenous
indigenous knowledge
knowledge on on
forest resources use. Lewington (1990) documented that the inhalation
inhalation and
and fumigation
fumigation of
ofthe
the
body with
body with smoke
smoke from
from the
the burning
burningof
offragrant
fragant plant
plant materials
materialsisis one
one of
of the
the oldest
oldest uses
uses ofof
plants by humans. Another major use of plants is medicinal.
medicinal. Kasparek (1997) added that at
least 35,000 plant species are used worldwide for medicinal purposes.

Because of their number,

Because number, versatility, end use
versatility, end use variation,
variation, dissimilarities
dissimilarities of
of the
the producer base
and resource richness, NWFPs represent
richness, NWFPs represent one of
of the most challenging product goups
groups from
from a
marketing point of
marketing. of view
view (Lintu,
(Lintu, 1995).
1995). For example,
example, out ofof 3,000
3,000 essential
essential oils
oils known,
known,
approximately 300 have a commercial importance (Lintu, 1995).
1995).
 39

Many authors have documented

Many documented African
African indigenous
indigenous knowledge
knowledge on the utilisation
utilisation of
of plant
plant
gums, resins
gums, resins and
and oils.
oils. In South
South Africa, for example,
example, the
the Zulu
Zulu use
use Sclerocarya
Sclerocarya birrea oil in
preservation
preservation of meat and massaging the skin skin as a cosmetic (Taylor
as cosmetic (Taylor et et al., 1995). Maliehe
al., 1995). Maliehe
(1995) reported
(1995) reported that
that the
the oil
oil of
of Ximenia americana is used as aa cosmetic
Ximenia americana cosmetic as wellwell as
as for
for
softening
softening leather.
leather. According
According to to FFAO (1983),the
AO (1983), thekemel
kernelof
ofX
X americana yields 40 - 50% 50% oil
oil
and the shell yields 5.9% fat.fat. Lewington
Lewington (1990)
(1990) and
and Axtell
Axtell and
and Fairman
Fairman (1992)
(1992) documented
that the yellow oil obtained
obtained from Balanites aegyptiaca seeds in Sudan and Chad is used as a
from Balanites
type of also edible.
of soap and is also

Concerning plant
Conceming plant gums,
gums, the
the uses
uses vary
vary between
between places.
places. In Cameroon,
Cameroon, for
for example
example the
the gum
of Canarium
Canarium schweinfurthii
schweinfurthii isis used
used medicinally
medicinally to
to dress
dress wounds
wounds and as a cure of round
as cure of round
worm and colic ophthalmia (Songwe, 1994) but in Geita Tanzania the use of of this gum is in
1997).
rituals only, in petty gold mines (Makonda, 1997).

Mwamba (1995) in his report

report for
for Zambia's
Zambia's resin-,
resin-, gum-
gum- and
and glue-yielding
glue-yielding plants,
plants, indicated
indicated
that
that while
while Acacia
Acacia polyacantha
polyacantha cancan yield
yield gumgum used
used for
for dyeing
dyeingandandtanning,
tanning,Albizia
Albizia
adianthifolia yields sassa
adianthifolia yields sassa gum
gum which
which isis used
used for
for cosmetics
cosmetics and
and book
book binding
binding while
while
gum which
Piliostigma thonningii yields gum which is
is used
used for
for caulking
caulking boats.
boats.

Some ofof the traditional uses of

of these products have been copied by industrial manufacturers.
The resins from
The resins from Commiphora myrrha and
Commiphora myrrha and C.
C. abyssinica,
abyssinica, for
for instance,
instance, are
are used
used in some
cosmetics and perfumes
perfumes as well as pharmaceuticals (Lewington, 1990). The same
pharmaceuticals in Sudan (Lewington,
author added that gum karaya exuded
exuded fi-om Sterculia sp.
from Sterculia sp. is
is an important dental
dental fixative
fixative in
west. This product,
the west. together with gum
product, together gum arabic,
arabic, is
is among
among the six important Indian gums
1995).
(Soni, 1995).

Chemical analyses may

Chemical analyses may promote
promote some
some of the
the forest
forest products.
products. Mushove (1995) gave
Mushove (1995) gave an
example
example of the oil
oil extract
extract of
ofTegetes
Tegetes minuta
minuta (Mexican
(Mexican marigold),
marigold), an
an obnoxious
obnoxious weed
weed to
to
have anti-nematode
have qualities and
anti-nematode qualities and is
is used
used in organic
organic agriculture. Zimbabwe is
agriculture. Zimbabwe is reported
reported by
by
this author to be the largest exporter of T.
T minuta oil in Africa.

The objectives of
of this paper are:
infolination on the indigenous
.. To provide information indigenous knowledge
knowledge on on gums,
gums, resins
resins and
and oils
oils of
of
selected plant species ofof Tanzania
.. To provide information
information on the indigenous knowledge of the same
indigenous knowledge same products
products in
in
other African countries
.. To
To provide
provide infoimation
information on on the
the potentials
potentials of the
the products
products to
to the
theeconomic
economic
development of of the people
people and
and the nation at
at large
.. To provide information
information onon areas
areas needing research and
and economic
economic investments.
investments.
 40

Selected gum, resin and

and oil
oil plant
plant species
species of Tanzania

Gum plants

Acaciaspp
Acacia spp

Gum arabic is the most important gum in Tanzania. The product is tapped from acacia acacia trees
in unmanaged natural forests mainly in Shinyanga,
Shinyanga, Dodoma, Singida and Tabora Regions.
Practically, gum arabic is obtained
obtained from
from Acacia
Acacia woodland
woodland species
species but
but species
species of
ofimportance
importance
include Acacia senegal (true gum arabic) and A.
arabic) and A. seyal.
seyal. The
The gum
gum isis only
only collected
collected fi-om
from a
few species and active tapping is still more limited.
Contrarily, in
Contrarily, in Sudan,
Sudan, where
where almost
almost 90%
90% of the world market supply of of gum arabic
arabic comes
comes
from (Awouda,
from (Awouda, 1976),
1976), acacias are grown
acacias are grown as part of of an
an agrosilvipastoral
agrosilvipastoral system and these
produce 70% of of Sudan's
Sudan's gum
gum arabic
arabic (Jamal
(Jamal and
and Huntsinger,
Huntsinger, 1993).
1993). The figures
figures for
for Sudan's
Sudan's
arabic were
exported gum arabic were atat 56,000
56,000 tons
tons in
in 1966
1966 (pollath,
(Pollath, 1972).
1972). The annual production of
gum arabic
gum arabic has been reported
reported by Tanzania
Tanzania Bureau of of Statistics
Statistics (1994)
(1994) to stand
stand atat 1,000
1,000
tornes
tonnes out
out of
of which
which 50%
50% is exported.
exported. The
The export
export was
was at
at aa peak
peak in
in 1990
1990 when
when 740740 tonnes
tonnes
were exported. Constraints
Constraints toto expanding
expanding the
the market
market in
in Tanzania
Tanzania include an unstable world
market prices of
market prices of the
the product
product andand failure
failure to
to meet
meetquality
qualityrequirements
requirements for for export
export trade.
trade.
However, Anderson (1993) reported that gum arabic and and gum meeting international
gum karaya meeting international
have commercial
specifications have commercial demand
demand atat competitive
competitive prices.
prices. Moreover, information about
the resource
resource and present
present collection practicestoto be
collection practices be able
able toto assess
assess the potential
potential for gum gum
collection is inadequate.
Statz (1997) reported that 55 - 60% of gum arabic is used in the food industry. Traditionally,
gum arabic is an important
important food
food for
for pastoralists and
and hunters.

Resin plants

Resins of
of potential development include turpentine
turpentine and rosin
rosin which is obtained by tapping
pine trees. Tanzania
Tanzania has
has 80,000
80,000 ha
ha of
of industrial softwood plantations
plantations which
which form
foim sources
sources of
of
resins. grown are
resins. The species grown are Pinus
Pinus elliotti
elliottiand
andP.P. caribaea.
caribaea. The
The major
major potential
potential sources of
of
supply are
supply are within
within Sao
Sao Hill
Hill in hinga,
Iringa, Buhindi
Buhindi andand Rubya
Rubya inin Mwanza,
Mwanza, Rondo
Rondo in Lindi,
Lindi,
Matogoro in Ruvuma, RuvuRuvu in
in Coast
Coast region, Rubare in Kagera and Ukaguru in Morogoro.

These
These sources have not
sources have not yet
yet been
been tapped
tapped and
and the
the potential
potential economic
economic value
value is not
not yet
yet
recognised. Makupa (1995)
recognised. Makupa (1995) reported
reported that
that all
all commodities which are
commodities which are partial
partial derivatives
derivatives of
turpentine and rosin consumed by various industries in Tanzania are imported and most of
Tanzania are of
them could be substituted
substituted if
if the
the existing
existing sources
sources in
in Tanzania
Tanzania were
were exploited.
exploited. The
The greatest
greatest
(Makupa, 1995). Other uses
single use of rosin in Tanzania is for sizing in paper production (Makupa,
of
of oleo-resin are in the paint and
oleo-resin are and varnish
varnish industry
industry asas a solvent and thinning
solvent and agent, in the
thinning agent,
manufacture of
ofadhesives,
adhesives, printing
printing inks,
inks, rubber
rubber products,
products, greases
greases and
and lubricants.
lubricants.

Oil plants

Potential oil plants in Tanzania

Tanzania include
include Allanblackia stuhlmanii, A. ulugurensis,
stuhlmanii, A. ulugurensis, Adansonia
Adansonia
digitata, Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus globulus,
g/obu/us, E. maidenii
maidenii and
and E. regnans
reg,nans and
andJatropha
Jatropha curcas.
 41

Allanblackia spp.
Allalzblackia

Allanblackia stuhlmanii and

and A.A. ulug,urensis
ulugurensis are found growing naturally in montane forests
of the East Usambaras and Uluguru. Nuts ofthese
of of these species yield an edible fat used locally for
cooking, lighting and as a liniment.

Mugasha (1980) observed that a good A.A. stuhlmanii tree can produce
produce up
up to
to 300 fruits in one
fruiting season.
fruiting season. According
According toto Glendon
Glendon (1946
(1946 cited
cited by FAO
FAO 1983),
1983), sun-dried
sun-dried nuts of A.
of A.
stuhlmanii contain 51%
51 % fat. In Kenya, the nuts are
are used
used in
in the
the manufacture
manufacture of
ofthe
the famous
famous
cooking fat "Kimbo".

Adansonia
AdalZSOIzia digitata

Tanzania has
Tanzania has vast areas
areas with
with baobab
baobab (Adansonia
(Adansonia digitata)
digitata) gr, owing in
growing in natural
natural habitats
habitats in
in
such regions as Dodoma, Iringa, Singida and Shinyanga.
Shinyanga. The
The tree isis well known throughout
the country for its fruits which are traded for making juice that has a similar taste to that of of
Tamarindus indica
indica fruits.
fruits. The
The adansonia
adansoniafruits
fruits and
and juice
juice are
are locally
locally lcnown
known as "ubuyu".

In Dodoma
Dodoma the seedsseeds of baobab
baobab are used locally as a source
locally as source of cooking oil. These seeds
cooking oil. seeds
contain 37% edible oil (FAO, 1988a; 1988b)
(FAO, 1988a; 1988b) which
which could
could be
be extracted
extracted easily
easily using
using modem
modem
technologies. To-date, no efforts have been made by
technologies. To-date, by the
the government
government authorities
authorities concerned
concerned
to utilise these resources.

Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus spp.
spp.

Tanzania has several

Tanzania has several plantations
plantations of Eucalyptus species. Large
Eucalyptus species. Large plantations
plantations are
are found
found inin
Arusha, Mbeya and
Arusha, and Iringa.
Iringa. Essential oils that can be
Essential oils be extracted
extracted from
from eucalyptus
eucalyptus include
include
cineole,
cineole, citronellal, phellandrene and
citronellal, phellandrene and piperitone
piperitone which
which find
find uses
uses in pharmaceutical
phannaceutical andand
perfumery compounds.

The blue gum trees (Eucalyptus

(Eucalyptus globulus and E. maidenii) produce cineole from leaves;
leaves; the
cineole is used for treating
cineole is nose and throat
treating nose disorders. The
throat disorders. The local
local uses
uses of
ofeucalyptus
eucalyptus oil
oil in
in
Geita District has been reported by Makonda (1997) where eucalyptus leaves are
eucalyptus leaves are smoked to
to
repel mosquitoes and as a cure for yellow fever. Kiwalabye (1995) reported that in Uganda,
Eucalyptus citriodora
citriodoraleaves
leaves were
wereused
usedin
inthe
the treatment
treatment of
ofcough.
cough.

Extraction of
of eucalyptus oils from plantations would improve profitability of primary forest
activities and provide
activities and provide employment
employment to to the
the local
local people.
people. However,
However, as
as for
for resins,
resins, the
the actual
actual
production of eucalyptus oils in the country
country has not yet
yet been
been developed.
developed. The trees
trees are
are only
only
used for poles, posts and pulp.

Jatropha curcas

Jatropha
Jatropha curcas
curcasisiswidely
widelyplanted
plantedininTanzania
Tanzaniaas
as hedges. It is also
hedges. It also planted in graveyards for
demarcation.
demarcation. The
The seeds
seeds of
ofthis
this plant contain 35% non-edible
non-edible oil
oil (Henning,
(Henning, 1997).
1997). In Geita
 42

District, Tanzania, the

District, Tanzania, the oil
oil isis used
used for
for lighting
lighting and
and the
the sap
sap from
from leaves
leaves and
and twigs
twigs is
is used
used for
for
cleaning tongues particularly in children (Makonda, 1997).1997).

Henning (1997)
Henning (1997)reported
reportedthat
thatinin Mali,
Mali, Jatropha
Jatropha oil
oil is used
used as
as fuel
fuel ininpre-combustion
pre-combustion
chamber engines
chamber and in
engines and in manufacturing
manufacturingsoap.soap. This technology could also be imported into into
Tanzania, which
Tanzania, which does
does not
notproduce
producemineral
mineraloil. The Jatropha
oil. The Jatropha oil would form a substitute for
for
diesel, to
diesel, to save
save some
some foreign
foreip exchange
exchange and
and also
also provide
provide raw
raw material
material for
for manufacture of
of soap
and boost the local economy.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Conclusion
The forests
forests of Tanzania are a g,reat reservoir of
great reservoir of gum,
gum, resin
resin and oil plants which have been
neglected. Important
neglected. Important information
information about these products is lacldrig
lacking and so the products
products are
greatly under-valued and under-utilised.

These products
These products are
are of
of social
social and
and economic
economic importance;
importance; they
they provide
provide employment
employment and
and
income opportunities and are potential foreign exchange earners.

To maximise benefits from these resources, the following actions are recommended:

• More research on promising gum, resin and oil plant species to establish information
concerning quantities, quality,
quality, potential
potential uses
uses and possibility
possibility of domestication
domestication

• Development ofof appropriate harvesting methods and tools andand timing

timing of
ofoperations,
operations,
processing and g,rading.
grading. These
Thesewill
will help
help to
to minimise
minimise injuries
injuries to
to the plants concerned
and improve quality and quantity of the products

• Development of
of programmes geared towards enabling
enabling the
the rural
rural communities
communities to
to help
help
themselves using the plant resources available or which can be made available
available

References
Anderson, D.M.W., 1993.
Anderson, D.M.W., Some Factors
1993. Some Factors influencing
influencing the
the Demand for Gum Arabic (Acacia
senegal (L.)
senegal (L.) Willd.)
Willd.) and
and other
other Water
Water Soluble
Soluble Tree
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Forest Ecolog,y
Ecology and
and
Management 58(1-2): 1I --18.
18.

Axtell B.L. and R.M. Fairman, 1992.

1992. Minor Oil Crops.
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AO - Agricultural Services Bulletin
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No. 94, 241pp.

FAO,
FAO, 1983. Food and Fruit-bearing Forest Species
Fruit-bearing Forest Species I:I: Examples from Eastern Africa.
Africa. FAO
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FAO,
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FAO, 1988b.
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1988b. Non-Timber Uses of Selected Arid Zone Trees and
Selected Arid and Shrubs
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Henning,
Henning, R.K.,
R.K., 1997. More energy-
energy- more food. Gate 2: 33 - 37.
more food.
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43

Kasparek, M., 1997. billions. Gate 2: 23 - 26.

1997. Medicine for the billions. 26.

Kiwalabye, V., 1995.

1995. The Diversity of
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Medicinal Plants in
in Uganda.
Uganda. Paper presented to the
the
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Discussion on
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21-23 Nov. 1995
Pretoria, South Africa.

A., 1990. Plants for

Lewington, A, for People. Natural History Museum, London.

Lintu, L.,1995.
Lintu, L.,1995. Marketing
Marketing NWFPs
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in Developing
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Countries. Trading
Tradina and
and Marketing
Marketing of
of
Unasylva 183(46):
Forest Products, Unasylva 183(46): 37
37-- 41.
41.

Makonda, F.B.S., 1997. The Role of

of Non-Wood Forest Products to the Livelihood
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of Rural
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Communities of
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Geita District, Mwanza
Mwanza Tanzania. MSc.
MSc. thesis
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SUA Morogoro.
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Makupa, E.O.K.,1995.
Makupa, E.O.K.,1995. Factors
Factors Affecting
Affecting Gum Oleoresin Yielding
Yielding Potential and Quality in
Pinus elliottii
elliottii and Pinus patula
patula at
at Sao
Sao Hill
HillForest
ForestPlantation,
Plantation, Tanzania
Tanzania MSc.
MSc. thesis,
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Morogoro.

Maliehe, T.M.,
Maliehe, T.M., 1995. Non-Wood Forest
1995. Non-Wood Forest Products
Products in South Africa.
Africa. A pilot
pilot Country
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prepared for the Commonwealth
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Tourism, 1989.
1989. Tanzania
Tanzania Forestry
Forestry Action
Action Plan
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1990/91
1990/91 -- 2007/08,
2007/08, Dar es
es Salaam

Mugasha, A.C., 1980.

Mugasha, AC., 1980. The
The Silviculture
Silviculture of
of Tanzania
Tanzania Indigenous
Indigenous Tree
Tree Species
Species Vol.
Vol. I.
Allanblackia stuhlmanii. Tanzania Silvicultural
Silvicultural Research
Research Note No. 37,
37, 7pp.
7pp.

Mushove, P., 1995. A review of

of the Socio-economic
Socio-economic Potential of
of Non-Wood/Timber Forest
Products in Zimbabwe.

Mwamba,
Mwamba, C.K., 1995.
1995. Zambia's
Zambia's Perspective
Perspective Toward
Toward Non-Wood/Timber
Non-WoodlTimber Forest Products.
Products.
Paper presented to the
the 2nd
2nd Roundtable
Roundtable Discussion
Discussion on
onNon-Wood/Timber
Non-Wood/Timber Forest
Forest Products:
Products:
21-23 Nov. 1995
1995 Pretoria, South Africa.

Nkana, Z.G.
Nkana, Z.G. and S.
S. Iddi,
Iddi, 1991.
1991. Utilisation
Utilisation of
of Baobab
Baobab (Adansonia
(Adansonia digitata)
digitata) in Kondoa
Kondoa
district, Central Tanzania. Record No. 50,50, SUA
SUA Morogoro.

Statz, J., 1997.

1997. Non-Timber Forest Products:
Non-Timber Forest Products: AA key to
to Sustainable
Sustainable Tropical
Tropical Forest
Forest
Management. Gate 2:4
2:4 -- 11.
11.

Songwe, N.C.,
Songwe, N.C., 1994.
1994. Extractivism
Extractivism and Potentialities Multiple Use Forest Resources in
Potentialities of Multiple
Cameroon with
Cameroon with Special
Special Reference
Reference toto Non
Non Timber Forest
Forest Products.
Products. Paper
Paper presented
presented at
at the
workshop on Extractivism and
and Potentialities
Potentialities of
ofMultiple Use
Use Forest
Forest Reserves
Reserves in
in Africa:
Africa: 8-13
8-13
May 1994, Naro Moro Kenya.
 44

Soni, P.L.,
Som, P.L., 1995.
1995. Some
Some Commercially Important Indian
Commercially Important Indian Gum
Gum Exudates.
Exudates. Indian
Indian Forester
121(8): 754
754 -- 759.
759.

Tanzania Bureau of
of Statistics,
Statistics, 1994.
1994. Statistical
Statistical Figures on
on Agricultural
Agricultural and
and Forestry
Forestry Crops.
Crops.
PMO - Dar es Salaam.
PM0 - Dar es Salaam.

Taylor,
Taylor, F.W., KJ. Butterworth and S. Mateke,
F.W., K.J. Mateke, 1995. The
The Importance
Importance of
ofIndigenous
Indigenous Fruit
Fruit
Trees in Semi-Arid
Trees Semi-Arid Areas
Areas of
of Southern
Southern and
and Eastern
Eastern African.
African. Veld
Veld Products
Products Research,
Research,
Gaborone Botswana.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382755 45

SOME EXPERIENCE ON
ON ADAPTIVE RESEARCH INPUT ON
NATURAL RESOURCE CASE OF
RESGURCE USE: THE CASE OF GUMS
GUMS AND
AND RESINS
IN MUKOGODO RANGELANDS, LAIKIPIA DISTRICT,
RANGELANDS, LAIKIPIA k NYA
DISTRICT, KENYA

R. NG'ETHE, A. KARIUKI
KARlUKI and C. OPONDO
Applied Research Unit
P.O. Box 144, Nanyuki,
Nanyuki, Kenya

Background
Mukogodo
Mukogodo Division on the Northern
Northern edge of
of the
the Laikipia
Laikipia Plateau
Plateau comprises
comprises slightly
slightly over
1000 sq.
1000 sq. km.
km. with an altitudinal
altitudinal range
range of 1600
1600 - 2000
2000 m A.S.L.
A.S.L. Annual rainfall
rainfall varies
varies
between 400 and 600 mm perper annum
annum (Berger, 1989). As a result of
of the varying topography
and climatic
and climatic characteristics, the division
characteristics, the division supports
supports aa wide
wide range
range of ofphysiognomically
physiognomically
different
different vegetation types (Taiti,
vegetation types (Taiti, 1982).
1982). The The main
main economic
economic activity
activity isissemi-sedentary
semi-sedentary
pastoralism. Currently, the wood component is dominated by the genera genera Acacia, Euclea
Euclea and
and
Acokanthera - while the grass
Acokanthera grass layer
layer isis predominantly
predominantly Themeda,
Themeda, Cynodon,
Cynodon, Era grostis and
Eragrostis and
These are interspersed
Pennisetums. These interspersed with with aa tree/shrub layer of Dodenea,
tree/shrub layer Dodenea, Solanum,
Solanum, and
Ipomoea among
Ipomoea among others.
others. Admittedly, the ecosystem is fairly complex with with nono
comprehensively described aggregate
comprehensively described aggegate of fauna fauna and
and flora. The balance
flora. The balance ofof the
the wildlife,
wildlife,
livestock, vegetation production
livestock, vegetation productionsystems
systemsand and man's
man's activities
activities isis equally
equally complex
complex in aa
drastically changed ecosystem.

Over time, the human interphases have greatly interfered

interfered with the natural course ofof species
succession and differentiation to an extent of of negatively shifting
shifting the
the balancing
balancing forces
forces within
within
the different production systems in the ecosystem. Briefly, these interphases can be broadly
groupedininthree
gouped threetime
timefi-ames.
frames. Prior
Prior to the 19th
19th century,
century, the
the Mukogodo
Mukogodo Maasai
Maasai characterised
characterised
by the
by the different
different groups
groups i.e.
i.e. Iloshon,
Iloshon, Mukogodo,
Mukogodo, Ilngwesi,
Ilngwesi, Ilmumonyot,
Ilmumonyot, Ildigiri
Ildigiri and
and
Illeuwaso coexisted with
Illeuwaso coexisted with the vegetation
vegetation as hunters
hunters and
and gatherers
gatherers (Herren,
(Herren, 1993),
1993), with
with
defined g,razing
defined grazing corridors.

Early this century, the European

European settlers
settlers designated the hitherto "productive"
"productive" rangeland,
rangeland, for
for
beef
beef ranching, locicing out the
locking out the Dorobo
Dorobo "reserves".
"reserves". Tllis
This process
process was
was followed by the the new-
new-
post
post independent
independent government "one million-acre
government "one million-acre scheme
scheme project"
project" that
that opened
opened up up the
the
subdivision of the fOlmerly
subdivision formerly private
private ranches
ranches toto small
small scale
scale farmers
farmers in
in Laikipia.
Lailcipia. The process
process
has continuously
continuously introduced
introduced major conflicts
conflicts in
in sustainable
sustainable natural
natural resource
resource use
use including
including
gums and resins.

An earlier inventory
inventory of
of Mukogodo
Mukogodo Forest
Forest based
based on
onpanchromatic
panchromatic photographs
photographs 1:25,000,
1:25,000,
(Blacket, 1994), described estimates
(Blacket, of the
estimates of the forested
forested area
area and standing volumes.
volumes. This report
was inadequate on information on other flora and fauna notwithstanding the rich indigenous
indigenous
knowledge
knowledge by the locals as later
later confirmed by other studies (Gachathi and Kariuki, 1996).
1996).
The usefulness of the forest for dry season grazing and ecotourism biodeversity
ofthe biodeversity among
among other
other
uses was conspicuously omitted.
 46

The fact
The fact that gums
gums and
and resins
resins have
have been
beencommercially
commercially extracted
extracted in
inneighbouring
neighbouring Isiolo
Isiolo
District especially since the involvement
involvement of SALT LICK, has
SALTLICK, has generated
generated considerable
considerable interest
interest
in the
in the assessment
assessment of of the
the potential
potential for
for resource
resource availability
availability in Mukogodo
Mukogodo by by different
different
development practitioners.
development practitioners.TheThe importance
importance of of Non
Non Wood
Wood Forest Products
Products (NWFPs)
(NWFPs) to to
sustainable resource
sustainable resource use
use had notnot been
beenaddressed
addressed sufficiently. Consequently, various
sufficiently. Consequently, various
attempts have
attempts have been made to understand the vegetation
vegetation trends and more recently
recently the
the gums
gums
and resins
and resins resource
resource availability.
availability. AnAn earlier
earlier attempt
attempt by
by the
the Kenya Ministry of of Culture
Culture and
and
Social Services
Social jointly with Laikipia
Services jointly Laikipia Research
Research Programme
Programme (1993)
(1993) was
was inadequate
inadequate in in
quantifying the amount of
quantifying of resource available within Mukogodo
Mukogodo Division.

Subsequent studies
Subsequent studies by
by the
the ASAL -- Applied
Applied Research
Research Unit
Unit jointly
jointly with
with Kenya
Kenya Forestry
Forestry
Research Institute,
Research Institute, World View (K) and the local
local community
community participatorily used aa holistic
holistic
approach in
approach in attempting
attempting to
to understand
understand the
the critical
critical links
links between
between the
the flora
flora and the different
Non-Wood Forest Products in Mukogodo ecosystem including gums and resins.

Methodology
A review
review of the vegetation resources
resources within Mukogodo
Mukogodo rangelands
rangelands was
was carried out
out based
based on
the work
the work of Taiti (1982).
(1982). From
From this
this review,
review, the
the main
main vegetation
vegetation types
types were
were identified.
identified. A
participatory reconnaissance
participatory reconnaissance survey
survey was
was undertaken
undertaken in 1995 (Muchiri andand Kariuki,
Kariuki, 1996).
1996).
The survey employed various participatory tools including:
including: transect walks/drives, interactive
group/individual discussions,
group/individual discussions, observations,
observations, andand demonstrations
demonstrations on various
various preparation
preparation
methods.

A formal survey was

formal survey was also carried
carried out where
where the area waswas clustered into five
clustered into five clusters and
clusters and
eight sub-clusters according
eight sub-clusters according toto group
group ranches.
ranches. The
The snowball method (Blalock,
snowball method 1981) was
(Blalock, 1981) was
used to
used to lead
lead to
to key infolinants.
informants. Nineteen
Nineteen key
key respondents
respondents (3(3 females
females and 15 males) were
males) were
interviewed and
interviewed and plants
plants of
of focus
focus by
by each
eachrespondent
respondent identified.
identified. Samples
Samples ofofunidentified
unidentified
plants were
plants were pressed
pressed and later
later verified
verified at
at the
the National
National Museum
Museum herbarium.
herbarium. Further data
verification was carried out by a taxonomist during a follow-up study on
verification on NWFPs
NWFPs (Gachathi
(Gachathi
and
and Kariuki,
Kariuki, 1997),
1997), where
where 11 11 informants
informants classified
classified by the
the community
community werewere involved
involved
(Appendix I).

In focusing on gums
focusing on gums and resin resources, referenceswere
resources, references weremade
made toto the
the work
work done
done by the
Department of Social Services (1993) where information
Department information on on principal
principal production
production areas
areas was
was
obtained. This
obtained. This was
was followed
followed by belt transect
transect surveys
surveys with the assistance
assistance of
of local
local people.
people.
Within aa given area,
Within area, sampling
sampling was based
based onon the
the belt
belttransect
transect approach
approach (Chikamai
(Chikamai andand
Mbiru, 1995)
Mbiru, 1995) where
where 0.4 ha., square plots were established
established at every sampling
sampling point.
point. Data
was collected
was collected on density by diameter
diameter class ofof the
the main
main gum-and
gum-and resin-producing
resin-producing species,
species,
density of associated species, terrain and soil conditions.
 47

Results and Discussion

Reconnaissance Survey
Indigenous
Indigenous knowledge
knowledge among the Mukogodo
Mukogodo Maasai on natural vegetation was found to be
enormous. However,
enonnous. However, there
there seem
seem to
to be
be gaps
gaps in
in knowledge
knowledge levels
levels between
between generations.
generations. The
reason perhaps is due
due to
to diminishing
diminishing inter-generation
inter-generation interactions
interactions as
as younger
younger generations
generations
ascribe to
ascribe to changing
changing lifestyles.
lifestyles. The male
male respondents
respondents portrayed
portrayed aa generalised
generalised knowledge
knowledge
base with the
base the exception
exception ofof isolated
isolated experts
experts onon ethnomedicine
ethnomedicine while female
female gender
gender was
specific on plants with attributes on food values andand sickness
sickness in
in children.
children.

The Mukogodo
Mukogodo Maasai
Maasai have through generations
generations depended
depended on natural
natural flora
flora principally
principally or
supplementarily to
supplementarily to subsidise
subsidise either
either directly
directly or
or indirectly
indirectly their
their livelihood. Flora utility
livelihood. Flora utility was
was
found to have both material
found to and non
material and non materials
materials attributes
attributes(Table
(Table1a).
la). A
A total
total of 78 plant
plant
species with multiple uses were sampled.

Table la:
la: Ranked
Rankeduse
use groups
groupsof
ofMukogodo
Mukogodo flora by
by the Mukogodo Maasai
User group * Frequency Comments
1. Ethnomedicine Human 52 One spp. applied to between 11 & & 4 ailments
2. Construction 18
18 Focus on Manyattas,
Manyattas, cattle
cattle bomas
bomas andand dead
dead
fencing
3. Fodder 17 Differentiated
Differentiated toto wet,
wet, dry
dry and
and all
all season
fodder,
fodder, forage
4. Food 16 Mainly fruits,
Mainly fruits, soup,
soup, tea
tea additives,
additives, chewing
chewing
gum
5. Fuelwood 7 Preference on high density,
Preference density, less
less smoky/ashy
smoky/ashy
spp.
6. Crafts 7 Focus on quivers,
Focus quivers, bows,
bows, arrows,
arrows, bee
bee hives
hives
rungus
7. Condiments 7 Perfumes, necklaces, beadwork
8. Bee forage 6 Prolific flowering
Prolific spp. for
flowering spp. for white/black
whitelblack andand
yellow honey
9. Ethnovet 55 Very narrow spp. on focus??
10. Toothbrush 4 Spp. with medicinal attributes for oral health
11. Preservatives 4 Food and milk products
12. Insecticide 2 Repellents e.g.
e.g. houseflies/cocicroaches
houseflies/cockroaches
13. Ceremonial 2 Rituals e.g.
e g circumcision
circumcision
* Frequency
Frequency refers
refers to
to different
different uses under
under the 13
13 classified groups
Source:
Source: Field data collection, Mukogodo, (1995).

It is clearly
clearly evident
evident that
that the
the Mukogodo
Mukogodo Maasai
Maasai appreciate
appreciate the
the gum/resin-producing
gumlresin-producing plant
species. However,
species. However,thethe main
main useuse of these products is
these products is chewing gum (User
chewing gum (User Group
Group 4)4) and
and
fastening arrow heads on arrow shafts (User Group 6). The Thepoint
pointofofinterest
interest is,
is, however,
however, the
other priority
other priority uses
uses that
that the
the same
same plant
plant species
species fulfil
fulfil which
which gives
gives a pointer
pointer to to potential
conflicts in resource management. AAsummary summaryofofplant
plantspecies gums/resins potential is
speciesofofg,ums/resins
presented in Table
Table lb.
 48

Table lb: .
lb· Plants
Plantsofofpotential
potential for
for gums
gums and gum
gum resins
resins exploitation
Plant
Plant species
species *Frequency (user
*Frequency (user Utilisation by community Potential
groups)
Acacia senegal 55 Gum fromfrom the stem eaten as Production of
(ALDERKESI) chewing gum, medicinal, bee gum arabic
forage, fencing
Boswellia neglecta 4 Resinous aromatic aum gum
,t, used
used Production of
(SILALEI) as chewing
chewing gum,
gum, g,um
gum used
used resins
resms which
which are
on arrow
arrow shafts,
shafts, medicinal,
medicinal, processed into
fencing. resinoids
Commiphora 4 Fragrant gum, chewing, gum Production of
africana used as arrowarrow heads
heads onon copms.
copins.
(LOISHIMI)
(LOISHINII) shafts for
arrow shafts for play by new
. ..
initiates, CIrcumcIsIOn,
circumcision, live
hedge.
** Frequency
Freauency refers to different uses under the 13 classified groun
clasSIfied user group
Source: Field data 1996-97

Table lc:
lc: Priority
Priorityplant
plantspecies
speciesin
in use
use (frequency)
(frequency) and
and uses
uses (use groups) in Mukogodo
Plant name Frequency
* Frequency **
** Use
Use groups
groups
Olea africana (Lonen)
1. Olea (Lori en) 55 55
2. Acacia senegal
senegal (ALDERKESI)
(ALDERKESI) 55 4
Croton megarocarpus (Merigwet)
3. Croton (Merigwet) 55 4
Senecio stuhlmanii
4. Senecio stuhlmanii 4 4
5. Acacia nilotica 4 4
6. Carrisa endulis 4 4
7. Boswellia neglecta
neglecta (SILALEI)
(SILALEI) 4 4
Croton dichogamus
8. Croton 4 33
9. Cordia sinensis 4 2
10. Aloe kendogensis 4 2
11. Zanthoxylum chalebeum 4 2
Clerodendrurn myricoides
13. Clerodendrum 4 11
* Frequency refers to different
different uses
uses under the 13
13 classified user groups
Source: Field data collection, Mukogodo,
Mukogodo, (1995).
An analysis
analysis of
of how
how the
theMukogodo
Mukogodo Maasai
Maasai exploit
exploit their
their vegetation
vegetation resources
resources shows
shows a
consciousness on sustainability.
consciousness sustainability. TheThe traditional uses revealed detailed and delicate
traditional uses revealed a detailed and delicate
network ofof interaction
interaction between
between the society
society and
and the
the environment.
environment. The The emphasis
emphasis on non-
extractive uses
extractive uses and particularly on Non Wood Forest Products Products (NWFP)
(NWFP) attest to inbuilt
inbuilt
community
community conservation of of natural
natural vegetation.
vegetation. Ten
Ten out
out of 13 13 user
user groups
groups are
are non-
non-
extractive in nature (Appendix
(Appendix I). I). Careful
Careful selection on harvesting was shown, among the
extractive user groups, fuelwood, construction and
fuelwood, construction and crafts.
crafts. For
For instance,
instance, the exploitation
of
of Psyda arabica
arabicaforforan-ow
anow making
making was mainly from selected branches and and twigs
twigs while
while
the bush/shrub was left
left standing.
standing.
 49

3.2 Resource Inventory

Resource Inventory (Ground Truthing)
The main species of
of importance in gums and resins production represented in Mukogodo
Division are Acacia senegal
senegal and
and Commiphora
Commiphora species.
species. Generally, the main stands
stands where
where
these species
these species are
are found
found are
are on the outlying fringes of
outlying fringes of Mukogodo particularly
Mukogodo Forest, particularly
along the lower glades facing
facing Isiolo
Isiolo District.
District.

Acacia senegal was

was confirmed
confinned to occur in four different clusters towards the more more arid
arid
northern part of
of the
the division
division bordering
bordering Isiolo.
Isiolo. Significant
Significant densities
densities were found
found in
in Sek-
Sek-
Louwai, Ewaso, Tura (Upper and and Lower)
Lower) and
and Leshesh
Leshesh areas
areas though in the later case, the
case, the
occurrence is fairly patchy. A characteristic feature ofthese
of these clusters is rugged terrain with
ridges interspersed with Luggas
Luggas (dry
(dry river
river valleys)
valleys) and
and sandy
sandy toto stony/rocky
stonylrocky soils.
soils. The
dominant vegetation is Acacia/Commiphora bushland.
bushland.

An analysis of
of stocking
stocking density
density revealed
revealed that the area
area around
around Tura
Tura has
has the
the highest
highest density
density
(overall mean density of 192 sph) and Sek-Louwai
Sek-Louwai thethe lowest
lowest (145
(145 sph).
sph). However,
However, there
there
was
was greater disparity
disparity in the
the density
density within
within Tura,
Tura, probably
probably resulting
resulting from
from the patchy
patchy
nature
nature of the resource
resource as observed from the
observed from the value
value of
of C.V.
C.V. The
The resource
resource was
was confined
confined
mostly on the slopes of
of ridges and
and low
low hills (Table 2a) and in Ewaso (( Table
Table 2b2b and
and 2c).
2c).
This
This implies that there is
is probably
probably better
better distribution
distribution of the resource
resource in
in the
the latter
latter areas
areas
and hence
hence overall
overall higher
higherrepresentation.
representation. AnAn assessment the quantity of resource
assessment of the quantity of resource
revealed higher
revealed higher representation
representation inin the
the juvenile
juvenile age class
class which
which indicates
indicates normal
nonnal stand
stand
dynamics.

Table 2a: Density

Table Density (sph)
(sph) of Acacia senegal in
Acacia senegal in Tura
Tura (upper and
and lower),
lower), Mukogodo
Mukogodo
Division

Terrain: Ridges and low hills

Soils: Sandy to murram
Site Density by
bv diameter
diameter class
class
<5cm
<5 cm -10 cm
5 -10 >10 cm
>10cm
11 170 180 160
160
2 220 130 70
33 140 230 41
4 110 115 60
55 340 250 100
6 360
360 380 220

Mean 225 214 109

density ==182
Mean density dev. =
182 std dev. = 98
98 C.V.
c.V. -=54%
54%
 50

Table 2b: Density

Density(sph)
(sph)of
ofAcacia
Acacia senegal
sellegal in
in Ewaso,
Ewaso, Mukogodo
Mukogodo Division
Division

Terrain: Plains and low hills

Soils: Sandy
Site Density by diameter
diameter class
<5 cm
<Scm 5 - 10 cm
S > 10 cm
>lOcm
1
1 170 124 116
22 230 140 127
33 240 160 134
134

Mean 213 141 126

Mean density = 160 dev. =
160 std. dev. =43 C.V. ==27%
43 C.V. 27%

Table 2c: Density (sph) of

of Acacia senegal in Sek Louwai, Mukogodo Division
Division

Terrain: Ridges
Soils: Sandy to stony
Site Density by diameter class
<5 cm
<Scm 55 --10cm
10 cm > 10 cm
>10cm
1
1 150 200 160
2 130 140 120
33 140 140 110
4 220 120 140

Mean 160 150 133

= 148
Mean density = std. dev. = 31
31 C.V. = 21
21%%

When examining the potential of the area for gum arabic production, one indicator indicator is-the
is-the
abundance
abundance of of the
the resource.
resource. However,
However, lacklack of
ofrelevant
relevant secondary
secondary data,
data, i.e.,
i.e., spot
spot images
images
and aerial
aerial photographs
photographs limited
limited the
the team's
team's ability
ability to
to produce
produce resource
resourcemaps.
maps. As a result, it
was not
was not possible
possible to
to quantify with certainty
quantify with certainty the
the amount
amount of of resource
resource available.
available. However,
However,
observations made
observations made during the sampling combined with data analysis revealed that on on the
the
overall, the areas of
overall, the of Sek-Louwai and Ewaso have expansive resources which extend extend into
into
neighbouring Isiolo
neighbouring Isiolo District.
District. TheThe latter
latter is known
known for for gum
gum production
production and and offers
offers
opportunities for
opportunities for ready
ready market
market ofof gum
gum arabic.
arabic. Although
Although the the area around
around Tura recorded
recorded
densities, the
high densities, the resource
resource is
is generally
generally patchy
patchy inin distribution
distribution with
with relatively
relatively lowlow overall
overall
amount.

The second
The and perhaps
second and perhaps major
major factor
factor relates
relates to conditions
conditions for gum
gum production.
production. GumGum
arabic and
arabic and gum
gum resins
resins are produced when the
produced when the trees
trees are under stress. In particular, they
are produced under conditions
are produced conditions of high temperatures
temperatures (> 30° 30° C) over
over aa prolonged
prolonged period.
period.
The areas
The areas of Ewaso and Sek Louwai are on relatively
relatively lower altitude and lee-ward side
which experience
which experience relatively
relatively higher
higher temperatures.
temperatures. Reports of of gum production
production have
have been
been
reported within
reported within the
the two
two areas. However, Tura is relatively higher altitude and
areas. However, Tura is relatively higher in altitude and
generally cooler. These
generally These conditions are not favourable
conditions are favourable for gum
gum production
production and
and indeed
indeed
local people reported little gum production.
 51

Among the
Among the resin-producing
resin-producing species,
species, onlyonlyCommzPhora
Commiphora africana
africana waswas recorded
recorded in
in
reasonable quantities.
reasonable quantities. Others include Commiphora schimperi,
Others include Commiphora schimperi, Acacia seyal and Acacia seyal and
Boswellia species. The principal
species. The principal region
region was
was thethe area
area around
around Sek-Louwai.
Sek-Louwai. A A mean
stocking density of 24
stocking density 24 sph was recorded
recorded but with a generally
generally higher
higher disparity
disparity between
between
sampling points. Compared
sampling Compared withwith Acacia
Acacia senegal,
senegal, itit had higher
higher representation
representation in the
the
mature diameter class
mature diameter class (Table
(Table 3).
3). In
In terms
terms of resin production, the species
production, the species is known to
produce copious amounts.
amounts. There
There isis documented
documented information
information which attributes
attributes the use
use of
resin as plaster for abdominal spasms
spasms and and against
against fever.
fever. However,
However, notnot much
much commercial
commercial
established for
application has been established for the
the resin
resin in
in the
the country.
country.

Table 3:
Table 3: Density
Density (sph)
(sph) of
of Commiphora
Commiphora africana
ajricalla inin(Sek-Louwai),
(Sek-Louwai), Mukogodo
Mukogodo
Division

Terrain: Ridges
Soils: Sandy to stony

Site Density by diameter class

<5 cm
<Scm 5-
5 - 10
10 cm
cm > 10 cm
lOcm
11 25 15 40
2 53 8 60
33 10 15 25
4 13
13 33 15

Mean 25.25 10.25 35

Mean density = 24 std. dev. = 17
17 C.V. == 70%
c.V.

The way forward

From the foregoing discussion, it is apparent that gums and resins contribute
contribute significantly
significantly
to the livelihood of the pastoral Maasai
to Maasai in Mukogodo
Mukogodo Division.
Division. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, quantities
quantities
for viable
for viable and
and sustainable
sustainable commercial
commercial exploitation
exploitation are
are limited. This shortcoming
limited. This shortcoming
therefore, poses new scenarios for the future exploitation.

First, exploitation
First, exploitation of
of gums
gums and
and resins
resins should
shouldnotnotjust
justbebe seen
seen as
as an
an end
end in itself but a
means to
means to an end.
end. The
The gums
gums and
and resins
resins will
will therefore,
therefore, provide
provide opportunities
opportunities for adding
adding
value to the crucial process of
of range
range improvement
improvement and and rehabilitation
rehabilitation where
where the
the main
main out
out
put is livestock
livestock production. As
Asaatier
tiertechnology
technologytotoprioritised
prioritiseduser
usergroups,
groups,stakeholders
stakeholders
should use gums and resins initiative as an entry point to promoting viable projects in the
rangelands.

Secondly, mechanisms for

Secondly, mechanisms for cross
cross fertilisation and dialogue
fertilisation and dialogue between
between the local
local expert
expert
systems (based on
systems (based on ITK)
ITK) and
and external
external practitioners unfold in
practitioners unfold in the
the gums
gums andand resins
resins
initiatives. The interface
initiatives. The between the
interface between the two
two knowledge paradigms has
knowledge paradigms has the potential
potential to
to
harmonise conflicting goals and expectations of
of key stakeholders.
 52

Thirdly,
Thirdly, an understanding why the neighbouring
understanding of why Isiolo District
neighbouring Isiolo District has
has an upper edge in
exploitation and commercialisation of
of gums and resins as
as compared
compared to Mukogodo
Mukogodo Maasai
Maasai
requires ground truthing.
requires ground truthing. Are
Are their
their inherent
inherent skills and
and values
values embedded
embedded among
among the
the
Borans
Borans and
and Samburu
Samburu linked
linked to exploitation
exploitation of gums
gums and
and resins
resins which
which the
the Mukogodo
Mukogodo
Maasai lack?

Fourthly, attempts to exploit the limited gums and resins resources are also also hampered
hampered byby
Socio-cultural dynamics
Socio-cultural dynamics among
among andand between neighbouring
neighbouring communities (i.e. the Maasai
visa -a-viz. Samburu and
and Borans).
Borans). ThisThis therefore calls for
therefore calls for affirmative
affirmative action
action from
from the
law enforcement agents settle livestock ownership and pasture management-related
law enforcement agents to settle livestock ownership and pasture management-related
conflicts. Once
conflicts. Once conflicts
conflicts are
are resolved,
resolved, an
an enabling
enabling environment
environment forfor exploitation
exploitation and
and
marketing of
of gums and resins is likely to prevail.

Fifthly, local collectors

Fifthly, local collectors and
and dealers
dealers in
in gums
gums and
and resins
resins are "voiceless" given the
"voiceless" given the non
existence of a formal institution
institution to
to stabilise
stabilise the
the market
market forces.
forces. It is therefore imperative
imperative
that such an institution/organisation
institution/organisation is is put
put in
in place.
place. The initiatives
initiatives by ITFSP with GTZ
(i.e,. formation of
of Gum Arabic and Resins Association - GARA), which among among others
others is
is
of stakeholders, is welcome.
to look into the welfare of

References
Blacket, H.L. 1994. Kenya
H.L. 1994. Kenya Indigenous
Indigenous Forest
Forest Conservation
Conservation Programme. Forest Inventory Report
No. 15, Mukogodo.

Berger,
Berger, P. 1989. Rainfall and Agroclimatology
1989. Rainfall Agroclimatology of the Laikipia
Laikipia plateau,
plateau, Kenya.
Kenya. Geographica
Geographica
Bernesia, Berne,

Blalock, H.M. 1981. Social statistics. Singapore: McGraw

McGraw -- Hill,
Hill, Second
Second edition.
edition.

Chikamai, B.N. and

Chikamai, B.N. and Mbiru,
Mbiru, S.S. 1997.
1997. Assessment
Assessment of gum arabic
arabic and
and gum
gum resin
resin resources
resources in
in
Mukogodo Division,
Division, Lailcipia
Laikipia district.

Gachathi, F.N.
Gachathi, F.N. and Kariuki, A.M. 1997.
1997. Useful Non-Wood Forest products of
of Mukogodo
Mukogodo forest
and adjacent rangelands. (Unpublished).

Herren, U.
Herren, U. 1993.
1993. "Socio-economic
"Socio-economic strategies
strategies of Pastoral
Pastoral Maasai
Maasai Households
Households in Mukogodo,
Mukogodo,
Kenya".. PhD Thesis. Department of
Kenya" of Ethnobotany, University of
of Berne.

Muchiri, B.
Muchiri, B. and Kariuki,
Kariuki, A.M.
A.M. 1996.
1996. AA survey
survey of
ofIndigenous
Indigenous food
food plants
plants of
ofSocio-economic
Socio-economic
importance in Mukogodo rangelands, Laikipia. (Unpublished).

Republic of
Republic of Kenya,
Kenya, Min.
Min. of Culture
Culture and
and Social
Social Services and LRP.
Services and LRP. 1982.
1982. The vegetation
vegetation of
Laikipia
Lailcipia District,
District, Kenya.
Kenya. Laikipia Mount Kenya Papers B-2.

Taiti, S. W. 1992. The

Thevegetation
vegetationof
ofLailcipia
Laikipia District, Kenya
 53

APPENDIX I

List of plants and their

their uses
uses from the Mukogodo Maasai perspective

Plant name
Botanical/(Maasai)
Botanical /(Maasai) 11 2 33 4 5 66 7 8 9 10 11 12 l3
13
1. Dodonea viscosa (Ilgilai) x x x x
2. Solanu incanum (Ntulelei) x x
3.
3. Synadenum grantii
Synadenum grantii x x
(Olkorbobit)
4. Cassia dydrirnobotria
4. dydrimobotria (senetoi)
(senetoi) x
5. Euclea divinorum (Olkingei) x x x x
6. Melhania verutina (Epupoi)
(Epupoi) x
7. Withania somnifera (Leisayet) x
8. Olea hoschtetteri (Lorondo)
8. x x x xx
9. Acacia nilotica (Olkiroriti)
9. x x x I xx
10. Carrisa enduris
enduris (Lamuriaki)
(Lamuriaki) x x x xx
11. Olea africana (Lorien)
11. Olea (Lorien) x x x x x
12. Psyda arabica
12. Psyda arabica (Olombai)
(Olombai) x x xx
13. Ipomoea hildebrantii
13. Ipomoea hildebrantii x x x
(Lokitengi)
14. Euphorbia graciliramea
14. Euphorbia graciliramea x
Ikangu)
15. Croton
15. Croton dichogamus x x x xx
(Olkimdingai)
16. (Olkonyil) x
Clerodendrum myricoides
17. Clerodendrum xx
(Olmakutukutu) xx
18. (Iltipirikwa) xx
19. Grewia
19. Grewia bicolar (Ill) x
20. lasminum
Jasminum sp. (Ilmaneen) x
21. Euphorbia sp. (()) x
22. Combretum molle
moUe (01momoi)
(Olmomoi) xx
23. Maerua triphylla
triphylla (Olamaralc)
(Olamarak) xx
x
X
24. (01oloi)
(Ololoi) xx xx xx
25. Acacia nubica (Ildepe) xx x
26.Pyragmanthera discallensis x xx
(Ilmeidim kooa)
Ramnus staddos (Olkolakola)
27. Ramnus x x
28. Sansavellia sp (Oldupai) xx
29. Pappe capensi x
(Oldonganaiyoi)
30.Euphorbia heterochroma x x x
(Engeletlit)
 54

31. (Olmenangi) xx x
32. Aloe kendogensis (Suguroi)
32. xx x
xX
33. Lantana sp (makirkirienie)
33. xx
34. Berlena aegyptium (sucha)
(sueha) x x
35. (Sukurtut)i xx
36. Acacia lahai (Oltepesi)
36. x x
37. Zanthozyllum
Zanthozyllum challybeam xx xx
(Oloisuki)
38. Draceana
38. Draceana ellenbeckiana x x
(Ndokindongit)
39. Aerua persika
persika (Ilturilan) xx x
40. Croton megalocarpus xx
XX x
X x
X x
X
(Merigwet)
41. Plumbago zylanica x
(Ngeriatus)
42. Ximenia
Ximenia americana
americana (Olomai)
(Olomai) x x
43. Cordia sinensis (Silapani) xx x
xX
44. Warbugia ugandensis x
(Sokonoi)
45. Strychnos
Strychnos henningsii x x x
(ilpirikwa)
46. (Oloilei) x
47. Acacia mellifera (Olminishoi)
(Olminishoi) x x x x
48. Albezia zizermaunia x
(Mugutan)
49. (Sumeita) xx
50. (Olparamunyo) xx
51. Ozoroa insignus (lukunonoi) xx
52. Piliostigma thoningii (Bukoi) x
Boswellia hildebraulii
53. Boswellia x x x
(Silalei)
54. Turraea mombasana
mombasana (Njeni-
(Njeni- x
engasho)
55. (Loikordodai) x x
56. Senecio stuhmanni (Leleshua)
(Leleshua) x x x x
57. Acacia etbaica (Njakwai)
(Njakwai) x x
(Echurai)
58. Acacia sp. (Eehurai) x x
59. Podocarpus
59. Podocarpus gracilior
gracilior x
(Olpiripiri)
60. Acacia seyal (Olerai)
60. x x x
61. (Olaraiti) x x x
62. Rhoicissus trident ateo
tridentateo x
(Elkinyeal)
 55

63.
63. Acacia shimperi
shirnperi (Murigoi) x x
64.
64. Lannea triphylll (Olampirori) x
65. (Kurpule) x
66. Gloriosa superba (Saikutari)
66.
67. (Olmenjo)
1111111111111111.11
x
x

68. Eurphorbia kibwenz

kibwenziss x x x
(Olpopongi)
69. (Lokoilie)
70. Eurphorbia tirucalli
IIIIIIMIIIIITE1111
x
x
x
(Olpurshuruti)
71. (Ngobiuta)i
(Ngohiuta)i
1111.11EIRMIIMI
INIMEMIEM1111 IMMIIMIMMI
x
72. Pittosporum lanatum x
(Ingilenyai) 111111111111.111111
Lychium shansii
73. Lychium shansii (Ngokii) IMMINIENIMEIMIIIIMMEI1
x
74. Cissus rotundifolia (Ngunee)
(Ngunee) 1111MMINE111.1111.1=111.
x
75. Cucumis
Cucumis dispassence x x x
(N aigordodoi)
(Naigordodoi)
76. Ficus sycamorus (Oreteti)
FREQUENCIES 52
1111111111
5 7 17 6
ormi
I
18 iii 4 ow
4
x
16 18 7
16
x
4 2 7 2
FAO LIBRARY AN: 382757 56

EXPERIENCES IN BENZOIN RESIN PRODUCTION IN SUMATRA,

INDONESIA

1 2
ESTHER KATZ
KATZ1,, MARlNA
MARINA GOLOUBINOFF
GOLOUBINOFF2, , MANUEL RUIZ PEREZ\
PEREZ3, AND
MICHO~
GENEVIEVE MICHON4

11ORSTOM-CIFOR,
ORSTOM-CIFOR,CIFOR,
CIFOR,P.P.O.
0. Box
Box 6596,
6596, JKPWB,
JI(PWB, Jarkarta,
Jarkarta, 10065,
10065, Indonesia.
Indonesia.
22CNRS-Musee
CNRS-Museede
del'Homme,
l'Homme, 17,
17, place
place du
du Trocadero,
Trocadero, 75116
75116Paris.
Paris.
33 CIFOR,
CIFOR,P.P.O.
0. Box
Box 6596,
6596, JKPWB,
JI(PWB, Jarkarta,
Jarkarta, 10065,
10065,Indonesia
Indonesia
44 ORSTOM-ICRAF,
ORSTOM-ICRAF, P.O.Box
P.O.Box 161, Bogor 16001.

Introduction
Data presented here are the preliminary results of of research on benzoin in in North
North Sumatra
Sumatra
1
by two projects dealing with non-timber
non-timber forest
forest products
products inin Indonesia
Indonesia'. • It was decided to
study benzoin among other products, because of of its interesting management, and and because
because
very little
very little data
data was
was available
available on
onpresent exploitation. This
present exploitation. This product
product has been been used,
used,
exploited and
exploited and traded for several centuries,
centuries, but historical information is sparse. sparse. Colonial
foresters
foresters led
led some work
work at
at the beginning of
the beginning of this
this century,
century, but
but little
little interest
interest has
has been
been shown
shown
in non-timber forest products from
from that period until
until very
very recently.
recently. Exploratory
Exploratory fieldwork
fieldwork
was initiated in October of 1996 and new members
members of the the team will start their research at
the beginning ofof 1998.
1998. So this paper
paper will
will raise
raise questions
questions rather
rather than
than provide
provide answers.
answers.

Benzoin is the resin

Benzoin is resin of
of various
various species
species of
of Styrax
Styrax trees
trees (Styracaceae). One group
(Styracaceae) . One group of
species,
species, asas described below,
below, is distributed throughout
throughout Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia,
and may
and may be be in Java
Java and
and Bali.
Bali. As As will be observed
observed later,
later, its production
production is over 10001000
tonnes/ year. Another
tonnesl group of species is found
Another group found inin continental
continental South-East
South-East Asia. The
main
main resin
resin producing
producing species tonkinensis (Pierre)
Styrax tonkinensis
species is Styrax (Pierre) Craib
Craib exex Hartwiss
Hartwiss
(Pinyopusarerk, 1994)
(Pinyopusarerk, 1994) while Styrax
Styrax benzoin Craib. is
benzoin Craib. is aa minor
minor one
one (Burkill,
(Burkill, 1966).
1966).
Benzoin resin from S.
Benzoin resin S. tonkinensis
tonkinensis is commercially known as
commercially known as 'Siam benzoin',
benzoin', as itit was
was
traded through
traded through the
the kingdom
kingdom of of Siam
Siam (present
(present Thailand).
Thailand). Chinese historical data suggest
suggest
that it was first exploited
exploited and traded from
from North Sumatra,
Sumatra, in thethe 8th-9th
8th-9th centuries.
centuries. From
From
about the
about the 12th century, it also
also came
came from
from continental
continental South-East
South-East Asia,
Asia, where
where its
its names
names
seem to be derived fromfrom Indonesian
Indonesian languages
languages (Yamada,
(Yamada, 1954-55;
1954-55; Wheatley,
Wheatley, 1959).
1959). InIn
Sumatra, itit is called kemenyan
Sumatra, kemenyan in in Malay
Malay and
and haminjon
haminjon in in Batak
Batak (the Malays inhabit the
coasts and
coasts and the
the Eastern
Eastern part
part of Sumatra,
Sumatra, the
the Batak
Batak the
the highlands
highlands ofof North
North Sumatra).
Sumatra). TheThe

1 CIFOR project 8,
CIFOR project 8, directed
directed by Manuel
Manuel Ruiz Pérez,
Perez, on "Global
"Global trends
trends in
in non-timber
non-timber
forest products"
forest products" and
and European
European Union
Union project,
project, directed
directed by
by Geneviève
Genevieve Michon,
Michon, on
"Alternative
"Alternative strategies
strategies for of forest resoures: extractivism, agroforestry
for the development of
or plantations?". EU project involves French,
plantations?". EU French, Spanish and Norwegian,
Spanish and Norwegian, Indonesian
Indonesian and
Filipino research
Filipino research institutions
institutions and
and NGOs.
NG0s. CIFOR
CIFOR andand EU projects
projects are
are interacting
interacting and
and
overlapping, and some scientists, such as Esther Katz, are members of ofboth.
 57

Thai, Lao, Khmer and

Thai, Lao, and Vietnamese
Vietnamese names
names are
are close
close to
to kemenyan (for instance
kemenyan (for instance nhan in
in
Lao) (Yamada, 1954-55).
Lao) (Yamada, 1954-55). The word 'benzoin'
The word 'benzoin' and
and its equivalents in other European
its equivalents European
languages derive from the Arabic luban jawi, 'frankincense
lubanjawi, 'frankincense of Sumatra', as it was brought
2
to Europe
to through the
Europe through the Arab
Arab world
world2. • Benzoin is chiefly used for incense, perfume and
medicine.

We thought
We thought thatthat benzoin in North
North Sumatra
Sumatra had
had become
become a very minor activity,
activity, yet we
found that
found that itit is
is still produced in fourteen sub-districts distributed over two districts,
districts , Dairi
and North
and North Tapanuli,
Tapanuli, where
where itit is
is either
either the main
main source
source of income,
income, or secondary
secondary to
commercial
commercial agriculture (coffee, pineapple, etc.). Thousands of
etc.). Thousands of farmers
farmers and small local
traders still live from this resource.

Species identification
Species identification
Although benzoin
Although benzoin resin
resin has
has been
been lcnown
lmown for for a very
very long
long time,
time, the
the identification
identification of
benzoin resin producing Styrax trees in Indonesia is
benzoin resin producing Styrax trees in Indonesia is not yet totally accurate. Different
totally accurate. Different
species of
species of Styrax
Styrax grow
grow all
all over
over the
the island of Sumatra,
Sumatra, at least from Aceh to Jambi Jambi (and
(and
are
are also
also found
found in Peninsular Malaysia).
Malaysia). Most authors
authors describe
describe Styrax benzoin as
Styrax benzoin as the best
resin
resin producing
producing species
species (Braam,
(Braam, 1917;
1917; Heyne,
Heyne, 1927;
1927; Hulssen,
Hulssen, 1940;
1940; Burkill,
Burkill, 1966;
1966;
Pastorova & & Boon, 1994). The second most important species is Styrax paralleloneurum paralleloneurum
Perk. (Hulssen,
Perk. (Hulssen, 1940, Pastorova & Boon, 1994), 1994), but Watanabe consider it a
Watanabe et al. (1996) consider
better species
species and
and believe
believe it to be the same
same as
as S.
S. sumatranum
sumatranum J.J. Smith Smith (mentioned
(mentioned by
Burkill, 1966), which
Burkill, 1966), which maymay also
also be another
another name
name for S. sumatrana
sumatrana (mentioned
(mentioned as as a
secondary species
secondary species byby Heyne,
Heyne, 1927).
1927). Burkill
Burkill (1966)
(1966) alsoalso describes
describes S. S. subpaniculatum
subpaniculatum
Jungh.
Jungh. & & De Vriese which grows grows in Palembang
Palembang area,area, in the South
South ofof Sumatra,
Sumatra, and and S.
S.
serrulatum Roxb. The Thetaxonomy
taxonomyof ofStyrax
Styrax species
species has
has been revised since Burkill's work,
but unfortunately no ethnobotanical information
information is provided in this revision (Putz (Putz & & Ng,
Ng,
1978).
1978). Heyne
Heyne (1927)
(1927) collected
collected samples,
samples, local
local names
names and ethnobotanical information at
the
the beginning
beginning of of the century,
century, which needs to
which needs to be compared
compared with presentpresent data.
data. Batak
Batak
peasants distinguish two
peasants distinguish two oror three
three species
species of benzoin
benzoin trees,
trees, with different
different qualities
qualities of
resin, but we
resin, but we have not not collected
collected all
all the
the species,
species, nor
nor identified
identified them.
them. The The names
names andand
number species vary
number of species vary according
according to to the
the areas.
areas. Local
Local names
names have
have been
been given
given toto us
us in
Batak Dairi in Dairi district
Batak Dairi district and in various
various dialects
dialects of Batak Toba in in North
North Tapanuli,
Tapanuli,
which are two different, although
although closely
closely related,
related, languages.
languages.

Chemical composition
Some information
Some infonuation is available on the resin
resin chemical
chemical composition
composition of of Styrax
Styrax tonkinensis
tonkinensis
('Siam benzoin'), Styrax benzoin and Styrax paralleloneurum. Siam benzoin isis more
(,Siam benzoin'), Styrax benzoin and Styrax paralleloneurum. Siam benzoin
valued for
valued for pharmaceutical preparationsand
pharmaceutical preparations and for
for perfume
perfume than
than Sumatra
Sumatra benzoin.
benzoin.
According
According to to data compiled by Burkhill
Burkhill (1966),
(1966), Styrax
Styrax tonkinensis and Styrax
tonkinensis and Styrax benzoin
benzoin
both contain benzo-resinol and traces of of three fragrant substances, benzaldehyde vanillin,
phenylpropyl
phenylpropyl cinnamate
cinnamate styrol,
styrol, and styracin;
styracin; but Styrax tonkinensis contains
Styrax tonkinensis contains free
free benzoic
benzoic
acid, while Styrax
acid, while Styrax benzoin
benzoin contains
contains free acid and holds lower quantities of of vanillin
vanillin and
styrol; Styrax
styrol; Stymyparalleloneurum
paralleloneurum yields
yields aa benzoin
benzoin made
made upup principally of
of cinnamic
cinnamic acid. A
recent study
recent study was
was made
made on samples
samples ofof different
different qualities
qualities of Styrax
Styrax benzoin
benzoin and Styrax

22 The
The first
first Arab
Arab travellers
travellers called both Java and Sumatra 'Jawa'.
 58

paralleloneurum collected
collected in North Sumatra (Pastorova
(Pastorova & & Boon, 1994).
1994). From
From thethe gas
gas
chromatograms, they identified six groups of of components in all all the samples:
samples: free
free benzoic
benzoic
acid,
acid, free cinnamic
cinnamic acid,
acid, free
free alcohols
alcohols and
and vanillin,
vanillin, benzoic
benzoic acid
acid esters,
esters, cinnamic
cinnamic acid
acid
esters and
esters and higher molecular
molecular weight
weight compounds.
compounds. TheyThey concluded
concluded that quality
quality ofof both
both the
the
resins
resins is correlated
correlated with
with the
the aromatic
aromatic ester
ester content.
content. Styrax
Styrax paralleloneurum
paralleloneurum contains
contains
primarily cinnamic acid esters and Styrax benzoin
benzoin about equal amounts of of cinnamic and and
benzoic acid esters. Lower
Lower grades
grades contain
contain mainly free benzoic and cinnanlic
cinnamic acids
acids and anan
amount of triterpenoids. It is
of triterpenoids. is very
very likely
likely that
that the
the collectors
collectors and
and the
the traders
traders mix
mix the
the
different species of
of Sumatra
Sumatra benzoin.

Tree management
Data about the natural distribution of
of Styrax trees has also to be compiled and revised. In
Sumatra, they can be found in the undergrowth of primary forests (Laumonier, 1991), but
secondary forests
are more common in secondary forests (Laumonier,
(Laumonier, pers.
pers. com.),
com.), which
which isis also
also the
the case
case in
in
Northern Laos (Vidal,
(Vidal, 1960).
1960).

In Indonesia, resin production is centered in the

the highlands
highlands of
ofNorth
North Sumatra,
Sumatra, where
where its
its
cultivation seems to have originated. Benzoin was also extracted
extracted for
for local
local uses
uses in
in Kerinci
Kerinci
Seblat National
Seblat National Park (Aumeeruddy, pers. com.),
(Aumeeruddy, pers. com.), in Jambi (Laumonier,
(Laumonier, pers.
pers. com.) andand
maybe in other
other parts of
of Sumatra
Sumatra and Central
Central Java.
Java. According
According to
to Dutch
Dutch forestry
forestry literature,
literature,
from Palembang (Heyne,
it was also traded from (Heyne, 1927).
1927).

Most
Most of
of the
the North
North Sumatra
Sumatra production
production presently
presently comes
comes from
from planted
planted trees.
trees. They
They are
are
usually
usually cultivated at elevations
cultivated at fi-om800
elevations from 800mm to
to about
about 1500
1500 m.
m. Farmers
Farmers say
say that
that wild
wild
benzoin trees can be found in the forests located far away from the villages. We have not
been in any ofof these
these forests.
forests. As
As this
this environment
environment has
has been
been managed
managed over
over many
many centuries,
centuries,
we wonder whether these trees are really "wild". An ecological study will be undertaken
vegetation g,radients
at different vegetation gradients and will probably provide answers
answers to
to these
these questions.
questions.

Most
Most of the
the fail ters we
farmers we have
have interviewed
interviewed so far
far plant
plant benzoin
benzoin seeds,
seeds, or
or preferably
preferably
seedlings, inside the forest, usually in a place where where there
there are
are ah-eady
already benzoin trees. They
They
pick seedlings around the best resin producing trees in their plantation. When the benzoin
trees reach about
about one
one meter,
meter, theythey progressively
progressively eliminate
eliminate the
the other
other species.
species. After
After eight
eight
years, they start tapping the benzoin trees.trees. If they do it properly, they can extract the resin
for about sixty years - this means that the farmer,
farmer, his son and his grandson will live on it.
Then they abandon the site and and let
let it grow as a forest. They say that they cannot replace
the trees one by
by one,
one, as
as ititisisdone
doneininSouthern
SouthernSumatra,
Sumatra, inindamar
damarplantations
plantations (Shorea
(Shorea
javanica) (Michon
(Michon & & Bompard,
Bompard, 1987).1987). This
This plantation method was
plantation method was reported
reported at the
the
beginning
beginning of the century by Heyne (1927), (1927), but plantations have also been described
plantations have described in
abandoned
abandoned rice fallows (Braam,
(Braam, 1917;1917; Heyne;
Heyne; 1927;
1927; Marsden,
Marsden, 1986)3.
1986)3. This practice is is
apparently much less
apparently much less common nowadays. According
common nowadays. According to to farmers
farmers in Tapanuli,
Tapanuli, the trees
trees
produce resin only after
after 20 years, compared to 8 years under under forest
forest cover.
cover.

3 In Laos, benzoin trees grow spontaneously in rice fallows (Savathvong

(Savathvong et aI.,
al., 1997)
 59

The history ofof benzoin cultivation will have to be traced. Plantations

Plantations were observed by a
traveler as
British traveler as early as 1772
1772 (Marsden,
(Marsden, 1986),
1986), but we do not
not know
know when
when theythey were
were
established. No foreign
established. No foreign traveller reached the highlands
highlands previously, as the Batak fiercely
fiercely
defended their
defended their territory.
territory. As
As there
there was
was an external
external trade demand
demand from
from the
the 8th century,
century,
intensification of
intensification of the
the production
production may have have happened
happened several
several centuries
centuries ago,
ago, but was
was
probably expanded a few generations ago. In 1917, 1917, Braam (op. cit.), observed
observed thatthat a lot of
planting had occurred in the few preceding years. years. We
We do not know either what has been been
the proportion ofof cultivated trees to 'wild' trees over the centuries. Marsden (op. (op. cit.)
cit.) saw
wild benzoin trees, but it is difficult
difficult to
to know
know what
what was really wild, favoured
favoured or or managed
managed
in the forest.
forest. We still have to to study
study the
the difference
difference between wild and and cultivated
cultivated benzoin
benzoin
trees and better understand the method of
trees of selecting
selecting seedlings. We needneed toto recognise,
recognise, inin
any case,
any case, that
that the Batak farmers started planting
farmers started planting and
and selecting
selecting the
the trees
trees at
at a time when
when
there was no scientific agronomic research and that the indigenous knowledge of of benzoin
has been built up over centuries.

Presently the benzoin farmers

farmers are facing
facing problems
problems ofof land
land limitation.
limitation. Their
Their plantations
plantations
are getting
are old and forest
getting old forest spaces have been reduced
spaces have reduced toto the minimum.
minimum. A big big pulp
pulp and
and
paper company located
located in the area is in in great
great need
need of
ofwood.
wood. This
This company
company has has already
already
cut hundreds
cut hundreds ofof hectares
hectares of pines
pines which
which were
were planted
planted inin colonial
colonial times
times and
and have been
been
planting eucalyptus trees. In some villages, they
planting eucalyptus trees. In some villages, they have cut benzoin plantations or are
cut benzoin plantations or are
planning to do so and
and replace
replace them with eucalyptus.
eucalyptus. This is quite
quite aa paradox,
paradox, because
because in in
Vietnam, Styrax tonkinensis are planted for pulp and paper (Pinyopusarerk, 1994). Young
farmers also
farmers also voluntarily
voluntarily sell
sell their
their benzoin
benzoin trees
trees and
and turn
turn to
to other activities.
activities. Many older
older
farmers' sons
farmers' sons have
have migrated
migrated to to the
the cities.
cities. These
These farmers
farmers have
have nono reason
reason toto set up new
new
plantations, and when
plantations, and when they
they are
are too
too old to work,
work, they
they abandon
abandon their plantation or sell sell it.
it.
The price incentive to
to retain benzoin is is very low at the moment.
moment. Prices
Prices on local Sumatra
markets have not increased for several years, which means that in real terms,
markets have telms, they
they have
have
Both farmers
been decreasing. Both farmers and
and traders
traders are
areworried
worried about
aboutthe future 4 .
thefuture4.

Tapping techniques
Tapping techniques
During the peak seasons, farmers activity is
farmers whose main activity is benzoin
benzoin exploitation
exploitation go go toto their
their
forest plantations
forest plantations for
for about
about three
three toto five
five days
days per
per week
week and return
return to
to the village for for the
the
weekly market and church. Benzoin exploitation is usually a male male occupation.
occupation. It is hard
It is hard
and risky,
and risky, as
as it requires
requires the tapper to climb up the tree to 4-6 4-6 meters.
meters. The
The bottom
bottom of of the
the
tree is
tree is tapped harvested first,
tapped or harvested first, and
and then
then aa rope
rope of sugar
sugar palm
palm fiber
fiber is
is tied atat about
about 2
meters above the ground. The tapper stands on aa small small piece of ofwood
wood tied
tied to
to the
therope
rope toto
tap or harvest the second part of the tree. tree. This is repeated
repeated at the next 2 meters, and so on
if necessary. Only few
necessary. Only a few women exploit
exploit the trees to
trees to help their husband or because they
are widows, and this does not occur in all the villages. The benzoin tree itself itselfis
is perceived
perceived
as a woman
as woman andand thethe resin
resin is seen
seen as as her
her tears
tears or
or her
her milk.
milk. Before
Before going
going to to their
their
plantations,
plantations, the
the farmers
farmers must be nice to
be nice to their wives
wives and
and while
while tapping,
tapping, they
they must not talk
in a coarse manner, otherwise the 'lady tree' will not give resin.

4 In Laos, farmers located close to roads

roads have
have turned
turned to
to other
other alternatives.
alternatives. Only
Only farmers
farmers
located in marginal
marginal remote areas still tap benzoin trees (Chagnaud, 1996; Savathvong et
a!., 1997).
al., 1997).
 60

Before tapping,
tapping, the bark has to be cleanedcleaned of
of mosses
mosses with
with aa scraper
scraper (guris).
(guris). This way,
the resin will not mix with impurities when it flows out, and the sun shines directly on the
trunk, warming it.it. Farmers
Farmers say
say that
that the moss
moss keeps
keeps itit cool
cool and
and that
that the
the tree
tree produces
produces more
more
resin if it is warm. A A type
type of
of aa knife
knife (agat
(agat panuktuk)
panuktuk) is used to open a small small wound of
about 22 em
about cm in the
the bark.
bark. The
The metal goes under the bark and lifts lifts it
it up,
up, then
then the
the farmer
farmer
pushes
pushes it back with the the knife
knife handle,
handle, shaped
shaped like
like aa hammer.
hammer. This This way,
way, more
more resin
resin will
will
remain under the bark. They make about 10 wounds on each two meters level of of the tree,
5 on each side, so about
about 30 wounds
wounds are are made
made on a tree.
tree. The tapping
tapping starts
starts in May and
lasts about
lasts about until
until August, depending on
August, depending on the
the number
number of of trees
trees to
to tap.
tap. Only
Only trees
trees with
with full
full
foliage can be tapped. The trees, which have
foliage can be tapped. The trees, which have lost their leaves
leaves or have very young ones
(they are
(they are called susang) have to be tapped later, between January and March, once their
foliage has recovered.

The resin flows under the bark and outside. It can be collected after three or four months,
from August
from August to about December,
December, for
for most
most trees,
trees, and
and from
from April
April to
to June for
for the susang. It
is better to collect it in
in the
the rainy
rainy season, because the weather is cooler and the resin does
not melt,
melt, but ififititgets
getswet
wetwhile
whilecollecting,
collecting, ititbecomes
becomes dirty.
dirty. Collecting
Collecting should
should be
avoided in
avoided in the
the middle
middle of the
the day
day in
in the
the hot sun, as it is is also
also likely
likely to
to melt.
melt. The
The farmer
farmer
uses
uses a small blunt broad bladed
bladed knife
knife (agat)
(agat) to
to pry away the bark to
away the to which the
the resin
resin is
stuck. He
stuck. He puts
puts it in aa basket
basket carried
carried on his
his back.
back. A A farmer
farmer can
can collect
collect about
about 55 kg/day,
kg/day,
which gives about
which gives about 3 kg of of pure
pure resin.
resin. This
This first
first flow
flow resin
resin is
is called
called takasan,
takas an, the
the inner
inner
white resin is
is called
called mata
mata dalam,
dalam, the outer yellowish
yellowish resin
resin is
is called
called mata luar.

Two or three months later,

later, the farmer can go back to the the same
same tree
tree and
and collect
collect the
the second
second
flow of resin
flow resin from the wounded bark. bark. He
He just
just scrapes it from
from the tree with the same knife. knife.
This
This resin is called
called lecet. Part of this resin is white,
lecet. Part white, and partpart aa dark
dark brown
brown colour,
colour,
describedasas 'black'
described 'black' by
by local
local people.
people. As
As the
the resin
resin flows
flows onon to the the tree
tree trunk,
trunk, some
some
It dries
impurities are collected. It dries less
less easily
easily than
than the
the first-flow resin 5 .
first-flow resin5.

Then, about three

Then, about three months later, aa third flow
months later, flow of
of resin
resin can
can be
be collected.
collected. Usually,
Usually, while
farmers collect
farmers collect it,
it, they tap
tap the
the tree
tree in
in another part of the trunk.
trunk. More commonly,
commonly, they tap tap
on the
the side
sideopposite
oppositetotothethelast
last wound.
wound. This
This third
third resin,
resin, called
called tahirtahir or, isis also
or jurur, also dark.
dark.
It looks like the dark parts of of the second resin, but some of of it can be slightly
slightly reddish and and
more transparent.
transparent. Data about the average annual resin production per tree vary between
200 g/year
g/year /tree and 11 kg/year/tree.
kg/year/tree. It It depends
depends onon the
the age
age of the trees.
trees. Watanabe
Watanabe et al.
(1996) mention a production of of 11 kg/year/tree
kg/year/tree for
for fully
fully producing
producing trees.
trees.

commercialization, sorting,
Drying, commercialization, sorting, processing
processingand
andtransportation
transportation
Some people sell their harvest
Some people harvest directly
directly with
with the
the bark,
bark, while
while others
others prefer
prefer to
to dry
dry itit for
for a
week, in a dark cool place, usually an
week, an attic,
attic, before
before cleaning
cleaning thethe resin
resin from
from the
the bark.
bark. If If the
the
farmers have enough money,
farmers have money, they
they dry
dry the
the resin a little longer,
longer, as it increases
increases the
the value.
value.
Otherwise, they sell
Otherwise, they sell it right away
away to thethe local
local village
village traders.
traders. The
The barks
barks can be
can sold sold
separately in large quantities
separately in quantities for 33 cents/kg.
cents/kg. TheThe prices
prices for resin vary
for resin vary from
from $2$2 to $4 $4

5 Laos benzoin is only harvested once

once and only gives
gives white
white resin
resin (Pinyopusarerk, 1994).
 61

according to quality.
according quality. TheThe trader
trader sortssorts the different
different typestypes ofof resins
resins according
according to to their
their
colour and
colour and size and dries them for a longer longer time.
time. ForFor instance
instance the second resin is both
white and black.
white and black. He Hemaymay extract
extract the the white
white pieces
pieces and and putput them
them with the resin of of first
first
quality and
quality and gain some profit on it. He
He sieves
sieves thethe benzoin
benzoin and and separates
separates itit into
into heaps
heaps of of
different sizes,
sizes,called
called'big
'bigpieces',
pieces','bean',
'bean','corn',
'corn','rice', 'clust16.
'rice', 'dust,6. If he has enough capital, he
keeps
keeps the benzoin drying as long long as as he
he can.
can. The The drier
drier the
the benzoin,
benzoin, the easier
easier it is for
transportation. When enough benzoin has
transportation. has been accumulated,
accumulated, the trader or his his wife
wife goes
goes
to the nearest
to trading town
nearest trading town to to sell
sell it,
it, usually
usually on on market
marketday. day. He or she has to go very
early so
early so that
that the resin
resin does
does not
not melt
melt withwiththe the sun
sun oror heat.
heat. They transport
transport it in cardboard
boxes or big baskets on the top of buses. On one occasion,
of buses. On one occasion, we observed a village trader
who could not catch catch an
an early
early bus,
bus, as as they
they were
were crowded,
crowded, and and whose
whose benzoin
benzoin melted
melted on
the way.
way. As Ashehearrived
arrivedinto
intotown,
town, all all the
the pieces
pieces were
were stuck
stuck together,
together, altering
altering the shape
and the colour. The Theselling
sellingprice
priceconsequently
consequently dropped. dropped. MaybeMaybe means of of transportation
transportation
could be improved
improved in order to preserve the quality of of benzoin.
In the market town,
town, the
the traders
traders again
again mix mix thethe different
different qualities.
qualities. They place the smaller
smaller
size pieces in the bottom of the heap, then bigger ones over it and the biggest
ofthe biggest ones on top.
The trading game consists of of the
the buyer evaluating the quantity quantity of ofeach
each size
size and
and the
the profit
profit
that can be made on the
that the whole
whole heap.heap. The buyers buyers go go from
from one heap to the the other,
other, take
take
pieces from
pieces from thethe bottom
bottom andand liftlift them
them up up toto the
the top;
top; pick
pick aa sample
sample toto evaluate
evaluate thethe
proportionof
proportion of each
each size;
size; burn
burn aa small piece of resin
small piece resin on theirtheir cigarette
cigarette to smell
smell itsits
fragrance; look at its appearance and its shine.
fragrance; shine. They bargain the price with the seller lmtil until
reaching an agreement or leaving it. Occasionally sellers do not find adequate buyers and
return home with their heap, especially if they are based in that same town.

The bigger
The traders again
bigger traders again sort
sort out the different sizes and
different sizes and qualities and dry the benzoin
qualities and benzoin
longer. They keep it about four months before they sell it to
longer. to distant
distant places:
places: Central
Central Java,
Java,
located at
located at four days drive, and Singapore, reached by boat from Medan harbour within
Singapore, reached
day. Drying and stocking the benzoin requires
about a day. requires again
again to
to hold enough capital to be
able to wait for a few months. The longer traders keep Sumatra benzoin, the drier and the
more valuable it is. In contrast, Laos benzoin, which seems to dry faster, must be sold as
quickly as
quickly as possible to preserve
preserve its
its fragrance
fragrance (Fischer,
(Fischer, personal
personal communication).
communication). It lt is
is
possible that Sumatra
possible that benzoin also
Sumatra benzoin also loses
loses its
its scent
scent in
in the
the process,
process, but
but if it does
does not
not dry
dry
properly, the product
properly, the loses more
product loses more of its its quality.
quality. We
We wonder
wonder whether
whether allall the
the different
different
manipulations of
manipUlations of sorting the pieces by sieving, mixing them again and and sieving
sieving them
them again
again
do not also alter
alter the
the quality7.
qualit/.

Some benzoin
Some benzoin is sold pure,
is sold pure, but
but aabigger
biggerproportion
proportion isisprocessed.
processed. Possibly
Possibly some
some
processing occurs in
processing occurs in Sumatra,
Sumatra, and
and some
some in
in Singapore,
Singapore, butbut most
most of the
the benzoin
benzoin is
is
transformed in Central Java. There, it is
is wrapped in little plastic
plastic bags, pressed into
into blocks
blocks
or put into cigarettes. In some cases, blocks
blocks may be made out of of pure benzoin, but more

56 In
In Singapore,
Singap* ore,the
thetraders
tradersuse
usethree
threemain
maincategories:
categories:'almonds'
'almonds' (for
(for big
big pieces),
pieces), 'siftings'
(for small pieces), 'dust'.
'dust'.
7 This question was also raised by Chagnaud (1996).
 62

8
commonly, benzoin
commonly, benzoinisis adulterated
adulteratedwith
withdamar
damarresin
resin(Shorea
(Shoreaspp.),
spp), which is cheaper8.
cheaper .
Some Batak traders
traders also
also mentioned that
that itit was
was going
going into
into glass
glass and
and textile
textile industries,
industries, and
and
it may also be processed in Indonesia in flavouring,
flavouring, perfume and essential oil industries,
but we do not have any information about it yet.

Uses and
Uses and trade
trade
The present trading channels of of benzoin still have to be accurately researched. AccordingAccording
figures, present production
to official regional figures, production in in North
North Sumatra
Sumatra would
would be
be of about
about 5,000
5,000
9
T/ year,
TI year, of
of which
which 1,000
1,000 TTare
are exported9.
exported . We We do notnot know
know whether
whether itit includes
includes only
only
exports from
exports from Sumatra or also from Java and if if they are
are reliable.
reliable. Another
Another official
official source
source
gives similar
gives similar figures
figures (800-1,100
(800-1,100 T) for for benzoin
benzoin exports
exports from
from Indonesia
Indonesia to to Singapore
Singapore
(about
(about 90%),
90%), Malaysia,
Malaysia, Taiwan,
Taiwan, United
United Arab Arab Emirates,
Emirates, Kuwait,
Kuwait, India,
India, Hong
Hong Kong,
Kong,
Pakistan, Japan,
Pakistan, Japan, Saudi
Saudi Arabia (Silitonga,
(Silitonga, 1994, quoted by Coppen,
1994, quoted Coppen, 1995).
1995). In 1920,
1920, the
the
district of Tapanuli alone was producing 2,000 TI T/ year (Schnepper, 1923). In 1931, 1931,2,500
2,500
TI
T/ year were exported, to Singapore, India, Arabia, Egypt, Algeria,
India, Arabia, Egypt, Algeria, Europe and America
1932). It is very
(Koppel, 1932). very difficult
difficult to
to trace
trace benzoin
benzoin exports
exports to other
other countries,
countries, as their
their
figures are not
figures are not large
large enough
enough to warrant
warrant a separate
separate category; they are
category; they are included
included in in the
"gums and resins" category. We have not checked the current figures, figures, but our estimates,
estimates,
based on two field trips, indicate that the North Sumatran production falls within an order
of magnitude of thousands of tonnes.
tonnes. If it really is 5,000 T, we wonder how how 4,000
4,000 TT are
are
consumed
consumed by by the national
national population
population of Indonesia,
Indonesia, even
even though
though there areare 200
200 million
million
inhabitants.

The
The use of of benzoin has aa long
long history
history inin Sumatra,
Sumatra, since
since itit was
was already
already exported
exported from
from
there in the 8th century. Its oldest
oldest uses
uses may be associated
associated with shamanistic rituals. Even
today, shamans in the Batak highlands, as well as in all
today, all Sumatra
Sumatra and and Java,
Java, burn
burn benzoin
benzoin
incense when they
incense when they enter a possession trance in
possession trance in curing
curing rituals.
rituals. It is widely
widely used
used inin both
both
islands in different types of
islands of traditional
traditional rituals
rituals : protection from
from bad spirits,
spirits, rice-reaping
rice-reaping
ceremonies, rain rituals,
ceremonies, rain rituals, offerings
offerings toto the
the dead,
dead, to
to the
the house
house spirits,
spirits, etc.
etc. Benzoin is also
talcen as aamedicine
taken as medicine and
and smoked
smoked in in cigarettes,
cigarettes, sometimes
sometimes alsoalso used
used in rituals.
rituals. The habit of of
smoking benzoin cigarettes
smoking benzoin cigarettes isis very
very much
much ingrained
ingrained in in Central
Central Java,
Java, where
where rituals
rituals
involving the use of of benzoin
benzoin incense
incense are
are more
more common
common and and frequent
frequent than
than anywhere
anywhere else else
in Indonesia.
Indonesia. We estimated the sales sales of a small retailing stand
small retailing stand in the central market of a
main city in Central Java to be; aa minimum
minimum figure of of 5 T/
TI year.
year. The
The enquiry
enquiry needs
needs to
to gogo
further to estimate the local consumption
further to region. Some
consumption in that region. Some small local industries still
make benzoin cigarettes,
cigarettes, but these cigarettes, whether industrial
cigarettes, whether industrial or or home made, are now
smoked only by older people of ofJavanese
Javanese peasant
peasant background.
background. Industrialists expect expect itit to
to
die with the passing of of this
this generation
generation (Tarmidi,
(Tarmidi, 1996). Nevertheless, itit is
1996). Nevertheless, is possible
possible that
that

8 We saw that benzoin used

used to
to be
be adulterated
adulterated by
by frankincense
frankincense or
or myrrh.
myrrh. WeWedon't
don'tlcnow
know
when it started to be adulterated by damar,
damar, but it is mentioned atat least in the early fourties
fourties
(Hulssen, 1940).
(Hulssen, 1940). At that time there were processing factories
factories on the west coast ofNorth
coast of North
Sumatra.
9 Informasi Pasar Industri Produksi Lokal Jenis Tanaman Kemenyan di KabupatenKabupaten
Tapanuli Utara, 1993-94, data collected by J. Coppen in April 1997 at North SumatraSumatra
Forestry Service.
 63

benzoin
benzoin isis also
al.so added as a flavouring
flavouring to some brands of of modem kretek cigarettes,
kretek clove cigarettes,
what would imply
Imply large quantities since 140 140 billions of
of kretek
kretek cigarettes were produced
in 1993,
1993, mainly for the the national
national market
market (ibid.).
(ibid.). In
In a modem
modem fast-changing
fast-changing Indonesia,
Indonesia,
traditional
traditional Javanese rituals involving benzoin, practised since pre-islamic
pre-islamic times, are now
perceived as
perceived as backward
bacicwardand andareare rejected
rejectedby
by orthodox
orthodox Muslims.
Muslims So this consumption has
been declining
been declining andand is
is likely
likely toto decrease
decrease even
even more. Nevertheless,
more. Nevertheless,inin the rest of
the rest of the
the
Muslim world,10
Muslim world,1°benzoin
benzoinisiswidely
widelyused
used and
and burnt
burnt in
in homes
homes and mosques, many
mosques, in many
religious and
religious and life
life cycle
cycle rituals,
rituals, as
as well
well as
as to
to chase away bad spirits.
away bad spirits. In the Maghreb, in
Maghreb,
particular, its use is very frequent. TheyThey always
always use
use block
block benzoin.
benzoin.

As
As early
early as
as the
the 8th
8thcentury,
century, benzoin
benzoin was
was discovered
discovered inin Sumatra
Sumatra by
by Middle-Eastern
Middle-Eastern
traders who, as
traders who, as noted
noted earlier, called it 'frankincense
earlier, called Sumatra' and
'frankincense of Sumatra' and imported
imported itit to be
be
used
used in a similar
similar way
way or
or in
in association
association with
with frankincense
frankincense and
and myrrh.
myrrh. Around
Around the
the 12th
12th
century, Arab merchants
century, Arab merchants began
began shipping
shipping frankincense from the
frankincense from the Hadhramaut
Hadhramaut ports
ports
(present
(present Yemen)
Yemen) to to the Sumatran harbour of Sri Vijaya, from where they were trading trading itit
China. They were also shipping benzoin to India and the Middle-East
to China. Middle-East forfor adulteration
adulteration
with Indian gum-gugul 11 11 and
andArabian
Arabianfrankincense,
frankincense,prior
priortotocarrying
carryingback
back toto the
the East
East for
for
sale in China (Wheatley,
(Wheatley, 1959).
1959). AtAt that
that time,
time, the
the Chinese were
were mainly
mainly using it as a means
of fixing the aroma of more volatile
fixing the volatile perfumes,
perfumes, andand not
not yet as aa medicine
medicine (ibid.).
{ibid.}. They
They
probably also included
probably also included it in their
their incenses,
incenses, asas did
did neighbouring
neighbouring countries
countries such
such asas Japan
Japan
and Vietnam. 12 The
and Vietnam.12 The Christians
Christianstoo too were
were using
using frankincense
frankincense and and myrrh for for religious
religious
purposes, which,
purposes, which, according
according to to the
the Bible, were brought by the Three Wise Men Men to to Jesus.
Jesus.
They also
also received benzoin from from thethe Arabs,
Arabs, probably in the Middle-Ages, and and added to
added itit to
the
the earlier
earlier incenses.
incenses. A A study
study in FranceFrance showed
showed thatthat the
the use
use of
ofincense
incense declined
declined in in
Catholic churches,
Catholic churches, but is still
still very
very important
important in inoriental
orientalchurches
churches(Goloubinoff,
(Goloubinoff,1997).13
1997).13
It seems
It seems to to be more
more widely
widely consumed
consumed in countries
countries where
where there
there are still
still big
big Catholic
Catholic
processions,
processions, such such as
as in Spain.
Spain. Benzoin
Benzoin is still used
is still used inin Western
Western pharmacopeia,
pharmacopeia, in in
particular
particular forfor respiratory
respiratory ailments,
ailments, but but in small quantities.
quantities. It is employed
employed as as well
well in_the
in-the
perfume industry, as
perfume industry, as a fixative
fixative forfor more volatile
volatile scents
scents and to give
give aa sweet
sweet "oriental"
"oriental"
note. The quantities involved in this industry are not very great either (about 1-10
note. I-lOT/year
T/ year
for small
for small and middle-sized companies). In
middle-sized companies). In the
the pharmacy
pharmacy and and perfume industries, Siam
benzoin is actually more valued than Sumatra Sumatra benzoin, but perfumers mix both both resins
resins to to
reduce
reduce the costs, since Siam benzoin is more more expensive.
expensive. InIn Marseille
Marseille harbour,
harbour, in in 1997,
1997,

10 It includes at least the Middle and Near-East,

Near-East, the
the Indian sub-continent and the Northern
of Africa, from the Somali
part of Somali and
and Swahili
Swahili coast
coast to
to Senegal.
Senegal.
The results
The results of archeological excavations presently
archeological excavations presently led
led by
by aa French-Indonesian
French-Indonesian teamteam in
in
Barus, aa historical
Barns, harbour of
historical harbour of North
North Sumatra,
Sumatra, will
will provide
provide more
more accurate
accurate data
data on
on the
history of
history of the
the benzoin trade. Disperse
benzoin trade. Disperse data
data onon benzoin historical and
benzoin historical and present
present uses
uses and
trading channels will have also to be gathered.
11
11 Gum-gugul is is probably
probably aa Commiphora.
Commiphora.
12
12 Japan in particular has developped an "incense culture".
culture". Incense
Incense ceremonies, similar to
tea ceremonies, are still practised nowadays
nowadays (Kobayashi,
(Kobayashi, personal
personal communication, 1997).
13 In
13 Inthe
thecity
cityof
of Paris,
Paris, the
the consumption
consumption ofof incense
incense would
wouldnotnot exceed
exceed 400
400 kg/year
kg/year in
in the
the
Catholic churches, and 75 kg/year in the Oriental churches. As they they are
are incense
incense mixtures,
mixtures,
benzoin is only a part ofof this amount (Goloubinoff, 1997).
1997).
 64

the price of
of pure
pure Sumatra
Sumatra benzoin
benzoin was between
between $6 and
and $18
$18 according
according to
to quality,
quality, and
and
Siam benzoin
Siam benzoin was
was $27.
$27. Curiously,
Curiously, several
several perfumers
perfumerswewevisited
visited did
did not
not seem
seem to
to have
have
access to the highest qualities of
of Sumatra
Sumatra benzoin almonds.

With new esoteric and 'green' trends, there is a recent development of

'green' trends, of the use ofof incense
incense
in the Western
Western world, which is actually a return
world, which return to old
old traditions.
traditions. TheThe study
study inin France
France
showed that small quantities areare sold,
sold, but at high prices.
prices. Adulterated benzoin is
Adulterated benzoin is often sold
under the name of 'benzoin' benzoin' in small 50 g bags, for prices from $50
'benzoin' or 'Sumatra benzoin'
$1651 kg. In two places, 50 g bags of
to $165/ ofpure
pure benzoin
benzoin siftings
siftings (worth
(worth $8 $8 /kg
/kg in
in Marseille)
Marseille)
were
were sold
sold for
for $215/kg
$215/kg under
under the
the name
name ofof'Tibetan
'Tibetan incense',
incense', 'for
'for deep
deepmeditation'
meditation'
(Goloubinoff, 1997). As far as we know, Tibetans make incense out of
(Goloubinoff, of Himalayan plants,
and do not use benzoin. This raises the question of of labelling. This 'Tibetan incense' is an
example of false labelling. Also, adulterated benzoin should not be sold
example sold under
under thethe name
name
of 'benzoin'. The consumer
'benzoin'. The consumer should
should bebe able
able toto know
know what
what hehe isis buying
buying andand the
the origin
origin of
product. Probably
the product. Probably very
very small
small quantities
quantities are
are sold in each ofof these shops, but the prices
differences are
differences are amazing.
amazing. In In contrast,
contrast, the
the profits
profits made by by the
the different
different intermediaries
intermediaries
between Sumatra
Sumatra and
and aa European
European harbour
harbour are
are not
not very
very high.
high.
We wonder
We wonder whether
whether this
this new
new trend
trend develop further and
develop further and if new niche marketsmarkets can be be
found for benzoin with an increasing use of of natural products such as essential
essential oils,
oils, natural
natural
flavours and fragrances.

Conclusion
Benzoin production
Benzoin production by by Batak
Batak farmers
farmers is based on centuries
centuries ofof indigenous
indigenous knowledge.
knowledge.
Arnazingly, benzoin
Amazingly, benzoin isis used
used for
for the same purposes (incense, medicine and
(incense, medicine and perfume)
perfume) all
all
over the world and with
over with anan incredible
incredible historical
historical continuity.
continuity. InIn the same way,way, present
trading channels
trading channels follow
followvery
very old
old trading
trading routes.
routes. The
The uses
uses ofof benzoin are so much
benzoin are much
ingrained in cultural
ingrained cultural and religious habits that we can imagine there will continue to be aa
demand forfor it.
it. The Indonesian consumption,
consumption, which
which is
is possibly
possibly the
the highest
highest in the
the world at
the moment,
moment, is the most likely to decrease, as using benzoin in rituals is now perceived as
backward. If benzoin really
backward. really is a component
component of of kretek cigarettes
cigarettes and ifif health campaigns
occur in
occur in the
the future
future in
in the
thecountry,
country, this
thisend
enduseusecould
couldalso
alsodecrease
decreasetremendously.
tremendously.
Research is still needed to more accurately define the present marketing marketing charmels
channels and the
future
future potential of this product. Benzoin is everywhere,
everywhere, but few people know about it or or
pay attention to it. Its consumption and trade, which at first sight seemed to belong to the
major enough
past, are not major enough toto be
be noticed,
noticed, but
but are
are not
not that
that minor
minor either.
either.

We recommend
We recommend that that customs
customs offices
offices change
change their
their categories,
categories, so
so that
thatimport-export
import-export
figures of 'minor'
figures 'minor' products such as benzoin
products such benzoin can appear
appear separately.
separately. For centuries,
centuries, this
this
product has had no need to be advertised,
advertised, but it may be time now to advertiseadvertise it and
and let
let
consumers know
consumers know more
more about
about it.
it. Its marketing and trade
marketing and trade have been operating
operating the same
same
way for centuries.
centuries. Maybe
Maybe now, quality
quality standards
standards should
should be set up.
up. Handling,
Handling, storing,
storing,
packaging
packaging and and transportation
transportation of of the
the product could be improved,
product could improved, andand maybe
maybe also
also
production methods. ItIt would
production methods. would be interesting
interesting to label
label the
the product
product properly
properly and
and make
make a
distinction,
distinction, as
as it was already suggested by Dutch chemists in the forties forties (Hulssen,
(Hulssen, 1940),
1940),
between pure benzoin resin,resin, more
more appropriate
appropriate for
for perfume
perfume andandchemist-ry
chemistry purposes,
purposes, and
adulterated benzoin blocks,
adulterated benzoin blocks, cheaper
cheaper butbut suitable
suitable asas incense.
incense. At the moment,
moment, benzoin
 65

incense consumers have no idea about what the original

original product looks like, and they have
a right to know.
know. As each producing area in North Sumatra has its characteristics,
characteristics, it would
it would
be interesting too to classify and label according to the
to the place of production, as
of production, as it is done
for wine, for instance. Local traders know that the most fragrant resin of of the area comes
area comes
from the sub-district of
of Parlilitan.
Parlilitan. Perfumers
Perfumers might
might want to choose this type
type of
of product,
product,
even with an added value, ifif its quality standard was kept high and
and constant.

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Royal Asiatic
Asiatic Society,
Society, Tien
Tien Wah
Wah
Press Ltd., Singapore,
Singapore, 139
139 pp.

YAMADA, K., 1954-55.

1954-55. - "A study on the introduction of An-hsi-hsiang in China
China and
and
that of
of gum benjoin
benjoin in
in Europe", Report Institute World
World Economics,
Economics, 5: 1-24, 7: 1-30.
1-30.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382759 67

PRODUCTION, MARI:ETS
MARKETS AND QUALITY CONTROL OF GUM
ARABIC IN AFRICA: FINDINGS AND
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
RECOMME IATIONS
FROM AN FAO
FAO PROJECT

BEN CHIKAMAI,
Kenya Forestry Research
Research Institute,
Institute,
P.O. Box 30241,
Nairobi, Kenya.
Nairobi,

Introduction
With a view to identifying ways in which production, and more particularly quality, can be
increased or
increased or improved,
improved, all all aspects
aspects of of production,
production, marketing
marketing and quality
quality control
control were
reviewed
reviewed in 12 12 producing
producing African
African countries,
countries, comprising
comprising six six Anglophone
Anglophone and and six
six
Francophone countries
Francophone countries in a project
project formulated
formulated by FAO.F AO. The
TheAnglophone
Anglophone countries
countries were
Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya,
Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan and
Nigeria, Sudan and Zimbabwe,
Zimbabwe, while while the
the six
six Francophone
Francophone
countries were Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania,
Mauritania, Niger,
Niger, Senegal
Senegal and Chad.
Chad. The fmdings
findings and
the recommendations
the recommendations of of this
this project
project are
are summarised
summarised in the the present
present paper.
paper. TheThe report
report
established that
established that aa total
total of
of 17
17 species
species of
of Acacia
Acacia produce
produce gum gum which
which isis collected
collected byby local
local
communities either for domestic use or export.
communities export. Out ofof these, four
four species
species produce gum gum that
is marketed
is marketed as as gum
gum arabic;
arabic; Acacia.
Acacia. senegal
senegal and
and A. A. seyal
seyal (across
(across the
the Sahel)
Sahel) and
and A.A.
polyacantha and
and A.
A. karoo
karoo (in
(in localized
localized regions). It was further
further established
established that whereas the
botanical source affects quality of of gum arabic, the main factor
factor relates
relates to harvesting
harvesting and
and post
post
harvest treatment.
harvest treatment. Included
Included inin this
this are
are the method
method of ofharvesting,
harvesting, cleaning,
cleaning, sorting
sorting and
and
grading practices.
grading practices. Regarding
Regarding quality
quality control, it was
control, it was observed
observed that
that two
two factors
factors were
were
responsible;
responsible; lack ofof aa clear
clear definition
definition for
for gum
gum arabic
arabic and
andinadequate
inadequateanalytical
analytical procedures
procedures
which do not adequately take into into account natural product
account natural product variability.
variability. Based on the aboveabove
considerations, several recommendations were developed as a means of improving
considerations, several recommendations were developed as a means of improving
quality of
production and quality ofcommercially
commercially produced
produced gum
gum arabic.
arabic.

Background
Bac!;:ground
The project
The project on production,
production, markets and quality
markets and control of gum arabic
quality control arabic was
was formulated
formulated by
main objectives:
FAO with two main objectives:

• To acquire information on all aspects of of gum arabic production

production and
and quality
quality control,
control, and
and
of recommendations, assist producer countries in their efforts
on the basis of efforts to
to improve
improve the
the
of their products so as to meet international specifications
quality of
• To collect samples ofof gum from authenticated trees and from commercial sources in the
visited. These
countries visited. These samples
samples were
were analysed
analysed inin three
three independent
independent laboratories
laboratories and the
data made available
available to JECFA
JECFA forfor use
use in
in drawing
drawing upup revised
revisedspecifications
specifications for
for good-
good-
gade gum
grade gum arabic.
arabic.

The project
The project was implemented
implemented by a multi-disciplinary team of experts which comprised
multi-disciplinary team comprised a
three-man international
three-man internationalteam
teamand
andananFFAO team member.
AO team member.TheThe latter
latter was
was assisted
assisted by
by aa
marketing expert
marketing expert and
and six
six national
national consultants.
consultants. A total of
of12
12 producing
producing African
African countries
countries
 68

were covered
were covered comprising
compnsmg six six Anglophone
Anglophone and six six Francophone
Francophone countries. The six
countries. The six
Anglophone countries were Ethiopia,
Anglophone Kenya, Nigeria,
Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan and Zimbabwe, while
while
the six Francophone countries
the were Burkina Faso,
countries were Faso, Mali, Mauritania,
Mauritania, Niger, Senegal
Senegal and
and
Chad. The Anglophone
Anglophone countries were covered
countries were covered byby the International team while
International team while the
the
Francophonecountries
Francophone countrieswere
werecovered
coveredby bythe
the FFAO team member
AO team member andand his group.
group. Gum
Gum
chemistry was carried
chemistry was carried out by the mission chemist assisted by the FAO
assisted by FAO team member
member andand
one other expelt.
expert. The
The project
project was
was carried
carried out
out between
between April 1995
1995 and December 19961996 and
covered two gum production seasons allowing for collection of of more samples and
and other
other data
data
not collected during the first
first mission. Findings and
mission. Findings and recommendations
recommendations of of the
the project are
summarised in the present
present paper.

Mission Findings
Botanical Sources and Management
Management Aspects
Aspects
Seventeenspecies
Seventeen specieswere
were identified
identifiedasas sources
sourcesof of Acacia
Acacia gum
gum collected
collected byby the
the local
local
communities - either for domestic use or for export (Table 1). Acacia senegal, A. A. seyal
seyal and
and
A.
A. polycantha have widespread
widespread distribution within the gum belt.
distribution within belt. Acacia senegal and and A.A.
seyal are variable species with the former
seyal fonner having about four varieties while the latter latter has
has
two. Other species have limited
two. limited regional distribution. instance, A.
distribution. For instance, A. Karoo
Karoo is confined
confined toto
Southern distributed), A.
Africa (where it is widely distributed),
Southern Afiica A. drepanolobium
drepanolobium and and A.
A.paoli
paoli to Eastern
Africa and the Horn
Hom of of Africa,
Africa, while A. A. late and
and A. dudgeoni are confined
confined to West
West Africa.
Africa.
Acacia gourmaensis,
Acacia gourmaensis, A. A. macrostachya
macrostachya and and A.
A. macrothyrsa
macrothyrsa have have even
even more
more restricted
restricted
distribution in West Africa.
distribution in Africa. Except
Except for
for Sudan,
Sudan, and
and to
to some extent Nigeria,
Nigeria, Chad, Mali and
Senegal, where
Senegal, where initiatives
initiatives have
have been undertalcen
undertaken to to introduce
introduce plantations of A.
plantations of A. senegal,
senegal, the
the
bulk of gum arabic and Acacia gum is derived from from natural stands and and by
by natural
natural exudation.
exudation.
In most ofof the
thecountries,
countries,the
theextent
extentofofdistribution
distributionisisnotnotlcnown
known very
very precisely,
precisely, maldng
making itit
difficult to establish
difficult to establish the
the potential
potential for
for production
productionand andforforsound
soundmanagement
management decisions
decisions toto be
be
talcen.The
taken. Theproblem
problem inin some
some countries
countries isis compounded
compoundedby by aa lack of
of knowledge aboutabout the
the
botanical sources
botanical sources and
and sound practices of gum production
sound practices production and and this
this can lead
lead to
to inadvertent
inadvertent
mixing ofof gums.

Production, Quality and Markets

Production levels
Production levels for
for gum
gum arabic
arabic in
in the
the 12
12 countries
countries are
are shown
shown in
in Table
Table 2.
2. There
There is wide
wide
variation in
variation in the scale
scale of
of production
production with Sudan,
Sudan, Nigeria
Nigeria and Chad
Chad accounting
accounting for
for the
the
of gum arabic in
majority of in world trade.

Quality of gum arabic

Quality of arabic was observed to be influenced
observed to by two
influenced by two factors, one of
factors, one of which
which was
was
botanical origin.
botanical origin. Gum
Gum from
from different
different species (A. senegal
species (A. senegal and
and A.A. seyal)
seyal) exhibited
characteristics that were
characteristics that were intrinsically different. Even
intrinsically different. Even within
within the same
same species,
species, different
different
varieties produce
varieties produce gum with different
different characteristics. Recognising these
characteristics. Recognising these differences
differences in the
species and/or varieties
species varieties is
is important
important in in producing
producing gumgum arabic
arabic for
for desired
desired end use. Besides
botanical source,
botanical source, quality is also harvest and
also affected by harvest and post-harvest
post-harvest treatment.
treatment. Tapping
Tapping forfor
example, gives a more consistent
example, gives consistent andand better
better fonned
formed gumgum than collection caused by insect
collection caused
borers. Better
borers. Better quality
quality gum
gum is is obtained
obtained byby picking
picking itit off the tree rather than letting it fall on
ground. Above all, mixing the gum from different species at collection time or at post-
the ground.
harvest handling stage results in variability and is the prime reason for poor quality.
 69

Characterisation
Characterisation and
andspecification
specification of gum arabic
The average values (physico-chemical, carbohydrate and
(physico-chemical, carbohydrate and amino
amino acid
acid composition)
composition) for
for gum
from A.senegal and A. seyal were
A. seyal were consistent with published data
published data and typical of
of each type of
of
gum irrespective ofof source, i.e., country or locality. However, though related (possessing
(possessing the
the
same chemical species),
same chemical species), the
the two
two gums
gums could
could be distinguished from each
distinguished from each other by all
all the
the
three methods.
methods. This supports the idea of of producing
producing and
and marketing
marketing thethe two
two gums
gums separately
separately ifif
future improvements in quality and quality control are to be attained.
future attained. It was shown further
further
that A.
that A. late
late and A. polycantha are
A. polycantha are closely related
related to
to A.
A. senegal
senegal while
while A. A. karoo
karoo is closely
closely
related to A.
A. seyal.

Meanwhile, within a given type of of gum there was significant

significant sample variation brought about
either by differences
either differences in varieties,
varieties, climatic
climatic factors
factors or
or handling
handling aspect.
aspect. These
These observed
observed
variabilities are
variabilities are worth
worth noting
noting and
and may require
require applying more than one analytical
applying more analytical method
method
decision is
before a decision is made
made when
whenspecifying
specifyingg,urn
gum arabic for commerce.

of the methods
Evaluation of methods revealed
revealed that
that chemomet-rics
chemometrics when
when applied to the analytical
analytical data
data
obtained in
obtained in the
the investigation is a powerful
investigation is powerful method
method of characterising
characterising the the gum
gum arabic
arabic of
commerce, by
commerce, by identifying
identifying individual
individual species
species ofof Acacia
Acacia and
and those
those gums whichwhich would
would bebe
adulterants within the terms of
adulterants of the JECFA
JECFA definition of of g,um arabic. Acacia. senegal
gum arabic. senegaland
andA. A.
seyal could be separated into distinct clusters,
clusters, despite
despite the
the fact
fact that
that the
the two
two are
arerelated
related (Fig.
(Fig.
1).
 70

Table 1: Source of
of Acacia gum in 12
12 African countries covered in the project

Country Acacias utilised for commercial Source of

Source of bulk
bulkAG
AG produced Methods of obtaining AG
AG production 1
1 2
1" Species
:specIes 3
.j 4

Burkina Faso A.
A. senegal **
** **
** A. senegal
A. senegal **
**
A.laeta
A. laeta **
** A. laeta
A.laeta **
**
A.
A. seyal **
** A. seyal
A. seyal **
**
A.
A. gourmaensis
gourm aensis **
** A. gourmaensis
A. gourmaensis **
**
A. dudgeoni
A. **
** A. dudgeoni
A. **
**
A.raddiana **
** A.raddiana **
**
Mali A.
A. senegal **
** **
** A. senegal
A. senegal **
** **
**
A. laeta
A.laeta **
** A. laeta
A.laeta **
** **
**
A. seyal
A. **
** A. seyal
A. seyal **
**
A. polyacantha
A. polyacantha **
** A. polyacantha
A: polyacantha **
**
A.
A. raddiana **
** **
** A. raddiana
A. raddiana **
**
Mauritania A. senegal
A. **
** **
** A. senegal
A. senegal **
** **
**
A. laeta
A.laeta **
** A. laeta
A.laeta **
**
A.
A. seyal **
** A. seyal
A. **
**
A. macrostachya
A. inacrostachya **
** A. macrostachya
A. 171 acrostachya **
**
Senegal A. senegal
A. **
** **
** A. senegal
A. senegal **
** **
**
A. ehrenbergiana
A. **
** A. ehrenbergiana
A. ehrenbergiana **
**
A. laeta
A.laeta **
** A. laeta
A.laeta **
** **
**
A.
A. macrostachya **
** A.
A. macrostachya **
**
A. macrothyrsa
A. **
** A. macrothyrsa
A. macrothyrsa **
**
A. nilitica **
** A.
A. nilitica **
**
** **
A. polycanthat
A. **
**
A.
A. polycanthat
polycanthat **
**
A.
A. sieberana ** A. sieberana
A. sieberana **
A. tortilis
A. **
** A. tortilis
A. tortilis **
**
Country Acacias utilised for commercial Source of
Source of bulk
bulkAG
AG produced
produced Methods of
Methods of obtaining
obtaining AG
AG
 71

AG production 1
1 2 Species 3 4
Sudan A. senegal
A. senegal var. senegal
senegal **
** **
** A. senegal
A. senegal var. senegal
senegal **
**
A.
A. seyal
seyal var. seyal
seyal **
** A. seyal
seyal var. seyal
seyal **
**
Ethiopia senegal var. senegal
A. senegal senegal **
** **
** A. senegal
senegal var. senegal
senegal **
** **
**
A. senegal
senegal var. kerens is
kerensis **
** A. senegal kerens is
senegal var. kerensis **
**
seyal var. seyal
A. seyal seyal **
** A. seyal
seyal var. seyal
seyal **
**
seyal var. fistula
A. seyal fistula **
** A. seyal
A. fistula
seyal var. fistula **
**
A. polyacanthat
A. polyacanthat **
** A. polyacantha
A. polyacantha **
**
drepanolobium
A. drepanolobium **
** A. drepanolobium
A. drepanolobium **
**
Kenya A. senegal
A senegal var. kerens is
kerensis **
** A.
A. senegal
senegal var. kerens is
kerensis **
**
A. paoli
A.paoli **
** A. paoli
A.paoli **
**
Zimbabwe A. karroo
karroo **
** A. karroo
karroo **
** **
** .
.

Nigeria A.
A. senegal
senegal var. senegal
senegal **
** A. senegal senegal
senegal var. senegal **
** **
**
A.
A. seyal
seyal var. seyal
seyal **
** A. seyal
seyal var. seyal
seyal **
**
A. nilotica
A nilotica **
** A. nilotica
nilotica ***
Ghana A. sieberana
sieberana **
** A. sieberana
sieberana **
**
A.
A. polyacantha
polyacantha **
** A.
A. polyacantha
polyacantha **
**
Chad A.
A. senegal
senegal var. senegal
senegal **
** A. senegal
senegal var. senegal
senegal **
** **
**
A.laeta
A. laeta **
** A.laeta
A. laeta **
** **
**
A.
A. seyal
seyal **
** A. seyal
A. seyal **
**
A. polycantha
A. polycantha **
** A.
A. polycantha
polycantha **
**
Niger A.
A. senegal
senegal **
** **
** A. senegal
A. senegal **
** **
**
A.
A. seyal
seyal **
** A. seyal
A. seyal **
**

A.
A. raddiana
raddiana **
** raddiana
A. raddiana
A. tortilis
tortilis **
** tortilis
A. tortilis **
**
A. polyacanthat
A. polyacanthat **
** polyacanthat
A. polyacanthat **
**
1.
1. PlantatIOns
Plantations 2. Natural Stands 3. TappIng
Tapping 4. Natural exudation
exudation or or incidental
incidenta injury
Injury
 72
Table 2: Summary ofof gum arabic data
data for 12
12 African countries (botanical
(botanical
source, production, imports into EC,
EC, USA, Japan and main European
European markets)
markets)

Country Main botanic Annual

Arutual Annual imports to Annual imports
a
source production
productiona Japanb
EC, USA, Japanb to main
European
markets

Sudan A. senegal var. senegal

A. senegalvar. 17,100 EC 12,200 France 4,900
A. seyal
A. 3,900 USA 3,800 UK 2,400
Japan 1,750 Italy 2,300
Germany 1,300
Nigeria A. senegal var. senegal
A. senegalvar.senegal 60,000-10,000?
60,000-10,000? EC
EC 4,500 UK 2,500
A.
A. seyal USA 300 Germany 1,300
Japan 3 France 650
Ethiopia A.
A. senegal 250-300 EC 80 Germany 80
A.
A. seyal 50-100 USA
Japan
Kenya A.
A. senegal
senegal var. kerensis} 200-500? EC 40 Italy 25
A. senegal var. senegal}
A. senegal USA 30 UK 10
Japan 2
Zimbabwe A.karroo <30 EC -
USA
Japan
Ghana A.
A. polyacantha <10 EC 50 UK
UK. 50
USA -
Japan
Burkina A.
A. senegal 200-300
Faso
A.
A. seyal
Chad A. senegal
A. senegal 3,500 EC 3,500 France 2,800
A. seyal
A. seyal 1,500 UK 600
Mali A.
A. senegal
senegal 500 EC 140 France 45
A. seyal
A.
Mauritani A.
A. senegal
senegal 400 EC 180
a
Niger A. senegal
A. senegal 300 EC 150 France 115
A. seyal
Senegal A.
A. senegal 700 EC 450 France 300
UK 130

Notes: a Estimates
Estimatesexcept
exceptfor
for Sudan
Sudanwhich
which are
are 7-
7- year
year annual
annual averages (1988 - 94)
94)
b Annual
Annualaverages
averages from
from trade
tradestatistics
statistics (EC
(Ee and
and Japan
Japan 1988-93;
1988-93; USA
USA 1991-94)
1991-94)
 13
"13

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P4'kt
A c
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\
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,
\
\
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,
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e e
o
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A /.----.-- - - - - -:e-----
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.,.1fA
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1.0 ,-
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Opticnl Rotation
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and aronic
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/0, specific
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on tbree
based
analysts
Cboter
Vigure acid.
 74
Recommendations
Production, Quality and Markets . .
Education, training and
Education, training and dissemination of information
dissemination of were identified
infonnation were identified as
as key to
to improving
unprovmg
and the prospects
production, its quality and prospects for
for developing
developing new
new or
or increased
increased markets.
markets.

It was therefore recommended

recommended that: that:
• The preparation and publication
publication of a manual or or technical
technical profile
profile be commissioned
commissioned covering
covering
aspects of gum arabic production,
all aspects production, from
from collection
collection fromfrom thethe tree
tree to
to the
the point ofof export ofof
product: the manual should be available
the product: available in
in formal/national
fonnal/national lang,uages
languages used used by producing
countries and
countries and distributed
distributed to to relevant
relevant organisations involved in
organisations involved in gum
gum arabic production
production andand
trade including donor agencies and international organisations.
• A package of of training initiatives be developed
developed to promote
promote 'good
'good manufacturing
manufacturing practice'
practice' and
and
'quality consciousness'among
'quality consciousness' amongproducers
producersandandtraders
tradersofofgum gumarabic
arabicatat all
all levels
levels with
with the
the
manual serving as one of of the main tools for training
training.
The first
first step
step should
should be be aaregional
regional workshop
workshop to to sensitise
sensitise both
both thetheproducer
producerand andconsumer
consumer
countries on the initiatives
initiatives already undertaken by FAO FAO in in relation
relation to
to promoting
promoting the theimportance
importance
and value
value ofofgum
gum arabic,
arabic, including
including regional
regional corporation.
corporation. This could be be followed
followed by by carefiffly
carefully
structured study tours
tours in Sudan and Chad by extension officers officers (or similar staff) from the other
producing countries.
producing Finally workshops/seminars
countries. Finally workshops/seminarsfor for representatives
representativesfrom fromthethe public
public and the
private sector dealing
private sector dealing with
with gum
gum arabic
arabic quality control could
quality control could also
also be
be organised
organised as as part of
of the
the
training initiative.

It was also recommended

recommended that:
that:
• Priority be g,iven to undertaking
given to undertaking resource
resource surveys
surveys in
in all
all the
the countries
countries producing gum arabic
and improving the resource base itself.

Characterisation
Characterisationand
andspecification
specification of
of gum arabic.
Because gum
• Because gum arabic
arabic of
of commerce
commerce isis a product A. senegal
product of A. senegal and
and A.
A. seyal,
seyal, (the two gums
gums
contribute upto
contribute upto 95%
95% of
of total
total gum
gum entering
entering the
the market
market comprising
comprising 70%.
70%. A.
A. senegal
senegal and
and 15-
15-
25%, A. seyal) the
A. seyal) the tenn
term gum
gum arabic
arabic should
should bebe revised
revised to
to include
include the two species and "closely
related" species.
related" species. The
The words
words 'closely
'closely related'
related' should apply to those species established
established in the
the
study to be chemically
study chemically closely related to A. A. senegal and
and A.
A. seyal respectively. However, in
view of the
view the observed
observed analytical differencesbetween
analytical differences betweenthe the two
two main
main gums,
gums, they
they should
should bebe
produced
produced andand marketed separately so
marketed separately so as
as to minimise
minimise variability and improve
variability and improve aspects
aspects of
quality and quality control.
• The general methods by JECFA
JECF A need to be updated to take into account newer methods such
as Chemometrics
Chemometrics in in specifying gum arabic
specifying gum arabic of commerce.
commerce. ThisThis is to the
is in addition to the current
current
1995).
methods (FAO, 1995).

References
FAO (1995). Food
Foodand
and Nutrition,
Nutrition, No. 52.
52. Add.3.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382761 75

THE CHEMICAL
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISATION
CHARACTERISATION OF
OF MYRRH
MYRRH AND
AND
FRANKINCENSE AND
AND OPPORTUNITIES
OPPORTUNITIES FOR
FOR COMMERCIAL
UTILISATION

DR.K.A.~ALLA
DR. K. A. KARAMALLA
Dept. of
of Food Science and Technology
Faculty of
of Agriculture
University
-University of
of Khartoum
Khartoum
Khartoum, SUDAN.

Introduction
Oleo-gum resin
Oleo-gum resin isis an exudate,
exudate, essentially mixture of
essentially mixture of volatile
volatile oil,
oil, resin
resin and
and gum,
gum, obtained
obtained by
from the
incision from the plant
plant family Burseraceae.
Burseraceae. Oleogum-resin obtained from the genus Boswellia is
olibanum or frankincense while that obtained from genus Commzphora
Commiphora is is myrrh.
myrrh.

There are about 12 species

species of
of the
the genus
genus Boswellia
Boswellia in North,
North, East Africa and Southern Arabia
(Howes, 1949). Boswellia serrate isis an
Bos-welliaserrate anIndian
Indianvariety,
variety,while
whileBoswellia carterii and B.
Boswelliacarterii B. papyrifera
papyrifera
are African varieties.

On the other hand,

hand, there are about 160 species of
160 species of the
the genus
genus Commiphora.
Commiphora. All are African with
the exception of
exception of 12 species which occur from S. Arabia India.
species which occur from S. Arabia to India. Commiphora africana
Commiphora african is
a is
C. abyssinica is found in
indigenous to Africa while C. in S. Arabia
Arabia and E. Africa.
Africa.

Chemical composition

Oil
It has been
been reported (Hough et
reported (Hough et al.,
ai., 1952;
1952; Treas
Treas and
and Evans,
Evans, 1978; Abdel et
1978; Abdel et al .,., 1987) that
that
olibanum from
olibanum from B.B. carteria contains
contains 60-70%
60-70% resin
resin and 3-8%
3-8% volatile
volatile oil. In
In contrast,
contrast, myrrh
myrrh
contains 25-40% resin and 7-17%7-17% volatile
volatile oil.
oil. Recently
Recently (Kararnalla,
(Karamalla, 1997)
1997) ethanol-extracted
ethanol-extracted oil
has been found to be 72.1,
72.1, 72.2,
72.2, and
and 95.9%
95.9% while
while steam-distilled
steam-distilled oil has been found
found to to be
be 2.8,
2.8,
trace, and 9.6 for
for B.
B.papyrifera, C. africana and C.
papyrifera, C. C. abyssinica oleo gum resins respectively.
Twenty-seven sesquiterpene hydrocarbons have been identified (Yates and Wenninger, 1970) 1970) in
in
Boswellia spp
the oil of Boswellia spp obtained
obtained by
by steam distillation.

The volatile
The oil of myrrh
volatile oil myrrh has has been
been shown
shown (Treas
(Treas and
and Evans,
Evans, 1978)
1978) to
to contain
contain terpenes,
terpenes,
sesquiteipenes, esters, aldehydes
sesquiterpenes, esters, aldehydes andand alcohols
alcohols while
while that
that of
of olibanum
olibanum has been found
found to consist
of
of numerous terpenes and sequiterpenes.
Seven sesquiterpenes
Seven hydrocarbons, a furanosesquiterpenoid
sesquiterpenes hydrocarbons, furanosesquiterpenoid oil oil and furanoidiene
furanoidiene have beenbeen
detected (Graveiro et al., 1983) in
ai., 1983) in the
the volatile
volatile oil
oil of C. quidotti.
ofC. quidotti.
(Provan et ai.,
A study (provan al., 1987)
1987) of
of the volatile portions of resins from a number of of Kenyan species
of Commiphora has shown
of shown that
that these oils consist mainly of ofmonoterpenoids
monoterpenoids or or sesquiterpenoids.
Two triterpenes
Two have been
triterpenes have been identified
identified in in the
the resins C. incisa and C.
resins of C. C. lata
kua and
and their
their potential
potential
chemotaxonomic
chemotaxonqmic significance
significance indicated
indicated (Provan
(provan and Waterman, 1988).1988).

Thirty-three constituents have

Thirty-three constituents have been
been identified
identifiedininthe
thesteam
steamdistilled
distilledoil
oilof
ofB.B.carterii,
carterii, eleven
eleven of
of
62.1 % ester, 15.4% alcohol,
which were not detected in the n- hexane extract. The oil contained 62.1%
9.9% monoterpene hydrocarbons and 7.1%7.1 % diterpenes (Abdel et ai.,
al ., 1987).
1987).
 76
The resins
The resins of C. terbinthina
terbinthina and C.C. cyclophylla have been
cyclophylla have been shown
shown (Abegaz
(Abegaz et
et al., 1989)
1989) to
consist primarily of
of moneterpene hydrocarbons with limonene as a major component.
component. However,
However,
the resin of C. terbinthina is rich in sesquiterpenes.
of C.

carbohydrate component
The carbohydrate componentof
ofOleo-gum
Oleo-gum resins

Content
of gum myrrh with 90% alcohol gave a crude polysaccharide (PS) that ranged in yield
Extraction of
from
from 27 to 61%
61 % (Hough
(Hough et al.,
a!., 1952,
1952, Treas
Treas and
and Evans,
Evans, 1978;
1978; Hirst and Jones,
Jones, 1981).
1981). On
On the
the
on similar
other hand, gum olibanum on similar treatment
treatment gave
gave aa cru.de
crude polysaccharide that ranged from 27-
35%.
35 %.

(Karamalla, 1997)
Recently (Karamalla, 1997) the
the carbohydrate
carbohydrate component
component contents
contents of
ofB. papyrifera, C.
B.papyrifera, C. africana
C. abyssinica have been found to be 27.9,
and C. 27.3 and 4.1%
27.9,27.3 4.1 % respectively.

Protein content
It has been reported (Hough
(Bough et al., 1952,)
1952,) that the crude PS of
of myrrh contained 18% protein, and
that the purified PS from B.
B. papyrifera
papyrifera has only 4-8% protein (Anderson et al.,
ai., 1965).
1965). Recently
Recently
(Abdel Kariem, 1992) the protein content of the crude PS of B. B. papyrifera
papyrifera has been found
found to
to be
be
3.9%.
The crude acidic PS of gum myrrh has an equivalent weight
weight of
of 547
547 (Hough
(Hough etet ai.,
al., 1952) and that
of B.
of B. carterii an equivalent
carterii has an equivalent weight
weight of
of540 (Jones and Nunn, 1955).
1955).
Very recently (Kararnalla, 1997), 614 and 628 have
(Karamalla, 1997), 614 and 628 have been reported as
reported as values for the
the equivalent
equivalent
weight of PS from B.
ofPS B. papyrifera C. africana respectively.
papyrifera and C.

Specific rotation
Specific
Specific rotation for frankincense
franldncense of B.
B. carterii and that of
of gum myrrh have been
been reported
reported (Jones
(Jones
and Nunn, 1955) to be -8° 0
_8 and +32 0
+32° respectively.
respectively. For gum from B. papyrifera a value
B. papyri/era value of _40for
of-4° for
the specific rotation has been reported
reported (Abdel
(Abdel Kariem,
Kariem, 1992).
1992).
(Karamalla, 1997) PS from
Very recently (Karamalla, from B. papyrifera and C.
B.papyrifera C. africana have been found
found to have
have
of -11°
specific rotation of _26 0 respectively
_110 and -26°

Sugar composition
Sugar composition
Complete hydrolysis ofPS
of PS from B.
B. papyrifera
papyrifera (Anderson et al .,., 1965)
1965) has afforded uronic acid
19%, D-galactose 60% L-arabonose 10% and L-rharrmose 5% plus
L-rhamnose 5% plus a trace
trace ofL-fucose.
of L-fucose. Recently
(Abdel Kariem, 1992)
(Abdel Kariem, PS from
1992) PS from B.
B. papyrifera
papyrifera has been found
found to contain
contain D-galactose 35%.
35%. L-
arabinose 12% uronic
arabinose 12% uronic acidacid 20% with
with traces
traces of
ofL-rhamnose
L-rharnnose and
and L-fucose.
L-fucose. Very
Very recently
recently
(Karamalla, 1997) itit has
(Karamalla, 1997) has been
been shown
shown that
that the
the sugar
sugar composition
compositionofof PS
PS of Bpapyrifera
B.papyrifera is
is L-
arabonose 12.7%, LL-rhamnose 13.7%,
13.7%, L-fucose 13.1%,
13.1%, D-galactose
D-galactose 18.7%,
18.7%, D-glucuronic
D-glucuronic acid
acid
25.3%
25.3% and
and 4-0-
4-0- methyl-D-glucuronic acid 13.8%
methyl-D-glucuronic acid 13.8%white
white PS
PS from
from C.
C. africana
africana afforded
afforded L-
L-
arabinose 20.2%, L-rhamnose
arabinose 20.2%, L-rharnnose 19.7%,
19.7%, L-fucose
L-fucose 17.6%, D-galactose
D-galactose 19.6%,
19.6%, and D-glucuronic
D-glucuronic
acid 22.8%.
 77
Heterogeneity
Heterogeneity of of PS
Solvent fractionation
Solvent fractionation yielded
yielded aa number
number of PS fractions
fractions for myrrh
myrrh and
and olibanum
olibanum that varied in
that varied in
yield, solubility in water and
and alkali,
alkali, specific
specific rotation
rotation and molar proportions
proportions of D-galactose and
L-arabinose
L-arabinose (Hough et al.,
at., 1952).
1952). This
This finding
finding has
has recently
recently (Karamalla, confirmed
(Karamalla, 1997) been confirmed
by acetone
acetone fractionation
fractionation of
of the
the polysaccharide
polysaccharide from
from B. indicating once
B. papyrifera, indicating once more the
the
heretogeneity of plant gums.
heretogeneity of plant g,ums.

Utilisation
Exports of gum olibanum and
Exports and gum myrrh
myrrh have
have been increasing
increasing in recent years with a rapid rise
in production and earning, indicating expanding utilisation of
of these oleo-gum resins.
Historically, myrrh has been used by the ancient Egyptians inin embalming
embalming and
and as a chewing gum
(Hirst and Jones, 1981). Now oleo-gum resins
(Hirst and Jones, 1981). Now oleo-gum resins are are widely
widely used
used in perfumes,
perfumes, medicine
medicine and as
insecticides.

(i) Perfumes
The gum resin of of C.
C. africana melted
melted with
with water
water is
is used
used as a perfumed application
application to the body
(Watt and Berger,
(Watt and Berger, 1962).
1962). Olibanum
Olibanum is usedused as
as odourous
odourous fragrance which last for a very long
fragrance which
and is an excellent fixative
time and fixative for
for perfumes
perfumes forfor men.
men. Oleo-gum
Oleo-gum from
from B.
B. carterii
carterii and
andfrom
ii-omB.
B.
wightii isis widely
wightii widely used
used as
as an
an incense
incense in
in religious
religiousceremonies
ceremoniesforforexample
example(Elamin,
(Elamin,1981).
1981). Oil of
B. sen-ate
serrate is used in the soap and perfumery industry (Karnik and Sharma, 1970). 1970).
It has been suggested
suggested that the alcohol soluble resins oil of
soluble resins of olibanum
olibanum has much
much more fixation
fixation
properties than the volatile oil. However, the reverse is true of of myrrh.
Oleo-gum from
Oleo-gum from B.
B. papyri/era
papynfera is used widely as incense in holy places and temples and also to
(Elamin, 1981).
perfume houses (Elamin, 1981).

(ii) Medical uses

uses
Myrrh is a disinfectant and may be used used as
as aa local
local stimulant
stimulant to
to the
the mucous
mucous membrane
membrane (Howes,
(Howes,
1949).
1949). TheThe resin
resin of
ofB.
B. carterii
carterii isis used
used as diuretic. It is boiled with sesame oil and taken daily
as aa diuretic.
for bilharzia.
bilharzia. A
A decoction
decoction made
made withwith cinnamon
cinnamon and and cardamon
cardamon is used
used for
for the
the relief
relief of
ofstomach-
stomach-
ache. In In India,
India, oleo-pm
oleo-gum resin
resin isis used
used as as aaremedy
remedyfor forrheumatoid
rheumatoid and and diseases
diseases of
of nervous
nervous
system, and is an ingredient ofof certain ointments (Watt and Berger, 1962). 1962).

Oleo-g,um
Oleo-gum resin from C.
resin from C. wightii
wightii isis considered
considered as
as astringent,
astringent, demulcent, expectorant, carminative
aphrodisiac and antiseptic (Elamin, 1981) it has also been used used for
for treating
treating rheumatoid
rheumatoid arthritis,
arthritis,
heart ailments, neurological
neurolog,icaldisorders,
disorders,skinskininfections,
infections,and
andobesity
obesityininhumans.
humans. An extract
extract from
from
the resin of some species of Burseraceae has been known to have anti-inflammatory activities.

(iii) Insecticides
Myrrh is used as an insecticide especially
especially as
as a repellent
repellent of termites
termites and as
as a mosquito repellent
when blended as incense sticks (Elamin, 1981).
1981).

Essential oil from B.

Essential oil B. serrata
serrata isis found
found totoaffect
affectspermatogenesis
spennatogenesis ininDysdercus
Dysdercus similis,
similis, thereby
thereby
acting as an effective
effective insect
insect growth
growth regulator. Constituents of
regulator. Constituents of the
the resin
resin from
from C.
C. rostrata have
have
repellent
repellent effects against the maize
maize weevil.
weevil. The The effect
effect of gum resin of of B.
B. papyrifera andand C.
C.
on three
africana on
africana three insect
insect pests of
of economic importance, has led to morphological malformation of of
adults and pupa, reducing the emergence of of adults and increasing mortality rate.
 78
References

Abdel Kariem, E. H. 1992.

1992. Structural Studies
Studies of Some
Some Sudanese
Sudanese Gums.
Gums. Ph.D.
Ph.D. Thesis
Thesis Faculty
Faculty of
of Science
Science
University of
of Khartoum.

Abdel Wahab, S.M..,

S.M .. , Aboutable,
Aboutable, E.A.,
E.A, El-Zalbeni,
El-Zalbeni, S.M.,.
S.M.,. Fouad. H.A., De
De Pooter,
Pooter, H.I., and
and El-
El- Fallaha
Fallaha B.
1987. The essential oil
oil of
ofolibanum. Planta Medica
Medica 52,
52, 382-384.
382-384.

Abegaz B., Dagne, E.,. Bates C. and Waterman, P.G.

P.G. 1989 Monoterpene -rich resins
resins from
from two Ethiopian
Ethiopian
species of Commiphora.
Commiphora. Flavour
Flavour and Fragrance Journal 44 (30.,
Fragrance Journal 99-101.
(30.,99-101.

Anderson, D.M.W., Cree, G.M., Marshall, J.J.

II and Rahman, S. 1965. Studies on uronic acid materials Part
XI.
XI. The carbohydrate component of the oleo-resin
carbohydrate component from B.
oleo-resin from B. papyrefera. Research 1-320-
papyrefera. Carbohydrate Research 1-320-
323.

and Shrubs of
Elamin 1981. Trees and ofthe Sudan. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of
of Science, University ofofKhartoum,
Khartoum,
Sudan.

Graveiro, A,
Graveiro, A., Corsano,
Corsano, S.,
S., Proitti, G. and Strappaghetti
Proitti, G. G. 1983.
Strappaghetti G. 1983. Constituents of essential
Constituents of essential oil
oil of C.
guidotti. PlantaMedica,
guidotti. Planta Medica, 48 (2),
(2), 97-98.

J.F.N.
Hirst E. I. and Jones, J.F Chemistly of
.N. 1981. Chemistry of Plant
Plant gums:
gums: Research 4.411.

Hough, L., Jones, J.K.N.

Hough, J.K.N. and
and Wadman
Wadman 1952.
1952. Some
Some observation
observation on
onthe
theconstituents
constituents of
ofg,urn
gum myrrh.
myrrh. J.
J
Chern. Soc.
Chem. Soc. 795-797.

Vegetable Gums and Resins pp 199-182, Chronica Botanica Co,

Howes, T.N 1949. Vegetable Co, Waltham, Mass.
Mass. USA

Jones, J.K.N.
IK.N. and Nunnn,
Nunnn, J.R.
J.R. 1955.
1955. The
The Structure
Structure of
ofFrankincense gum.J.J Am.
Frankincensegum. Am. Chem.
Chern. Soc.
Soc. 77.8745.
77.8745.

Karamalla, K. A
A. 1997. Unpublished results, Faculty of agriculture, University of Khartoum, Sudan.

Karnik, M.G. and Sharma, O.R.

Kamik, O.R. 1970.
1970. Further
Further studies
studies on the distribution
distribution and utilization of
ofoleo-gum
oleo-gum resin
of B. sen"ata.
of B. sen-ata. Indian Drugs 96 (1) 843-848.

Provan, G.I,
Provan, G.J., Gray,
Gray, A.I.,
A.I., and
and Waterman
Waterman P.G.
P.G. 1987.
1987. Monoterpene
Monoterpene -rich
-rich resins
resins from
from some
some Kenyan
Kenyan
Burserceae.

Provan, G.J., Water'

GJ., and Waterman, P.G. 1988.
1988. Major triterpene
triterpene from
from the
the resin C. incisa and C.
resin of C. C. kua and their
potential chemotaxonomic significance.

Treas. G.E.
Treas. G.E. and Evans, W.C. 1978.
1978. Volatile
Volatile oils
oils and resins
resins phannacognosy
phannacognosy pp. 463-464
463-464 B.
B. Tindall,
Tindall,
London.

Watt, J., and Breger, M.G. 1962. The Medicinal and

1962. The and Poisionausss
Poisionausss Plants
PlantsofofSouthern
Southernand
andEastern
EasternAfi-ica
Africa
pp 151-153. Livingstone Ltd. Edinugh and London

Yates, R.L.
Yates, R.L. and Wenninger,
Wenninger, J.A.
IA 1970.
1970. Constituents
Constituents of olibanum
olibanum oil sesquiterpene hydrocarbons.JJ. of
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. of
ofOfficial Analytical Chemists,
Association of Chemists, 53,
53,941-980.
941-980.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382763
79

PRELIMINARY REPORT ONON ESSENTIAL OILS FROM

FRANKINCENSE, MY
FRANKINCENSE, " ' AND
MYRRH AND OTHER PLANTS
PLANTS OFOF ETHIOPIA
ETHIOPIA
ERMIAS DAGNE, AMAN DEKEBO
ERMIAS DEKEBO , ENGIDA DESALEGN, TEFERA
ENGIDA DESALEGN, TEFERA BEKELE,
BEKELE, HAILEMICHAEL
HAILEMICHAEL
TESSO AND DANIEL BISRAT
BISRAT

African Laboratory for

for Natural Products (ALNAP),
Department of
of Chemistry, Addis Ababa University,
Addis Ababa,
P.O. Box 30270, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ethiopia.

Introduction
Boswellia
Boswellia and Commiphora
Commiphora species
species (family
(family Burseraceae)
Burseraceae) are
are mainly
mainly found
found in Hom of
in the Horn
Africa with a few species in Arabia and India.
India. The major
major frankincense
frankincense suppliers
suppliers of
of the world
today
today are Ethiopia,
Ethiopia, Somalia
Somalia and
and Kenya.
Kenya. These
These plants
plants are sources of the
are sources the culturally
culturally and
and
economically important resins known as frankincense
frankincense and myrrh respectively. The The principal
principal
fi-ankincense producingspecies
frankincense producing speciesare:
are:B.B.papryjera,
papryfera,B.B. neglecta
neglecta and
and B.B. rivae
rivae occurring
occurring inin
Ethiopia, B. sacra
Ethiopia, B. sacra (syn B.
B. carteri)
carteri) and B. frereana in Somalia
B. ji-ereana and B.
Somalia and B. serrata inin India.
India. The
highly aromatic resin producing B.
B. pirotae is endemic
pirotae is endemic to central and
and northern
northern Ethiopia.
Ethiopia.

Myrrh is a natural oleo-gum-resin composed of 3-8% 3-8% essential

essential oil,
oil, 30-60%
30-60% water
water soluble
soluble gum
and 25-40% alcohol soluble resins.
resins. Myrrh has been employed
employed as as incense and for embalming
since ancient
since times. It is employed
ancient times. employed in formulations
formulations ofof perfumes
perfumes since
since itit blends
blends well
well with
geranium, musk
geranium, musk andand patchouli.
patchouli. It isis knovvn
known to to impart
impart pleasant
pleasant aromatic
aromatic flavour
flavour toto
mouthwashes and
mouthwashes and tooth
tooth pastes. Strictly speaking
pastes. Strictly myrrh is
speaking myrrh is the
the resin
resin obtained
obtained from
from
Commiph
Commiphoraoramyrrh
myrrha (syn C.
a (syn C. molmol).
molmol). However,
However, resins
resins from
from other Commiphora species (C. (c.
C. habessinica, C.
africana C. C. hildebrandtii, C. erythraea, C.
hildebrandtii, C. C. kua, C. schimperi etc) sometimes
kua, C. sometimes
pass as myrrh or as
as its
its adulterants.
adulterants.

Several thousand
Several thousand tons
tons of frankincense
frankincense andand myrrh
myrrh are
are collected
collected annually
annually from
from wild
wild trees
trees in
eastern and
eastern and north
north eastern Africa and
eastern Africa and exported
exported toto many
many parts
parts of
of the
the world because
because of great
demand in the international market for their steam distillates and extracts, which are used
demand used inin
the manufacture
manufacture of perfumes. There is
perfumes. There is also a large local market for use of of these
these products
products as
as
incense. However,
incense. However, hardly
hardly any
any effort
effort has been geared towards
towards adding value to to these
these natural
natural
products
products inin particular
particular in those
those countries
countries where
where thethe resin-producing trees are
resin-producing trees are found
found inin
abundance. Value-added processing
abundance. processing should
should be introduced
introduced so so that the concerned communities
in these countries earn more income from the resins and thereby become more aware of of the
value of maintaining the sustainable utilisation of of the trees.

The starting point for research into

into these resources
resources is
is to
to establish the botanical identity of the
resin-producing species.ItIt should
resin-producing species. shouldbe
be pointed
pointed out
out that
that much
much of the
the chemistry
chemistry work
work on
on
frankincense and
frankincense and myrrh
myrrh in the past was conducted
conducted on resins obtained fromfrom commerce,
commerce, thus
leading to much confusion in the chemical literature.
literature. However,
However, recent
recent advances in the botanic
botanic
identification of many Boswellia
Boswellia and Commiphora species is
Commiphora species is making it possible for chemists
to work on resins obtained from properly identified species.

In our
our laboratory,
laboratory, chemical
chemical investigation
investigation isis in
in progress on resins
progress on resins obtained
obtained from
from several
several
Boswellia and
botanically identified Boswellia and Commiphora
Commiphora species.
species. Literature
Literature reports
reports show
show that
that these
these
 80
species are rich in sesquiterpenes.
species sesquiterpenes. However,
However, muchmuch remains
remains to
to be done, since inin Ethiopia
Ethiopia
alone there are at least 6 Boswellia and 50 Commiphora species.
There is rich ethnobotanical
There heritage in
ethnobotanical heritage in communities
communitieswhere wherethethetrees
trees are
are found
found and
and it is
is
therefore important
therefore important toto document
document thisthis knowledge.
knowledge. CursoryCursoryinterviews
interviewsof of elders
elders in
in such
communities by
communities by botanists
botanists of
of the
the Flora
Flora Project
Project of the National
National Herbarium
Herbarium in Addis Ababa
revealed that
revealed that the
the gums
gums of C.C. kua and C.C. habessinica are used as soap soap substitute, C.
substitute, that of C.
tubuk and C.
tubuk and C. coronillifolia
coronillifolia as
as glue
glue and
and for
for making
making ink.
ink. The
The gum
gum ofof C.
C. myrrha
myrrha when
when mixed
mixed
with charcoal also yields
charcoal also yields ink used for writing texts from the Koran Koran on wooden
wooden boards.
boards. The
The
resins with medicinal
resins medicinal values
values are
are those C. gowlello
those of C. gowlello used
used against swellings on humans
against swellings humans and
livestocks, C. incisa
livestocks, C. incisa to
to treat
treat skin disease,
disease, C.C. ogadensis
ogadensis against ring worm
against ring worm and
and C.
C. myrrha
myrrha
against stomach ache
against stomach ache and
and to suppress
suppress virility
virility of
of young
young men.
men. Frankincense
Frankincense derived
derived from
from
Boswellia neglecta is smoked
smoked toto repel
repel snakes
snakes and
and flies.
flies.

Preliminary results on frankincense and myrrh

One ofof the most important sources ofof frankincense in Ethiopia is Boswellia papryfera which
which
occurs widely in the northern parts ofof the country. The l3C
13C NMR spectrum of of the crude
crude steam
steam
distillate from
distillate from resin
resin obtained
obtained from
from an
an identified
identified B.
B.paPlyfera
paptyfera tree
tree is shown in Fig. 1,
1, which
which
indicates the
indicates the main component
component (88%)
(88%) to
to be octyl acetate, a result also
also confirmed
confirmed byby GC-MS
GC-MS
analysis (Fig.
(Fig. 2) supported by NIST and Wiley databases.

~H 3 5 8 1 ~H,
~o
""CCNMR
NMR speanm mamdNataln
spa.= ofof4mm 0Js!i1atD 01
of

04
BO$WlJJJJa~
20/NN009N/Viwu
C~1(1170.7),
(0170,7), 22(542)3(316)
{64.3}.3(31.6}, "',5(7.0.0).
3(31.6), 4,5 (29.0).
9
,.
6(20.5), 7 (25.7),.
,,", •.5),1 (2.5.7), 8(22.4),.
(22.4). 1(702), 10(130)
(20.5),10(13.8)

. ~

I
IV(
"'0

J 7 •
~
4
1

rv
I' I I 'I i. I , !," I
10 t,,0 50
60 IfO
410 .}O )0
;(1)

Figure
Figure 1: 13e NMR
1: 13C NMR spectrum
spectrum of crude steam
steam distillate
distillate of
ofB.
B. paptyfera
papryfera showing
showing that octyl
that octyl
acetate is the principal component
component

It is interesting
interesting to note that Abdel
Abdel Wahab
Wahab et al.
al. (1987)
(1987) found
found octyl
octyl acetate
acetate to
to the extent
extent of
60% along with 33 other components in the steam distillate of of olibanum
olibanum purchased from the
Drug Market
Drug Market inin Cairo and presumed
Cairo 'and presumed to originate
originate from B. carterii growing
from B. growing in Somalia,
Somalia, an
an
assertion that is difficult to substantiate when one is studying resins originating from
from markets.
markets.
 81
CUBAS 02
CliBAS:J2 SC:l11 EI-

1000
10 71::;
3.S05ei
abonum (commorcal)
OIlbanvm(commort:Hll)
Sbom dl:t\IUotl)
S1eom Matitinto

1-Ccland
1.1·0=l3ncJ
2. Q::lyl
2. Cctil acetate
OXOl010

11.00 12 0 13 0 14 15 00 16 .0 17 0 13 0 I0 .'O 20 0 21

Figure 2: Gas chromatogram

chromatogram ofof the
the steam
steam distillate
distillate of
of commercial
olibanum in which the major
major component
component is is octyl
octyl acetate.

In the course ofof our

our work
work we have
have been
been able
able to
to collect
collect resins
resins of
of myrrh
myrrh from
from trees
trees properly
properly
identified as C.
identified as C. myrrha.
myrrha. This tree is the true
true source
source ofof the
the well
well known
known myrrh
myrrh ofofcommerce.
commerce.
The constituents ofof the steam distillate are quite similar to that of of the petrol extract.
extract. The
The main
main
components
components are the lcnown four sesquiterpenes:
known four sesquiterpenes: two
two of
of the
the eudesmane
eudesmane type
type (2a and 2b) andand
the other two (3 andand 4)
4) possessing
possessing the germacrane
germacrane skeleton. Compounds 2a
skeleton. Compounds 2a and
and 2b, which
have
have nearly
nearly identical
identical RfRf on
on TLC
TLC are
are unstable once removed
unstable once removed fromfrom the
the resin.
resin. As
As these
these
compounds decompose quite
compounds decompose quite fast
fast when
when coming
coming in in contact
contact with silica gel both CC CC and
and TLC
TLC
are better performed
are performed using
using aluminum
aluminum oxide.
oxide. The
The fact
fact that components
components of myrrh are unstable
after isolation has not been clearly stated in previous reports on the chemistry of this resin.

~
. 11 2 3 4 o
, I j
H

=Ii ndestrene
2a =lindestrene 2b= =
2b furanoeudesman-1,3-diene
furanoeudesman-1 .3-diene

RO~0J>
RO

~
•• • • 3,
3. R
R == Me
Me

4, R = Ac
4.

Figure 3: TLC
TLC on
on aluminum
aluminumoxide
oxide (developed
(developed by
by petrol)
petrol) of:
of:
1 == Petrol extract of
of myrrh
2 = Ref cpds 2a and
cpds 2a 2b (spot
and 2b (spot at
at origin, decomposition)
3 & 44 == Ref
Refcpds
cpds 33 and
and 4
 82
reported along
These compounds were reported along with
with several
several others
others by
by Brieskorn
Brieskom and
and Noble
Noble (1980,
(1980,
1983)
1983) who
who worked
worked on resins obtained from
from commercial sources originating most likely from
C. myrrh
C. myrrhaa but not properly botanically substantiated.

Other essential oils

oils under
under study in
in our
our laboratory
We have
We have recently
recently investigated the aerial
investigated the aerial parts
parts of the
the rather
rather rare
rare and
andpleasantly
pleasantly smelling
smelling
Artemisia abyssinica
Artemisia abyssinica which
which occur sporadically
sporadically inin farms
farms in
in central
central Ethiopia.
Ethiopia. The plant yields
yields
on steam distillation of
of its aerial parts a light yellow oil whose GCGC profile is shown in Fig.
Fig. 44..

AHTABYSD
ARTABYSC Scan
Scan EI+
El*
2 TIC
100
4.96e7
5

3 4

rt
81000 o.bob' o 14 do o 16.600 18.66o' 2o.doo ' 22.600

Figure 4: Gas chromatogram

chromatogramof
ofthe
theessential
essentialoil
oilof
ofArtenzisia abyssinica ..
Artemisia abyssinica
1. Unknown
( 1. Unknown 2.
2. Yomogi
Yomogi alcohol
alcohol 3.
3. Artemisia
Artemisia alcohol
alcohol 4.
4. Unknown
Unknown 5. Artemisia alcohol
acetate.)

Yoloop akobol A Artcnllil IlcOOol JIOCUte

Artarnisia
(Mmes.,' abytrours) (M4:'IIUUf
(Artemusa cbynlllka)
cbminIcer)

2.5.5.Tnr.byhIA.havaa4as,2.1
os.,

. J .,..1... .J 4' V." Jo j '*' # '.

. ,,

, ! ' i ! til Ii, I ' i t ii'

~ . J"i. ,~.llh .'
, t
1/'
i j
1<'
,'j'
fiT ",.
I
(.J<
' I
1!1"
/'}(, ""
I
I:' ,;1' I(. ,!" ,II '" i
~, :. . -i ' I '
!"
i
"

A B

Figure 13 e NMR spectrum

Figure 5: 13C spectrum of
of A. yomogi alcohol and B. artemisia
artemisia alcohol acetate.
 83
In both cases the lowest spectrum is due to completely decoupled, the middle CH and
CH33 up
CH up and CH
CH2 down, and
2 down, and the
the top
top CH only.
By means of
of GC-MS and NMR analysis three rare irregular monoterpenes namely
yomogi alcohol, artemisia alcohol
alcohol and artemisia alcohol acetate were readily identified. The
l3C
13C NMR spectra including DEPT of
of two of
of these monoterpenes separated by means of
of
column chromatography
chromatography on
on silica
silica gel
gel are
are shown
shown in
in Fig.
Fig. 5.
5.
The biosynthesis of
of the irregular monterpenes and chrysanthemic acid is shown in the scheme
below, where the key intermediate is chrysanthemyl pyrophosphate (Torssell, 1997). Unlike
in the case of
of the regular monoterpenes, geraniol and nerol are not obligatory intermediates.

OP OP

H,0 1110
a
~OH OH

~ Santolina alcohol

H20
Chrysanthemyl
pyrophosphate
Yorrogi
Yomogi alcohol
alcohol

OH

Artemisia alcohol

COOH
hrysanthemic acid

to this, Abegaz and Yohannes (1982)

In contrast to (1982) have shown that the essential oil of
Artemisia rehan, another
another common
common aromatic
aromatic plant of
of Ethiopia
Ethiopia widely used by many people for
widely used
fragrance purposes, is mainly made up
up of monoterpenes such as

72.18A2
72..1802 Sm
Sm (Mn.
(Mn, 3x9) Scan EI+
Scan El.
4 8 TIC
TIC
100
100
Artemisiareinan
rerum 4,34e6
Anemisia
{steam distHtate)
(steam distillate)

3 Linalool
linalool 6. Bornyl
6. Bomyl acetate
camphor
4 Camphor 7. Ethyl
7. Ethyl cinna
cimamate
mate
Terpinen4-01 8,Oavanone
5 Terpinen-4.01 8. Davanone

5 6

5. 0O 10. 0
10.880 15.
10.1100 20.880
20. 0 25.880
25. 0 30.180 0

6: Gas chromatogram
Figure 6: chromatogramof
ofthe
theessential
essentialoil
oilof Artemisia rehan.
ofArtemisia
 84
linalool, camphor, terpinen-4-ol
terpinen-4-01 and the sesquiterpene davanone.
davanone. Re-examination of the oil
oil
by our group has confirmed above workers
confinned the result of the above workers and the gas
gas chromatogram is
shown in Fig. 6.
6.

Work is in progress in our laboratory on several essential oil-bearing plants including

Ocimum
Ocimum basilicum
basilicum var basilicum, Ocimum basilicum var thyrsiflorum and 0. lamifolium.
and O. lamifolium.
Attempts are also being made to investigate how to to add value to
to four locally produced
essential oils
essential oils (palmarosa,
(palmarosa, lemon
lemon grass,
gass, citriodora
citriodora and orange peel oils). The results of our
studies on Euclayptus oils were recently published (Muchori et et al.,
al., 1997;
1997; Assefa
Assefaand
and Dagne,
Dagne,
1997).

Acknowledgements:
Acknowledgements:Financial
Financialassistance
assistance provided
provided by
by the
the Ethiopian
Ethiopian Science
Science and Technology
Commission, The Addis Ababa University, SIDA-SAREC
SIDA-SAREC (Sweden)
(Sweden)
International Prog,ram
and International Program in Chemical Sciences
Sciences (Sweden)
(Sweden) isis gr, atefully acknowledged.
gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES
Abdel-Wahab, S.M., Aboutabl, E.A., El-Zalabani, S.M., Fouad, H.A., De Pooter, H.L.
H.L. and
El-Fallaha, B.
EI-Fallaha, B. 1987. The Essential Oil
Oil of Olibanum.
Olibanum. Planta
Planta Med, 53, 382-384.

Abegaz, B. and
andYohannes,
Yohannes,P.G.
P.G. 1982.
1982. Constituents
Constituents of
ofthe
the Essential
Essential Oil
Oil of
ofArtemisia
Artemisia rehan.
rehan.
Phytochemistg, 21,
Phytochemistry, 21, 1791-1793.
1791-1793.

Assefa, A. and Dagne, E. 1997. Essential oils of three Eucalyptus species acclimatized in
Ethiopia. Bull. Chem.
Chem. Soc.
Soc. Ethiop., 10, 47-50.
10,47-50.

Brieskorn, C.H. and Noble, P. 1980. Drei Neue Furanogennacrene

Furanogermacrene aus Myrrhe. Tetrahedron
Letters, 21,1511-1514.

Brieskorn, C.H. and Noble, P.

P. 1983.
1983. Furanosesquiterpenes
Furanosesquiterpenes from
from the
the Essential
Essential Oil
Oil of
ofMyrrh.
Myrrh.
Phytochemistry, 22, 1207-1211.
1207-1211.

Brieskorn, C.H. and Noble, P. 1983.

1983. Two Furanoeudesm
Furanoeudesmanes
es from the Essential Oil
Oil of
ofMyrrh.
Myrrh.
Phytochemistg, 22,
Phytochemistry, 22, 187-189.
187-189.

Muchori, P., Manguro, L., Chikamai, B., Dagne, E.E. and Bekele, T.T. 1997. Essential oils offive
of five
Eucalyptus species grown in
in Kenya. Sinet: J Sci.,
Sinet: Ethiop. J. Sci., 20,
20, 139-143.
139-143.

Torssell, K.B.G. 1997.

1997. Natural
Natural Products
Products Chemistry,
Chemistry, Swedish
Swedish Phan-naceutical
Pharmaceutical Society,
Stockholm, p. 265.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382765
85

INTE NATIONAL REGULATIONS

INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS FOR
FORNATURAL
NATURAL PRODUCTS
USED AS
USED AS FOOD
FOOD ADDITIVES

ENRICO CASADEI
Food and Nutrition Division
FAO, ROME
FAO,ROME

Introduction
Foods moving in international
international trade are
are subject
subject to
to aa variety
variety of
ofconstraints,
constraints, including
including basic
basic food
food
quality and
quality and safety laws and regulations.
regulations. These
These are
are officially
officially applied
applied by
by importing
importing countries
countries to
protect consumers, to ensure fair food trading practices and to prevent commercial fraud.fraud.

Food control
Food control agencies
agencies of
of importing
importing countries
countries generally apply regulations
generally apply which give
regulations which give them
authority
authority over such factors as food food safety,
safety, hygiene,
hygiene, quality,
quality, packaging, labelling,
labelling, handling
handling and
and
storage. In
storage. In general,
general, these
these regulations
regulations include
include precise
precise requirements, which must be met if if food
food
products are to be admitted into the importing country.
country. For
For example,
example, regulations
regulations often
often indicate
indicate
levels of
levels of contaminants
contaminants (microbiological,
(microbiological, agricultural
agricultural and
and veterinary,
veterinary, environmental
environmental and and
radioactive)
radioactive) andand levels
levels of additives that must
additives that must not
not be
be exceeded.
exceeded. These
These are
are often
often referred
referred to
to as
as
sanitary requirements.
sanitary requirements. Other Other regulations, which are
regulations, which are commonly
commonly referred
referred to as quality
to as quality
requirements, include
include parameters
parameters concerning the essential composition, labelling and
description of
description of foods.
foods. Food
Foodproducts
products which
which do
do not
not comply
comply with
with these
these requirements,
requirements, will
will often
often
rejection or
result in their rejection or detention.
detention.

While the need to protect consumers

consumers from
from health hazards and deception is beyond question,
question, the
potential
potential for applying national
national regulations
regulations in an
an inequitable
inequitable or
or discriminatory
discriminatory manner
manner isis ever
ever
present.
present. The
Theapplication
applicationof
ofsuch
suchinequitable
inequitableor
ordiscriminatory
discriminatory practices
practices amounts
amounts to
to non-tariff
non-tariff
technical barriers, which impede, rather than facilitate,
facilitate, international trade in foods.
foods.

Alimentarius Commission
Codex AUmentarius
The importance ofof non-tariff
non-tarifftechnical
technical barriers to trade in
in impeding
impeding international
international trade
trade in
in foods
foods
is recognised
is recognised by the
the major
major food
food exporting
exporting and
and importing
importing nations.
nations. The Codex Alimentarius
Codex Alimentarius
Commission, which is administered by the Joint
Commission, Joint FAO/WHO
FAOIWHO Food Food Standards
Standards Programme,
Programme, was was
established in
established in part in response to the potential for the application of
of such non-tariff
non-tariff barriers to
trade.
trade. The
Thework
workofofthe
theCommission
Commissionhas hasbeen
beenspecifically
specificallyrecog,nised under the World Trade
recognised under
Organisation (WTO)
Organisation (WTO) Agreements
Agreements on on Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
Measures andand on Technical
Technical
Barriers to Trade.

In undertaking its work on the establishment

establislnnent of
of maximum levels for food additives in foods,
foods, the
Commission relies
Commission relies on
on the use
use of
ofindependent
independent scientific
scientific advice provided by FAO
F AO and
and WHO
WHO
through the
through the Joint
Joint FAO/WHO
FAO/WHO Expert
Expert Committee
Committeeon on Food
Food Additives
Additives(JECFA).
(JECFA). For almost 40
years, the recommendations of of JECFA
JECFA have formed the essential basis for countries
cou11tries to judge the
acceptability
acceptability andand safety
safety of
of these
these compounds
compounds and and have
have set
set the
the parameters
parameters for
for fruitful
intergovernmental Codex
intergovernmental Codex discussions
discussions onon additives.
additives. Similar advice
advice has
has been provided
provided on an ad
hoc basis
hoc basis by FAO
FAO and
and WHO
WHO ininthe
theareas
areasofofContaminants
Contaminants(including
(including radionuclides),
radionuclides), Food
Hygiene, Nutrition, Analytical Methods, Protein Quality Evaluation and Labelling.
 86
The use of
of food
food additives
additives is
is regulated
regulated at
at international
international level
level by
by Codex
Codex standards.
standards. Only
Only food
food
additives, which
additives, which have
have been
been evaluated
evaluated byby JECF
JECFA and found
A and found acceptable
acceptable for
for use
use in foods,
foods, are
the Codex
included in the Codex General
General Standard
Standard and
and are
are pennitted
peimitted for
for use
use in foods.
foods. Food additives are
additives are
only included
included in Codex standard when the the substance
substance does
does not
not present of
present any risk to the health of
the consumer atat the levels
levels of use proposed. Acceptable Daily
proposed. Acceptable Daily Intake, or equivalent
equivalent assessment,
daily intalce
established for the additives and its probable daily from all
intake from all sources are taken into account
before the inclusion of
of food additives in
in Codex
Codex standards.
standards.

Food additives
additives used in accordance with the Codex General
General standard,
standard, should be of
ofappropriate
appropriate
food grade quality and should at all times conform of Identity
confonn with the applicable Specifications of
and Purity recommended
recommended by the Codex Alimentarius
Alimentarius Commission
Commission or,or, in the absence
absence of
of such
such
developed by responsible national or
specifications, with appropriate specifications developed
international bodies.

Food additives
Food are classified
additives are classified according to their functional
according to functional class
class but can
can be
bedistinguished
distinguished
between natural
between natural and
and synthetic
synthetic products.
products. The division
division between
between natural
natural and
and synthetic
synthetic food
food
additives cannot be
additives cannot be considered separated by
considered separated by aa net mark, because
because many natural products
products are
produced synthetically
produced syntheticallyandand many
many synthetic products are
synthetic products are produced
produced by modifying
modifying natural
natural
products or using for their production biological systems such as
as fennentation.
fermentation.

One of the main differences

differences between natural
natural and synthetic food additives
synthetic food additives consists
consists in
in the
the fact
that for synthetic products it is quite easy to establish Specifications ofIdentity
of Identity and Purity while
for natural products it is more
natural products more elaborate
elaborate to establish
establish such
such specifications due to the
specifications due the complex
complex
nature of the products and to some differences depending on areas areas of production, climatic
climatic and
which can
soil conditions and sources which can influence
influence notably
notably the
the composition
composition ofofthe
the product.
product.

Principles for
for the
the safety
safety assessment
assessment of
offood
food additives
additives in
in food
food
More than 500 substances have been evaluated and provided with specifications for purity and
identity by
identity by JECFA. Specificationsofoffood
JECFA. Specifications food additives
additivesare
areintended
intendedtotoserve
serve as
as aa guide
guide for
for
manufacturersand
manufacturers and users
usersofof the
the additives, as well
additives, as well as the basis
basis for
for new
new or
orrevised
revisednational
national
legislation or regulation of
of member
member countries
countries of
ofF AO and
FAO and WHO.
WHO.

JECFA
JECF has always operated
A has operated on the the principle
principle that
that testing
testing requirements
requirements for all all food
food additives
additives
should not be the same. Such factors as expected toxicity, exposure levels, natural occurrence in
food,
food, occurrence as nonnal
normal body constituents, use in traditional foods, foods, and knowledge of of effects
on man should be taken
taken into
into account.
account. InIn relation
relation to
to carcinogenic
carcinogenic hazards,
hazards, the
the Committee
Committee hashas
stated that
stated that "the
"the scope
scope of
ofthethe test
test required
required should
should depend
depend on on aa number
number of of factors,
factors, such
such as
as the
the
nature
nature of the substance, the extent
substance, the extent toto which
which it might be present
present in food
food and
and the
the population
popUlation
consuming it".
consuming it". More
More generally,
generally, the Committee
Committee has has requested
requesteddatadataon,
on, inter
inter alia,
alia, methods
methods of of
manufacture,
manufacture, impurities,
impurities, fate
fate in
in food,
food, levels
levels ofof use
use of
of food
food additives
additives in
in food,
food, and
and estimates
estimates of
actual daily intake,
actual intake, and concluded that such information
infonnation "was
''was important and relevant both for for
the toxicological evaluation and for the preparation of of specifications"

Naturally occurring
occurring polysaccharides
polysaccharides
The term
tenn 'gums'
'gums' isisused
usedtotodescribe
describeaagroup
groupofofnaturally
naturallyoccurring
occurring polysaccharides
polysaccharides which
which find
find
widespread industrial use because
industrial use because of their ability either to fonn
form viscous solutions
solutions or gels or to
stabilise
stabilise emulsions
emulsions and dispersions.
dispersions. A convenient
convenient means
means of classifying
classifying gums accordino- to
gums is according
their source and Table 11 gives details
details of
ofgums
gums commonly
commonlyused.used. I:;)
 87
Polysaccharide gums are poly disperse materials containing molecules with a broad broad range
range of
of
molecular masses and usually differ to a greater
greater or lesser
lesser extent
extent in
in their
their carbohydrate
carbohydrate structure
or make-up
or make-up depending
depending onon their
their source
source and
and method
method of ofextraction
extraction or manufacture.
manufacture. Such
Such
differences in composition commonly
commonly leads
leads to variability
variability in properties.

Tree Exudates
Gum exudates differ considerably
considerably chemically. Gum arabic
chemically. Gum arabic (Acacia
(Acacia senegal) consists of of three
three
water-soluble
water-soluble fractions, namely an arabinogalactan
fractions, namely arabinogalactan (± 90 %) %) and
and two
two arabinogalactan-protein
arabinogalactan-protein
complexes which differ
complexes which differ in
in their molecular size and in
molecular size in the
the proportion
proportion ofofthe
theproteinaceous
proteinaceous
material associated with
material associated with each.
each. Gum
Gumtragacanth
tragacanth consists
consists of
ofaawater-swellable
water-swellable fraction
fraction called
called
tragacanthic
tragacanthic acid (or bassorin)
bassolin) (60
(60 - 70
70 %)
%) and
and aawater
watersoluble
solublefraction
fractioncalled
calledtragacanthin.
tragacanthin.
Gum Karaya is is aaheavily
heavilyacetylated
acetylatedpolysaccharide
polysaccharide composed
composedof ofchains
chainsofofcc-D-galacturonic
a-D-galacturonic
acid and a-L-rhamnose.
a-L-rhamnose. Gum ghatti has a
Gum ghatti a main
main chain
chain of alternating 1,4-13-D-
l,4-B-D-
glucopyranosyluronic
glucopyranosyluronic acidacid and
and 1,2-aD-manno-pyranose
1,2-aD-manno-pyranose units units and
and contains
contains numerous
numerous side-side-
chains and branches consisting of L-arabinose, D-galactose
ofL-arabinose, D-galactose andand D-glucuronic
D-glucuronic acid.
acid.

Seaweed Extracts
Seaweed gums constitute
Seaweed gums constitute the
the structural
structural component
componentof ofthe
the plant
plant and
and are
are isolated
isolated by acid oror
alkaline extraction followed
alkaline extraction followed by by precipitation
precipitation and
and drying.
drying. Agar
Agar and
and carrageenan
carrageenan areare both
both
polygalactans. Agar consists
polygalactans. consists of
of two
two components,
components, namely
namely agarose
agarose (50
(50 - 90 %) and agaropectin.
agaropectin.
The carrageenans are aa group
carrageenans are group ofof linear
linear sulphated
sulphated galactans
galactans and three
three types
types are
are available
available
commercially: kappa, iota and lambda.

Microbial Gums
Xanthan and
Xanthan and gellan
gellan gumsgums are
are extracellular
extracellular polysaccharides obtained from
polysaccharides obtained from the aerobic
aerobic
fermentation
fermentation of the respective bacteria
respective bacteria in batch culture. Xanthan
culture. Xanthan gum consists of a linear 1,4-
consists of a linear 1,4-
linked-ß-D-glucopyranosemain
linked-B-D-glucopyranose mainchain
chain with
with a trisaccharide
trisaccharide side-chain
side-chain on alternate
alternate glucose
glucose
residues. Gellan
residues. Gellan is aa linear
linear molecule
molecule with
with aa tetrasaccharide
tetrasaccharide repeating
repeating unit consisting
consisting of
of two
two
glucopyranose residues, glucuronic acid andand rhamnopyranose.
 88
Table 1: Classification
Classificationof
ofgums
gums

Source Gum I
ADI Functional
class
Tree exudates
Acacia Gum arabic NS (1997) TA; S; E
TA;S;E
Astragalus Gum tragacanth NS (1985) TA; S; E
TA;S;E
Sterculia urens Gum karaya NS (1988) E; S; TA
E;S;TA
Anogeissus latifolia Gum ghatti NA (1983) TA;S
TA; S
Seaweed extracts
Seaweed extracts
seaweed Rhodophyceae
Red seaweed
Gelidium/ Gracilaria
Gelidiuml spp.
Gracilaria spp. Agar NS (1973) TA; S
Euchema cottonii,
cotton ii, Euchema Carrageenan NS (1984) TA; GA; S
spinosum, Chondrus crispus and
spinosum, Chondrus
Gigartina sp.
sp.
Brown seaweed Phyophyceae
Laminaria hyperborea, Alginate NS (1992) TA; S; GFA;
GFA;EE
Macro cystispyrifera
Macrocystis pyrifera and
Ascophyllum
Ascophyllum nodosum
Plant extracts
Peel of
of various citrus fruits and Pectin NS (1981) TA; S; GA
TA;S;GA
apple pommace
pommace
Seed and
Seed and root gums
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Guar gum
Guargum NS (1975) TA;S
TA; S
Ceratonia siliqua Carob bean gum NS (1981) TA;S
TA; S
Cesalpina spinosa Tara gum NS (1986) TA;S
TA; S
Amorphophallus konjac Konjac mannan NS (1993) GA;TA;E;S
GA; TA; E; S
Microbial gums
Xantomonas campestris Xanthangum
Xanthan g,um NS (1986) TA;S
TA; S
Auromonas elodea Gellangum
Gellan g,um NS (1990) TA; S; GA
TA;S;GA

Note: NS
Note: NS--ADI
ADI not
not specified
specified
allocated -
NA - ADI not allocated The year refers to the latest evaluation by JECFA
JECF A
E Emulsifier;
Emulsifier; GA
GA Gelling
Gelling Agent;
Agent; GFA
GFA Gel-Forming
Gel-Fonning Agent;
Agent; SS Stabilizer;
Stabilizer;
TA Thickening Agent

Use in Foods
Whilst our modem
Whilst our modem life
life style
style has
has led to
to an increasing
increasing demand
demand for
for convenience
convenience foods
foods our
our
growing awareness of the relationship
growing awareness relationship between
between food
food and
and health
health has
has increased the requirement
increased the
for high-fibre,
high-fibre, low-fat food products. These factors
products. These factors have resulted in a considerable interest in
the use of
of hydrocolloids, including various gums,
gums, modified starches
starches and gelatine,
gelatine, in foods and
this is expected to continue in
in the years ahead.
ahead.

Gums have a major influence on the structural characteristics, texture and overall appearance
appearance of of
food products,
food products, even though they are
are usually present at concentrations of of less than 1 %.
1%. On food
food
labels they are commonly referred to as 'stabilizers", 'thickeners' or
or 'gelling
'gelling agents',
agents', and
and in
in fact
fact
 89
they
they may
may serve
serve aa number
number of
offimctions
functions such
such as enhancing viscosity,
as enhancing viscosity, inducing
inducing gelation,
gelation,
emulsifying oils, stabilising foams and inhibiting ice or sugar crystallisation.

Dietary Importance
Dietary ILLportance
Food gums are purified soluble
soluble polysaccharide constituents
constituents of
of plant cells. Purified food
food gums
gums
are used in the food
are food industry
industry to stabilise
stabilise emulsion
emulsion and improve the texture of of food.
food. They
They are
are
also used as medicines
also used as medicines in the prevention and
the prevention and treatment
treatment of diabetes
diabetes mellitus,
mellitus, obesity
obesity and
and
and in
hyperlipidaemia, and in the
the treatment
treatment of
ofconstipation.
constipation.

Food
Food gums cannot
cannot be digested
digested in
in the
the mammalian
mammalian small
small intestine,
intestine, where
where they
they tend to form
fmID
viscous solutions with dietary water and digestive secretions. Viscous solutions are antimotility
agents; they
agents; they impair the effects
effects of
ofgastrointestinal
gas1Tointestinai contractions
contractions inin delivering
delivering food
food from
from the
the
stomach into
stomach into the small intestine,
intestine, in mixing complex
complex macronutrients
macronutrients with digestive
digestive secretions
and in making the products
products of
of digestion
digestion available
available to the
the absorptive
absorptive surface.
surface. In effect
effect nutrients
nutrients
remain
remain trapped in the gum matrix.
matrix. This is thought to result in a marked reduction in the rate rate of
absorption
absorption of rapidly
rapidly absorbed
absorbed substances,
substances,such
suchas
as glucose
glucose and
and probably
probably also
also in
in the
the degree
degree of of
absorption of nutrients that are absorbed more
more slowly,
slowly, such as
as fat
fat and certain micronutrients.
micronutrients.

Food gums vary in the the degree

degree to
to which
which they
they may
may bebe broken
broken down
down by
by colonic
colonic bacteria.
bacteria. Pectin
Pectin
and guar are
are rapidly
rapidly metabolised
metabolised to short-chain fatty acids,
short-chain fatty acids, yielding large amounts
yielding large amounts of gases
(carbon dioxide, hydrogen and
dioxide, hydrogen and methane).
methane). Acetic
Acetic acid,
acid, propionic
propionic acid
acid and butyric acid are the
major products of of polysaccharide
polysaccharide fermentation
fermentation in
in the
the colon,
colon, and
and they each make a contribution
contribution
to the energy economy.

Conclusions
All gums
All gums indicated in Table
indicated in Table 11 have
have been
been evaluated
evaluated by JECFA,
JECF A, which
which established for all
established for all
products, except gum ghatti,
ghatti, ADI
ADI 'not specified'.

Gum ghatti was

Gum ghatti was evaluated by the
evaluated by the Committee
Committee in in 1980,
1980, 1982
1982 and
and 1985.
1985. It has
has the
the typical
typical
heteroglycan structure of other gums in food additive use. Notwithstanding this, the Committee
considered that data
considered that data to
to allow
allow evaluation for food
evaluation for food additive
additive use
use were
were insufficient.
insufficient. No
No
toxicological monograph
toxicological monograph waswas prepared.
prepared. The
The existing
existing specifications
specifications were maintained
maintained as as
tentative.

ADI
ADI not specified
specified is a term applicable to a food substance of very low toxicity which,
applicable to which, on thethe
basis of
basis of the available
available data
data (chemical,
(chemical, biochemical, toxicological, and
biochemical, toxicological, and other),
other), the total dietary
intake of
of the substance arising from its use at the levels
levels necessary
necessary toto achieve
achieve the
the desired
desired effect
effect
and
and from its acceptable
acceptable background
background in in food does not,
food does not, in the
the opinion
opinion of
ofJECFA,
JECF A, represent
represent aa
health. For that reason,
hazard to health.
hazard reason, and
and for
for reasons
reasons stated
stated ininindividual
individualJECFA
JECF Aevaluations,
evaluations,
establishment
establishment of of an
an acceptable daily intake
acceptable daily intake expressed
expressed in in numerical form is not
numerical form not deemed
deemed
necessary by
necessary by JECF
JECFA.A. AnAn additive
additive meeting
meeting this
this criterion
criterion must be usedused within
within the
the bounds
bounds of of
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP). According Codex definition, GMP include:

1. The quantity
quantity of the additive
additive added
added toto food
food shall be limited
limited to to the
the lowest
lowest possible
possible level
level
necessary to accomplish its desired effect
2. The quantity of the additive that becomes
additive that becomes aa component
component of of food
food as
as a result of
of its use in the
manufacturing, processing or packaging of a food and which is not not intended
intended toto accomplish
accomplish
any physical,
physical, or other technical
technical effect
effect in
in the
the food
food itself,
itself, isis reduced
reduced toto the
the extent
extent reasonably
and,
possible; and,
 90
3. The additive is prepared and handled in the same way as a food
food ingredient.

At its
its 22nd
22nd Session,
Session, the
the Codex
Codex Committee
Committee on
on Food
FoodAdditives
Additives and
andContaminants
Contaminants ag,reed
agreed to
endorse the
endorse the use
use ofof food
food additives
additives with
with non-numerical
non-numerical ADls ADIsfor for use
use in foods
foods in in general
general
according to GMP and without
without specific
specific reference toto their
their technological function. ItItalso
technological function. also ag,reed
agreed
to Annex a list
list of
offood
food categories
categories or
or individual
individual foods
foods where the use of ofthese
these additives
additives waswas not
not
allowed or was restricted, based on a similar list currently in effecteffect in
in the European Community.
of food additives with non-numerical ADls
The list of ADIs and the Annex including food categories is
attached as Appendix I to this paper.

In view
view of the fact that at
at present
present risk
risk analysis was considered
analysis was considered toto be
be an integral part of the
integral part the
decision-makingprocess
decision-making processof
of Codex,
Codex, the
the Committee
Committee onon Food
Food Additives
Additives and Contaminants
Contaminants is
working
working onon the elaboration
elaboration of procedures
procedures for
for risk
risk assessment
assessment andand management
management and and is
considering
considering that
that a screening method should be used to evaluate additives which require further
assessment of
assessment of their exposure,
exposure, and that
that an appropriate
appropriate number
number of
of these
these additives
additives be
be referred
referred to
to
JECF
JECFA A for the evaluation of
ofdata
data on
on probable
probable human
human exposure.
exposure.

References
Alimentarius Commission,
Codex Alimentarius Commission, ALINORM
ALINORM 97/12A,
97/12A, Report
Report of
of the
the Twenty-Ninth Session of
Food Additives
the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants, 1997
1997

ALINORM 97/37,
Codex Alimentarius Commission, AL1NORM 97/37, Report
Report of the Twenty-Second
Twenty-Second Session
Session,
1997

Evaluation of
of certain food additives and
and contaminants (Twenty-ninth report of
of the Joint
FAO/WHO
FAOIWHO Expert Committee on Food Food Additives),
Additives), WHO
WHO Technical
Technical Report
Report Series,
Series, No
No 733,
733,
1986

FAO, Summary ofof Evaluations Performed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food
(JECFA), ILSI Press, 1996
Additives (JECFA), 1996

Gums pp
Gums pp 2267 - 2288.
2288. In:
In: Encyclopaedia
Encyclopaedia of
of Food
Food Science,
Science, Food
Food Technology
Technology and
and Nutrition,
Nutrition,
1993
London (UK). Academic Press. 1993

JECFA,
JECFA, Compendium
Compendium of Food Additive
Additive Specifications, FAO
Specifications, F AO Food and
and Nutrition
Nutrition Paper 52/1,
Paper 52/1,
1993
 91
APPENDIX I

GENERAL STANDARD
STANDARD FOR
FOR FOOD
FOOD ADDITIVES:
ADDITIVES: DRAFT SCHEDULE OF ADDITIVES PERMITTED FOR
USE IN FOOD
FOOD IN
IN GENERAL,
GENERAL, UNLESS
UNLESS OTHERWISE
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED,
SPECIFIED, IN
IN ACCORDANCE
ACCORDANCEWITH
WITHGMP
GMP

Line INS No. Additive

11 260 Acetic Acid
2 472a Acetic and Fatty Acid Esters ofof Glycerol
3 1422 Acetylated Distarch Adipate
4 1414 Acetylated Distarch Phosphate
55 1401
1401 Acid Treated Starch
66 406 Agar
77 400 Acid
Alginic Acid
88 1402
1402 Alkaline Treated Starch
9 1100 Alpha-Amylase (Bacillus nzegaterium
megaterium expressed in in Bacillus
Bacillus subtilis)
subtilis)
10 1100 Alpha-Amylase (Bacillus stearothermophilus expressed in
stearothermophilus expressed in B.
B. subtilis)
subtilis)
11
11 1100
1100 Alpha-Amylase (Bacillus stearothermophilus)
stearothermophilus)
12 1100
1100 Alpha-Amylase (Bacillus subtilis)
13 1100 Alpha-Amylase (Carbohydrase) (Bacillus
(Bacillus licheniformis)
licheniformis)
14 559 Aluminium Silicate
IS
15 264 Ammonium Acetate
16
16 403
403 Ammonium Alginate
17 503(i) Ammonium Carbonate
18
18 510 Ammonium Chloride
19 380 Ammonium Citrate
20 368 Ammonium Fumarate
21 503(ii) Carbonate
Ammonium Hydrogen Carbonate
22 527 Ammonium Hydroxide
23 328 Ammonium Lactate
Ammonium Lactate
24 349 Ammonium Malate,
Ammonium Malate, D,L-
D,L-
25 517 Ammonium Sulphate
26 300 Ascorbic Acid
27 162
162 Beet Red
28 1403 Bleached Starch
29 1101(iii) Bromelain
30 263 Calcium Acetate
Calcium Acetate
31 404 Calcium Alginate
Calcium Alginate
32 556 Silicate
Calcium Aluminium Silicate
33 302 Ascorbate
Calcium Ascorbate
34 107(i) Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Carbonate
35 509 Calcium Chloride
Calcium Chloride
36 333 Calcium Citrate
Calcium Citrate
37 623 Calcium Glutamate, DI-L-
38 629 Calcium Guanylate,
Guanylate, 5'-
5'-
39 526 Calcium Hydroxide
40 633 Calcium Inosinate, 5'-
5'-
41 327 Calcium Lactate
Calcium
42 325(iO
325(ii) Calcium Malate, D,L-
43 529 Calcium Oxide
44 282 Calcium Propionate
45 634 Calcium Ribonucleotides, 5'-
46 552 Calcium Silicate
47
47 516 Calcium Sulphate
48
48 150a Class II
Caramel Colour, Class
49 290 Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide
50 410 Carob Bean Gum
51 407 Carrageenan
52 140 Chlorophylls
53 1001 Salts
Choline Salts
54 330 Citric Acid
55 472c Citric and Fatty Acid Esters ofof Glycerol
56
56 1400 Dextrins, white and yellow, Roasted Starch
57 628 Guanylate, 5'-
Dipotassium Guanylate,
 92
Line INS No. Additive
58 632 Dipotassium Inosinate, 5'-
59 627 Disodium Guanylate, 5'-
60 631 Disodium Inosinate,
Inosinate, 5'-
61 635 Ribonucleotides, 5'-
Disodium Ribonucleotides,
62 1412 Distarch Phosphate
Phosphate
63 1405 Starch
Enzyme Treated Starch
64 315 Erythorbic Acid
Acid
65 462 Ethyl Cellulose
66 467 Cellulose
Ethyl Hydroxyethyl Cellulose
67 297 Fumaric Acid
Acid
68 418 GelIan
Gellan Gum
69 575 Delta-Lactone
Glucono Delta-Lactone
70 1102 Glucose Oxidase
Oxidase (Aspergillus
(Aspergillus lager,
niger, var.)
var.)
71 620 Glutamic Acid, L-L-
72 422 Glycerol
73 626 Acid, 5'-
Guanylic Acid,
74 412 Guar Gum
GuarGum
75 414 Gum Arabic
76 507 Hydrochloric
Hydrochloric Acid
Acid
77 463 Cellulose
Hydroxypropyl Cellulose
78 1442 Hydroxypropyl Distarch Phosphate
79 464 Methyl Cellulose
Hydroxypropyl Methyl Cellulose
80 1440 Starch
Hydroxypropyl Starch
81 630 Acid, 5'-
Inosinic Acid, 5'-
82 1202 Insoluble Polyvinylpyrrolidone
Insoluble Polyvinylpyrrolidone
83 505 Iron Carbonate
Carbonate
84 593 Isomalt
85 416 Karaya Gum
86 [425] Konjac Flour
87 270 Lactic Acid
88 472b Lactic and Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol
89 966 Lactitol
90
90 322 Lecithin
91 1104 Lipase (Animal Sources)
92 1104 (Aspergillus oryzae,
Lipase (Aspergillus orizae, var.)
93 504(i) Magnesium Carbonate
94 511 Magnesium Chloride
95 625 Magnesium Glutamate, DI-L-
96 504(ii) Magnesium
Mag,nesium Hydrogen Carbonate
97
97 528 Magnesium Hydroxide
98 329 Magnesium Lactate, D,L-
99 530 Magnesium Oxide
100
100 553(i) Magnesium Silicate (Synthetic)
101 518 Magnesium Sulphate
102
102 296 Malic Acid, D,L-
103
103 965 Maltitol (including Maltitol Syrup)
104
104 421 Mannitol
105 461 Methyl Cellulose
106
106 465 Methyl Ethyl Cellulose
107
107 460(i)
460(1) Microcrystalline Cellulose
108
108 471 Mono- and Diglycerides
109
109 624 Monoammonium Glutamate, L-
Glutamate, L-
110
110 622 Monopotassium
Monopotassium Glutamate,
Glutamate, L-
111 621 Monosodium Glutamate,
Glutamate, L-
112 1410 Phosphate
Monostarch Phosphate
113
113 941 Nitrogen
114
114 1404 Oxidized Starch
115 1101(ii) Papain
116 440 Pectins (Amidated andand Non-amidated)
Non-amidated)
117 1413 Distarch Phsophate
Phosphated Distarch Phsophate
118 1200 Polydextroses
119 261 Potassium Acetate
Potassium Acetate
120 402 Potassium Alginate
Potassium Alginate
 93
Line INS No. Additive
121 303 Potassium Ascorbate
122 5010)
501(i) Potassium Carbonate
123 508 Potassium Chloride
124 332i
332i Potassium Dihydrogen Citrate
125 501 (ii)
501(ii) Potassium Hydrogen Carbonate
126 351(i) Potassium Hydrogen Malate, D,L-
127 525
525 Potassium Hydroxide
128 326
326 Potassium Lactate (Solution)
129 351(ii) Potassium Malate, D, L-
130 283 Potassium Propionate
131 560 Potassium Silicate
132 515 Potassium Sulphate
133 460(ii) Powdered Cellulose
134 944 Propane
135
135 280 Propionic Acid
136
136 470 of Fatty Acids (Ammonium, Calcium, Potassium, Sodium)
Salts of
137
137 551 (Amorphous)
Silicon Dioxide (Amorphous)
138
138 262(i) Sodium Acetate
139
139 401 Sodium Alginate
140 554 Sodium Aluminosilicate
141 301 Sodium Ascorbate
142 500(i)
500(i) Sodium Carbonate
143 466
466 Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose
144 331(i) Sodium Dihydrogen Citrate
145 316 Sodium Erythorbate
146 237 Sodium Fumarate
147 500(ii) Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Carbonate
148 350(i) Sodium Hydrogen Malate, D, L-
149 524 Sodium Hydroxide
150 325 Sodium Lactate (Solution)
151 350(ii)
350(ii) Sodium Malate, D,L-
152 281 Sodium Propionate
153
153 500(iii) Sodium Sesquicarbonate
154
154 550(i) Sodium Silicate
155
155 514 Sodium Sulphate
156
156 420 Sorbitol (including Sorbitol Syrup)
157 1420,1421 Acetate
Starch Acetate
158 1450 Starch Sodium Octenylsuccinate
159 553(iii) Talc
160
160 417 Tara Gum
161
161 472f Tartaric, Acetic and Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol (mixed)
162 957 Thaumatin
163 171 Titanium Dioxide
164 413 Tragacanth Gum
165 1518
1518 Triacetin
166 380 Triarnmonium Citrate
Triammonium
167 332(ii) Tripotassium Citrate
168 331(iii) Trisodium Citrate
169
169 415 Xanthan Gum
170 967 Xylitol
 94
ANNEX TO APPENDIX I

FOOD CATEGORIES OR
OR INDIVIDUAL FOOD ITEMS WHERE THE USE OF FOOD ADDITIVES
INDMDUAL FOOD ADDITIVES WITH GOOD
14
MANUFACTURING PRACTICE
PRACTICELIMITATIONS
LIMITATIONSON
ON USE
USE ARE
ARE NOT
NOT ALLOWED
ALLOWED OR
ORRESTRICTED14
RESTRICTED

Category Number Food Category

1.1.1
1.1.1 Milk
Milk and
and Buttermilk
Buttennilk
1.2 Fermented Renneted Milk
Fennented and Renneted Mil Products
Products (plain)
(plain) Excluding
Excluding Drinks
1.4.1 Pasteurized Cream
1.4.2 UHT, sterilized whipping cream, or whipped and reduced fat creams
Sterilize or UHT,
22.1
.1 Fats and oils, essentially free from water
2.2.1.1 Butter
Butter and concentrated butter (Only Butter)
4 . 1. 1
4.1.1 Fresh
Fresh Fruits
4.1.1.2 Surface treated fruits
4.1.1.3 Peeled
Peeled or
or cut
cut fruits
fruits
4.2.1
4.2 . 1 Fresh
Fresh Vegetables
4.2.1.2 Surface treated vegetables
4.2.1.3 Peeled or
Peeled or cut vegetables
4.2.2.1 Frozen vegetables
6.1 Whole, broken or flaked grains, including rice
6.2 Flours and
and starches
6.4 Pastas and Noodles (Only Dried Products)
8.1.1 Fresh meat, poultry and game in whole pieces/cuts
pieces/cuts
8.1.2 Fresh comminuted meat, poultry and game
99.1
.1 Fresh fish and fish products, including mollusks, crustaceans andand echinoderms
echinodenns
9.2 Frozen fish and fish products, including mollusks, crustaceans and and echinoderms
echinodenns
10.1 Fresh Eggs
10.2.1 Liquid Egg products
10.2.2 Frozen Egg products
11.1 White and semi-white sugar, fructose, glucose, xylose; sugar
sugar solutions and
syrups; (partially) inverted sugars
11.2 Other sugars and syrups (e.g., brown sugar and maple syrup)
syrup)
11.3 Honey
12.1 Salt
12.2 Spices, herbs, seasoning (including salt substitutes) and condiments (Only herbs
and salt substitutes)
12.8 Yeast
13.1 Infant formulae
fonnulae and follow-on formulae
fonnulae
13.2 Foods for young children (weaning foods)
14.1.1.1 Natural Mineral Waters and Source Waters (Only (Only Natural
Natural Mineral
Mineral Waters)
Waters)
14.1.5 infusions, and other hot cereal beverages, excluding cocoa
Coffee, coffee infusions,
It snoulci te note
should be noted that
a Codex has established
o ex has estabhshed additional prov
provisions of food additives
sions on the use of additives ill
in
certain Codex
certain CodexCommodity
CommodityStandards
Standardsand
and may
may establish
establish provisions
provisions to Schedules
to Schedules 2 to2this
1 and
1 and Standard
to this Standard in
in
the future.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382767 95

G
GUM A IC - LIFE
ARABIC LIFE IN
11
IN A
A SATU
SATURATED MARKET
TED MA A

IVAN HOLMES
Agrilab, Tylas, Rievalx, York,
Yorkshire Y06
North Yorkshire 5LH
Y065LH
United Kingdom

Acacia senegal isis an

an amazing
amazing tree.
tree. It grows where almost nothing else will survive, provides
provides
fodder, enriches
fodder, enriches the
the soil with
with nitrogen
nitrogen and
and provides
provides gum
gum arabic,
arabic, an extraordinary
extraordinary harvest
harvest
which can
which can bring
bring security to the fragile
security to fragile existence of people
existence of people in
in the arid lands who
who depend
depend on
on
livestock or
livestock or dry-land
dry-land farming.
farming. Gum Gum arabic is a unique
arabic is unique and natural product
product which
which is very
important to
important to the
the food and pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical industries
industriesbut
but itit isis much
much more
more important
important as an arid
m.id
lands resource. ItIt provides
lands resource. provides real
real and
and sustainable
sustainable benefits
benefits to the environment
environment and
and the
the people
people of
of
those regions.

There is a growing range of of industrial alternatives to gum

alternatives to gum arabic.
arabic. More
More are
are possible
possible through
through
fields such
fields such as
as genetic
genetic engineering,
engineering, but
but gum
gum arabic
arabicisisstill
stillthe
thebest.
best. Being a natural product is
selling point
a selling point which
which should
should keep
keepgum
gumarabic
arabicatatthe
thehead
headof ofthe
thefield
fieldfor
foraalong
longtime.
time. As
As anan
industry we have a collective
industry we collective interest in promoting gum arabic
promoting gum arabic and presenting
presenting it in
in aa form
form
which gives little desire or funding to replace it with synthetic or other products.

The pattern which has brought gum arabicarabic usage down from 70,000 tonnes in 1960 1960 to
to aa low
low
of
of 25,000 tonnes
tonnes in the early 1990's is now familiar.
familiar. The
The domino
domino effect
effect of
ofdrought,
drought, shortage
shortage
and high prices leads to reduced demand.
demand. Reduced
Reduced confidence
confidence is is shown
shown as,
as, each
each time
time prices
prices
return to former levels, usage fails to recover, users having found alternative products and and areare
unwilling to change back. It is
change back. is obvious
obvious what
what damage
damage the cyclical trendstrends in
in the
the gum
gum arabic
arabic
market do. User
Userconfidence
confidenceisisdamaged
damaged further
further by
by the
the effect
effect of
ofcasual,
casual, opportunist
opportunist collectors
collectors
in some countries. They
Theycompete
competefiercely
fiercely when
when prices
prices are
are high,
high, often
oftensupplying
supplyinglow-quality
low-quality
adulterated gums at a time when users are willing to to accept them.
them. Then,
Then, when
whenprices
pricesreduce,
reduce,
collection ceases leaving the end-user and the pastoralist collector equally disillusioned.

Building Customer
Customer Confidence
Confidence
1. Reliable supply
2. Stable prices
3. Pure unadulterated product
4. Traceability - guarantees of
ofgood
good working
working practice.
practice.

At this point in time there are gum arabic stocks built up throughout the world to last last for
for up
up to
to
2 years. It is probable that we
probable that we will
will not
not see
see aa large
large increase
increasein
in prices
prices for
for many
manyyears.
years. As a
the user
result the user is
is gaining
gaining new
new confidence
confidenceininprice
priceand
andsupply.
supply. There
There are
are encouraging
encouraging signs
signs of
of
recovery in
recovery in the
the market.
market. The
The user
user is
is now
now in powerful position and can demand the things
in aa powerful things
he/she wants.

Probably the most important

important of of those
those things
things is purity. It is so
is purity. so fundamentally
fundamentally important
important that
we present gums which areare not
not adulterated
adulterated with gums type or species.
gums of another type species. Gum
Gum arabic
arabic
is increasingly used as a technical product.
product. ItIt isis often
often blended
blended with
with other
other gums
gums oror materials
materials to
to
produce precise
produce precise ingredients
ingredients for food food andand phaimaceuticals.
pharmaceuticals. The The variability
variability which
which has
has
sometimes been
sometimes been normal
normal inin the
the past
past isis no
no longer
longer acceptable.
acceptable. The vast sums of of money
money which
which
 96
go
go into
into developing
developing new product
product lines
lines demand
demand that ingredients must be
ingredients must be of
of aa relatively
relatively
nature. IfIfgum
invariable nature. gum arabic
arabic isis to
to be
be in
in that
that category
category every
every one right down to the collector
collector
must be committed to the supply
supply of ofaa pure and
and unadulterated
unadulterated product.

Users also want traceability and guarantees that ensure they receive a product which does not
expose
expose them
them toto risk. Thereare
risk. There areincreasing
increasing problems
problems from
from micro-biological
micro-biological organisms
organisms such as
such as
E. coli
E. coli and Salmonella. Residues
and Salmonella. Residues of chemicals
chemicals or other
other things
things are
are equally
equally unacceptable.
unacceptable.
Clean baskets,
Clean baskets, sacks,
sacks, transport
transportand
andstorage
storageconditions
conditionscancangogoaa long
long way
way to ensuring
ensuring
reasonable levels
reasonable levels of safety. Producers who adopt and can guarantee good working
safety. Producers who adopt and can guarantee good working practicespractices
will have a more saleable product.

How does a country like Kenya achieve

achieve these
these things? Kenya is
things? Kenya is aa very
very small
small producer
producer but
but has
has
the potential to satisfy
satisfy rich
rich markets
markets and
and can
can increase
increase current
current levels
levels ofofproduction.
production.
There must be some co-operation
co-operation between all those
those involved,
involved, leading
leading toto the
the development
development ofofaa
standard for
standard for Kenya gum. Any certification
gum. Any scheme should
certification scheme should be be tough
tough enough
enough to deliver
deliver
consistent standards to build customer confidence and promoted to deliver real benefits for its its
members.

The aim should be:-

1. To develop standards which guarantee clear, graded and unadulterated
unadulterated gum of
each separate type oror species;
species; and
2. To enforce a code ofof practice
practice which
which ensures;
ensures;
Ell traceability and guarantees ofof good working practice and
Ell that collectors are
are consistently
consistently and
and fairly
fairly treated.
treated.

this can be achieved,

If this achieved, it should be possible
possible to
to see the differences in Kenyan
differences in Kenyan gum
gum not
not as
as a
disadvantage which
disadvantage which incurs
incurs aa discount
discount on
on market
market price
price but
but as
as an advantage which attracts
advantage which attracts a
premIUm.
premium.

The
The world
world is of
of course
course littered
littered with
with marketing
marketing boards
boards and authorities which have
authorities which have failed
failed to
protect their product often through too much bureaucracy and very often through a belief
belief that
they
they can dictate
dictate to
to the
the market.
market. We
We areare in
in aa world
world where
where there
there is aa surplus
surplus of of most
most
commodities, where the
commodities, where the customer
customerisis King.
King. The
The fundamental rule is listen
fundamental rule listen to
to the
the customer
customer
because he will only buy from
from people
people who are are committed
committed toto improving
improving his
his business.
business.
I would like to conclude by saying
saying that Sudanese Kordofan has been an incredibly successful
successful
product over
product over the
the years.
years. The
The way
way isis open
open for
forother
othercountries
countries to
to develop
develop gums
gums from
from different
different
species and different regions
regions with
with different
different qualities.
qualities. These
These can complement Kordofan and and
provide the
provide the customer with an increased
customer with increased range
range of
of technical
technical products
products for an
an increasingly
increasingly
technical world.

As producers we should keep things as simple as

as possible:
Ell Pick gum from the right trees
Ell Keep it separate
Ell Keep it clean
Ell Deliver in a sack to the customer.
Anyone who can achieve this I think has a healthy future in gum
gunl arabic.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382769
97

CHEMOT ONOMIC ASPECTS OF GUM

CHEMOTAXONOMIC GUM EXUDATES FROM SOME
ACACIA SPECIES

GASPAR S. MHINZI and HILLARY D.J. D.l MROSSO

Chemistry Department, University of
of Dar es Salaam,
P.O. Box 35061, Dar es Salaam,
Salaam, Tanzania.
Tanzania.

Key Work
WorkIndex
Index- -Acacia,
Acacia,chemotaxonomy;
chemotaxonomy; gum
gum exudates,
exudates, properties
properties

Abstract
Although Acacia drepanolobium
Although Acacia drepanolobium and A. A. malacocephala are are regarded
regarded as being closely
closely related
related
botanically, analysis
botanically, analysis of
of the
the specimens
specimens ofof their
their gum
gum exudates
exudates confirm
confinn that
that they
they are indeed two
distinct species.
species. The properties of
of the gum
gum exudate
exudate from
from A.
A. senegal
senegal var leiorhachis differ
differ from
from
that obtained from A.
obtained from A. senegal
senegal var senegal (widely accepted
accepted asas the source ofof commercial
commercial gum
arabic) by being much more viscous and having higher proportions of of insoluble gel fraction and
nitrogen contents.
nitrogen contents. However,
However, the
the properties
properties of the
the gum exudates from A.
exudates from A. seyal
seyal var seyal
seyal and A.
and A.
seyal var fistula
fistula are quite similar and it is
is justifiable to retain them
them as variations
variations of the same
same
speCIes.
species.

Introduction
Morphologically,
Morphologically, A. A. drepanolobium
drepanolobium and and A.A. malacocephala
malacocep halaplants plantsare
are very
very similar
similar and and it isis
almost impossible
almost impossible to
to distinguish
distinguish between them on the basis of of herbarium specimens alone. The
only difference that can be appreciated
difference that appreciated in the field
field is that they flower
flower at different times
times of the
year.
year. Burtt
Burtt(1942)
(1942) considered
considered them
them asas two
twodistinct
distinct species
species and
and made
made an
an interesting
interesting distinction
distinction
that A.
A. malacocephala flowers
flowers in
in the
the later
later dry
dry season,
season, the
the flowers
flowers disappearing
disappearing inin the
the first
first rains,
rains,
whereas A.
A. drepanolobium flowers in
in the rainy
rainy season.
season.

The species A.A. senegal

senegal is
is extremely
extremely variable.
variable. Acacia senegal var. var. senegal itself shows a wide
range
range of
of variation
variation in
in terms
terms ofofindumentum,
indumentum, armature,
armature, flower
flower size
size and
and general
general habit.
habit. Acacia
senegal var. leiorhachis differs
differs from
from A.A. senegal var senegal
senegal solely
solely byby its
its glabrous
glabrous inflorescence
inflorescence
axis, a difference
axis, difference considered
considered as as aa minor
minor variation
variation by
by (Brenan,
(Brenan, 1959).
1959). Acacia senegal var var
kerensis also seems
kerens is also seems not
not to be uniform
uniform but itsits bushy
bushy habit
habit is
is the
the most
most distinctive
distinctive in
in the
the field.
field.
of these variants of
However, the status of A. senegal is quite uncertain (Brenan, 1959). It is not yet
of A.
known
known whether
whether they represent
represent a response
response to an an unusual
unusual habitat,
habitat, exceptions
exceptions in an an otherwise
otherwise
normal population
popUlation or
or just
just distinct
distinct local races.

Acacia seyal var fistula

fistula has a greenish white smooth bark, with 'anti-galls' and grows commonly
Acacia seyal
on black cotton soil on the plains. Acacia seyalvar. seyal, on
var. seyal, on the
the other
other hand,
hand, has
has aa reddish
reddish bark,
bark,
without 'anti-galls'
'anti-galls' and
andoccurs
occurs commonly
commonlyon onthe
the hills
hills (Brenan,
(Brenan, 1959).
1959).
Acacia drepanolobium, A. A. malacocephala,
malacocephala, A. A. seyal
seyal var.
var. fistula and
and A.
A. seyal
seyal var.
var. seyal,
seyal, belong
belong to
to
Bentham's series (Bentham, 1875) 1875) Gumrniferae
Gummiferae whereas A. A. senegal var. senegal
senegal and
and A.
A. senegal
senegal
var leiorhachis belong
belong to to the
the series Vulgares.

The use of
of analytical
analytical data
data to
to provide
provide chemotaxonomic
chemotaxonomic evidence
evidence to
to distinguish
distinguish between
between closely
closely
related varieties
related varieties of species has been suggested
suggested by some workers
workers (Anderson
(Anderson and Brenan,
Brenan, 1975;
1975;
Anderson
Anderson and Weiping, 1990).
Weiping, 1990). This
This paper presents
presents the
the physicochemical
physicochemical properties
properties of
of gum
gum
 98
exudates from the above-named species (except A. A. senegal var. kerensis) and presumably will
contribute in underpinning the identity
identity of
ofthe closely related
the various closely related species.
species.

Results and Discussion

The physicochemical data for the samples are summarised in Table 1. 1. Acacia
Acaciag,umsgums areare known
known
to be highly
highly soluble in water unlike
unlike other tree exudate gums gums (e.g.
(e.g. gum karaya)
karaya) which
which are not
completely soluble in water and and form
form highly
highly viscous
viscous solutions
solutions oror suspensions
suspensions at at relatively
relatively low
low
concentrations (Anderson
concentrations (Anderson andand Street,
Street, 1983;
1983; Gliksman
Gliksmanand andSand,
Sand, 1973).
1973). The gum exudate from
A. drepanolobium
A. drepanolobium is is almost completely soluble
almost completely soluble inin water
water (CWIG,
(CWIG, ca. ca. 0.4%
0.4% w/w) whereaswhereas its
close relative, A.A. malacocephala possesses a substantial amount of of insoluble gel fraction (Table
1). Nitrogen
1). Nitrogen content is considered as one of of the
the very
very useful
useful parameters
parameters in in distinguishing
distinguishing gumsgums
from different species (Anderson,
(Anderson, 1976;
1976; Anderson,
Anderson, 1977).
1977). In fact,
fact, JECFA
JECFA (JECFA/FAO,
(JECFAlFAO, 1990) 1990)
introduced
introduced thethe specification
specification forfor nitrogen
nitrogen content
content (0.26-0.39%
(0.26-0.39% w/w) w/w) in in the defmition
definition of of gum
gum
arabic to
arabic to ensure identity and
ensure identity and purity
purity of
of the
the gum.
gum. However,
However, gums gums from
from some
some closely
closely related
related
species analysed in
species analysed in this
tins work havehave been
been found
found to to differ
differ significantly
significantly withwith respect
respect to to this
tllls
parameter. Thus, the nitrogen contents
parameter. Thus, contents ofof the
the gum specimens
specimens fromfrom A.A. malacocephala
malacocephala found found in
this
tllls work
work are
are siglificantly
significantlyhigher
higherthanthanthose
thoseofofA. A.drepanolobium
drepanolobiumg,um gum (ca.0.30%)
(ca.0.30%) (Table
(Table 1).1).
specific optical
Likewise, the specific optical rotations
rotations and
and acid
acid equivalent
equivalent weights
weights (AEW's)
(AEW's) of ofthe
thegums
gumsfrom
fromA. A.
malacocephala
malacocephala and andA.
A. drepanolobium are remarkably different.different. However, the methoxyl contents contents
and the total ash levels of ofthe
the gum samples from these two species are are fairly
fairly similar.
sinrilar.

In general,
general, the
the properties
properties of
ofgums
gums from
fromA.A.malacocep hala and
malacocephala and A.
A. drepanolobium
drepanolobium are
are
substantially different.
substantially different. Therefore,
Therefore, although
although A.A. malacocep hala and
malacocephala and A.
A. drepanolobium
drepanolobium are
are
regarded as being closely
closely related botanically,
botanically, the properties
properties of their gum exudates
exudates confirm that
they are indeed two distinct
distinct species.
species. Accordingly, in order to provide
provide an
an unambiguous
unambiguous identity
identity
for the two species, itit is
for is recommended
recommended that some properties
properties of
of their
their gum
gum exudates
exudates should
should be
be
included in their taxonomic description.

Table 11 shows that the AEW's and and total

total ash levels
levels ofof the
the gums
gums fromfrom A.A. senegal
senegal var.
var. leiorha chis
leiorhachis
and A.A. senegal
senegal var. senegal are similar.
similar. However, apart from these two two parameters,
parameters, the overall
overall
impression is
impression is that these two species produce gums with different properties. For example, there
is a notable difference in terms of of solubility.
solubility. The gum from A. A. senegal
senegal var leiorhachis is far less
soluble than
soluble than that
that from A.A. senegal
senegal var
var senegal.
senegal. Acacia
Acacia gumsgums with
with a high proportion
proportion of insoluble
insoluble
gel are known to be be more
more viscous
viscous than
than those with
with aa low
low proportion
proportion of ofinsoluble
insoluble gel(Phillips
gel(phillips et
al., 1980). Therefore
a!., Thereforeas as expected,
expected, the
the viscosity of A. senegal
of A. senegal varvar leiorhachis
leiorhachis gum is significantly
siglificantly
higher than that of A. senegal var senegal at the same concentration Table 1). A
higher than that of A. senegal var senegal at the same concentration Table 1). A similar
sinrilar
observation hashas been reported
reported for
for gum
gum ghatii(Jefferies
ghatii(Jefferiesetetal., 1977). In this
al., 1977). tllls work A.A. senegal
senegal var
senegal has been foundfound toto have
have aa more
more negative
negative optical
optical ration (1,(1, -25:II,
-25:II, -26).
-26). Since
Since A. A. senegal
var senegal is is the
the most
most prevalent
prevalent variation
variation of
ofSudanese
Sudanese A. A. senegal
senegal (Anderson
(Anderson et et a/.,1983),
al.,1983), the the
value of -35 for
value for optical
optical rotation
rotation assigned
assigned to Sudanese
Sudanese gum arabic arabic (Anderson
(Anderson et a/.,1983)
aI.,1983) is is
presumably the of of A. senegal varvar senegal
senegal gum.
gum. The
The differences
differences between
between values
values obtained
obtained in in this
tllls
work and the literature value (-30) (Anderson
(Anderson et al., 1983) right
might be due to variation between the
exuding A. A. senegal trees as reported by Devaluate et al. 1993, 1993, whowho recorded
recorded a wider range range of
optical rotation with a minimum
nrinimum of of -25 and a maximum
maximum of of-62.
-62. The
The optical
optical rotation
rotation values
values of ofA.A.
senegal var. leiorhanchis gum gum are
are comparable
comparable to those
those reported
reported forfor Sudanese
Sudanese A. A. senegal gum (-
30) (Anderson et a/.,1983)
aI.,1983) but
but significantly
significantly lower than that of of A.
A. senegal var kerensis gum (-35)
(Chikamai and Banks,
Banks, 1993).
1993).
 99
Table 1: Physicochemical properties of gum exudates from some Acacia
Acacia species
speciesof
ofthe
theseries
seriesVulgares
Vulgaresand
and Gummiferae
Gummiferae
Parameter drepa mala sese sele sefi
seya
jaa
I II I
J II II II Ib II Ia II I II
Moisture % w/w 10.7 14.4 13.2 13.4 15.0 14.1 13.8 15.3 15.0 14.0 14.2 13.4
Ash %w/w
% w/w 2.0 1.6 3.0 2.3 4.5 3.8 4.2 5.2 3.0 3.5 3.2 2.6
Acid insoluble matter % w/w 0.20 0.35 1.88 0.73 0.88 0.60 0.30 0.21 0.30 0.78 0.65 0.60
CWIG%w/w
CWIG % w/w 0.30 0.43 5.88 3.43 l.57
1.57 l.83
1.83 8.90 15.67 0.20 0.70 2.70 0.35
HWIG % W/W
HWIG% 0.30 0.40 3.92 2.96 0.96 l.23
1.23 2.10 4.03 0.10 1.06 1.70 0.30
Ca (g/100g)c
(g/100gt 0.66 0.53 0.68 0.59 0.72 0.43 0.75 0.74 1.01 1.06 1.78 0.77
(g/100g)'
Mg (g/100gt 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.29 0.02 0.17 0.15 0.15
0.15 0.09 0.08 0.08
Na (g/100g)'
(g/100gt 0.08 0.03 0.13 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.0l
0.01 0.02 0.01 0.04
(g/100g)C
K (g/100g)c 0.19 0.10 0.28 0.11 0.98 0.09 1.09 l.35
1.35 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.17
Methoxyl % w/w 0.81 1.02 1.12 1.10
1.10 0.17 0.26 0.30 0.27 l.22
1.22 l.29
1.29 1.21 l.43
1.43
Nitrogen % w/w 0.30 0.32 1.67 0.84 0.33 0.28 0.44 0.48 0.13 0.07 0.21 0.18
Hence, Protein (N x 6.25) 1.88 l.94
1.94 10.44 5.25 2.06 l.75
1.75 2.75 3.00
3.00 0.81 0.44 l.31
1.31 1.12
[a]D
[ G]D InIn H 20, deg
H20, +101 +104 +70 +86 -25 -26 -50 -55 +54 +53 +54 +56
(centipose)
Viscosity (centipose)
100 gr l
100 g1-1 4.0 2.9 4.73 5.33 4.61 2.90 33.69 79.22 8.98 6.00 7.32 5.70
gril
150 gr
150 9.5 5.8 11.06 11.04 9.44 6.14 64.18 181.8 18.83
18.83 13.87 19.25
19.25 15.39
Optical density 0.18 0.06 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.19 0.07 0.09 0.08
0.08 0.12 0.27
Tannin %w/w 0.33 0.40 0.42 0.48 0.28 0.52 0.37 0.44 0.31 0.59 0.29 0.51
Acid Equivalent Weight 2263 d 2607
2263d 1615 1940 1575 1922 1583d 1703 1424d
1424d 1423 1284 1812

KEY: drepa=
KEY: drepa= A.
A. drepanolobium,
drepanolobium, mala
mala == A.
A. malacocephala,
malacocephala, sese
sese==A.
A. senegal
senegalvar
varsenegal, sele==A.
senegal, sele A. senegal
senegal var
var leiorhachis,
leiorhachis,
seya = A.
A. seyal
seyal var seyal, sefi = A.
var seyal, A. seyal
seyal varfistula.
var fistula. aaSome
SOMeofofthe
thedata
dataare
arefrom
fromref.(Mhinzi
ref.(Mhinzi and
and Mosha,
Mosha, 1995). bb Data
Data from
from ref. (Mhinzi and
and
Mrosso, 1995) except Na.
Na. K
and AEW. 'Corrected
CCorrectedfor
formoisture
moisturecontent.
content. dData
dData from
from ref.
ref. (Mhinzi and Mosha, 1993).
 100
The cationic
cationic compositions (Table 1) of A.
compositions (Table A. senegal var senegal
senegal and and A.
A. senegal
senegalvar
varleiorha chis
leiorhachis
gums are
gums are quite similar; Metal
quite similar; Metal ionion content
content inin plant
plant material
material isis thought
thought to to be
be a function
function of the
composition of the soil on which the plants grow (Anderson and Wieping, 1990;
composition 1990; Anderson
Anderson andand
Morrison,
Morrison, 1989;
1989; Anderson
Anderson and and Weiping,
Weiping, 1990). Thus, their
1990). Thus, their levels are not very
levels are very useful
useful as
chemotaxonomic markers
chemotaxonomic markers in identifying
identifYing different species. The nitrogen contents
different Acacia species. contents and
of A. senegal var
specific rotation values of var leiorhachis
leiorhachis gum
gumfound
foundininth_is
this work
work are similar to those
in A. senegal
found inA. senegal var kerensis gum (Chikamai and Banks, 1993) reflecting a close relationship
between the two varieties of A. A. senegal.
senegal. Acacia senegal var senegal
senegal gumgum has
has been
been found
found in this
slightly lower
work to have a slightly lower level ofnitrogen.
level of nitrogen.

The existence ofof the Acacia senegal

senegal complex
complex is
is well
well Icnown.
known. The
The notable
notabledifferences
differences observed
observed
in this study between the properties ofof the gums from A.A. senegal
senegal var.
var. senegal and A.A. senegal
senegal var
leiorhachis
leiorhachis amplifies
amplifies the need
need totoincorporate
incorporate selected
selected analytical
analytical data
dataasaschemotaxonomic
chemotaxonomic
evidence in disting-uishing some closely related Acacia
distinguishing some Acacia species.

Another pair of of giun

gum specimens we have compared chemotaxonomically, in in this work,
work, are
are those
those
from A.A. seyal var.var. fistula
fistula and A.
A. seyal
seyal varvar seyal.
seyal. The
The former
fonner cancan readily
readily be
be distinguished
distinguished from
from
the latter as it possesses a greenish white white smooth
smooth bark,
bark, with
with 'anti-galls'.
'anti-galls'. Acacia seyal var seyal,
on the other hand has aa reddishreddish bark,
bark, without
without 'anti-galls'. Table 1 shows that these two two varieties
varieties
produce gums which
produce which have
have similar
similarproperties.
properties. Thus,
Thus, the values
values ofofspecific
specific optical
optical rotation,
rotation,
methoxyl content, total ash and viscosities the gums from these variants of
viscosities of the of A.
A. seyal are quite
similar. ItItisis concluded,
concluded, therefore,
therefore, that
that in
in general
general the properties ofofA.
A. seyal var seyal and A. A. seyal
seyal
fistula gums
var fistula gums are similar and it is justifiable to retain these two species as variations variations of the
same species.

Experimental
Origin of
of samples - The gum samples were collected by the authors from
from central
central Tanzania
Tanzania in
in the
the
following locations:

1. A. drepanolobium I 78
78 km from
from Dodoma on the the Dodoma
Dodoma to Singida
Singida
road.
II 12 km
12 km north west of
of Dodoma Town.
2. A. inalacocephala
A. malacocephala I 15.4 km West of
15.4 of Singida town along
along the Singida-
Mlandara road.
II As above
3. A. var. senegal
A. senegal var. I 63 km from Dodoma on the Dodoma
Dodoma to Morogoro
road
II As above
above
4. A.
A. senegal var leiorhachis I 37 km
37 km from
from Morogoro
Morogoro on on the
the Morogoro
Morogoro toto
Dodoma road.
Dodoma
II As above
5. A.
A. seyal var seyal I 162 km
162 Ian from
from Morogoro
Morogoro on the the Morogoro
Morogoro to
Dodoma road
Dodomaroad
II As above
A. seyal var fistula
6. A. fistula I 91
91 km West of Singida. Mlandara
ofSingida. Mlandara village.
village.
II 22 km
22 km from
from Dodoma
Dodoma on on the
the Dodoma
Dodoma to to
Kwamtoro road.
Kwamtoro

Botanical vouchers for each of

ofthe
the species
species were also collected and deposited in the
the Herbarium,
Herbarium,
Botany Department, University of Dar-es-salaam.
Department, University Confirmation of
Dar-es-salaam. Confinnation of the species was obtained
the species obtained
from the Royal Botanic
Botanic Gardens
Gardens (Kew,
(Kew, UK).
UK).
 101
The
The detailed
detailed experimental methods for
experimental methods for all the
the parameters
parameters have
have been described
described previously
previously
(Mhinzi and Mrosso, 1995).
(J'v1hinzi 1995).

Aclmowledgements - We thank NORAD and SIDA for financial

Aclrnowledgements financial support and Mr. Frank Mbago,
of the herbarium, Botany Department, University of Dar es Salaam for the identification of
of the
Acacia species.

References
Anderson, D.M.W. 1976 1976 in
in Iranex
Iranex S.A.
S.A. (Editor),
(Editor), Gums
G1.UTIS and
and Hydrosoluble
Hydrosoluble Natural
Natural Vegetable 4 01
Colloids,4d1
Vegetable Colloids,
105.
Int. Symp., Paris, p. 105.

Anderson, D.M.W.; Kew Bulletin, 32(3), 529

D.M.W.; Kew 529 (1977).
(1977).

Anderson, (1975) Boissiera

Anderson, D.M.W. and Brenan, J.P.M. (1975) Boissiera 24, 307

Anderson, D.M.W. and S.A. (1989). Food Hydrocoll., 3(1),

and Morrison, S.A. 57.
3(1),57.

Anderson, D.M.W., Morrison, N.A.,

N.A., Weiping Food addit. Contam.,
Weiping,, W. (1983) .. Food Contam., 7,303.

Anderson, D.M.W. and Street C.A. (1983). Talanta 30 (11),887.

Anderson, D.M.W. and Weiping, W. (1990) FoodHydrocolL,

(1990) Food Hydrocoll., 3(6), 475.
3(6),475.

Anderson, D.M.W. and

and Weiping,
Weiping, W. Biochem. Sys.
(1990). Biochern.
W. (1990). andEcoL
Sys. and Eco!. 18(6),
18(6),413.
413.

Benthan1, Trans. Linn.

Bentham, G. (1875) Trans. Linn. Soc.
Soc. 30,
30,335.
335.

Brenan, J.P.M. (1983) Manual on Taxonomy of Acacia species,

species, FAO,
FAO, Rome.
Rome.

Brenan, J.P.M.
Brenan, J.P.M. (1959).
(1959). [Hubbard, C.L. and
[Hubbard, e.L. and Redhead, M. (Editors)];
Redhead, M. Flora of
(Editors)]; Flora of Tropical
Tropical East
East Africa
Afiica --
Leguninosae: sub-family
Legtuninosae: sub-family Mimosoideae,
Mimosoideae, Crown Agents for Overseas
Crown Agents Overseas Government
Government and Administration
Administration
(London).

Burtt, B.D. (1942). Joum.

B.D. (1942). Ecol. 30,
Jount Ecol. 30, 96.
96.

Chikamai, B.N. and Banks, W.B.,

W.B., 1993. Food Hydrocoll.,
1993. Food Hydrocoll., 7(6),
7(6),521.
521.

Duvallet, S., Fenyo, J. C. M.C. (1993) Food Hydrocoll., 7(4), 319

e. and vendevelde, M.e.

Glicksman, M.
Glicksman, M. and Sand, R.E.
RE. (1973)
(1973) in
in Whistler,
Whistler, R.
R L.
L. (Editor);
(Editor); Industrial
Industrial Gums:
G1.UTIs: Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides and
and
their Derivatives. 2nd Ed.,
Derivatives. 2nd Ed., Academic
Academic Press, New York, p. 197.
JECFA/FAO (1990) Food
JECFAlFAO (1990) Foodand
andNutrition
NutritionPaper
PaperNo. 49, Rome.
No. 49, Rome.

(1977)J.J. Sci.
Jefferies, M., Pass, G., Phillips, G.O. (1977) Sci. Fd
Fd Agric.,
Agric., 28,
28, 173.
173.

Phillips, G.O.,
Phillips, G.O., Pass,
Pass, G.,
G., Jefferies,
Jefferies, M.
M. and
and Morley,
Morley, RG.
R.G. (1980)
(1980) in
in Neukom,
Neulcom,H.H. and Pilnik,
Pilnik, W. (Eds).
(Eds).
Gelling and fuickening Agents in
thickening Agents in Foods, Foster
Foster Publishing Co. Ltd., Switzerland,
Switzerland, p. 135.
135.

Mhinzi, G.S. and Mrosso, H.D.J.

H.DJ. (1995). Food Chemistry,
(1995). Food Chemistry, 54(3), 261.
54(3),261.

Mhinzi, G.S. and Mosha D.M.S. (1995). Discovery

Discovery and
and Innovation.
Innovation. Manuscript
Manuscript in
in press.
press.

Mhinzi, G.S., and Mosha

MoshaD.M.S.
D.M.S. (1993).
(1993). Jour.
Jour. Chem.
Chern. Soc.
Soc. Pak.,
Pak., 15(4), 269.
15(4),269.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382771 102
102

FAO'S GLOBAL
FAO'S GLOBALPROGRAMME
PROG MME ONONTHE
THEDEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT OF
OF NON-
NON-
IID FOREST
WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS (NWFP'S)

PAUL
PALTLVANTOMME
VANTOMME
Forestry Officer (Non-Wood Forest Products)
Forestry Department
Food and Agriculture Organisation of
of the United Nations (FAO)
Rome, Italy

FAO and how it works

Established in 1945, the Food and Agriculture Organisation
Organisation of of the United
United Nations
Nations (FAO),
(FAO), isis the
the
UN largest technical agency and is among the the world's
world's leading
leading international
international agriculture,
agriculture, forestry
fishery technical
and fishery technical development
development organisations. Today FAO has 174
organisations. Today 174 member
member governments
governments
(including Kenya),
(including Kenya), aa comprehensive
comprehensive regional
regional representation
representation structure
structure (e.g.
(e.g. Ghana,
Ghana, Accra
Accra is
is the
the
Regional Office for Africa; and in Zimbabwe, Harare is the sub-regional office for Southern and
Africa), a physical presence in more than 100 countries,
East Africa), countries, and at its headquarters in Rome, a
cadre of specialists
cadre specialists in agriculture,
agriculture, fisheries,
fisheries, forestry
forestry and
and related
related disciplines.
disciplines. The fact
fact that
that FAO
FAO
houses under the sarne
same roof, all the major
major disciplines
disciplines related
related to
to overall
overall agriculture
agriculture development
development
puts it in a unique position with respect to the pursuit of of holistic agricultural
agricultural and agro-industrial
agro-industrial
development programmes,
development progammes, including those related to the sustainable production production of Non Wood
Forest Products (NWFP's)
(NWFP's) such
such as
as those
those discussed
discussed atat this
this meeting.
meeting.

The primary roles of

ofFFAO
AO are to serve as:
as:

1) a neutral
neutral forum
forumforforpolicy
policydialogue (including
dialogue (includinginternational
internationalgovernmental
governmental meetings
meetings for
for
example on
example on agricultural/NWFP'S
agriculturallNWFP'S trade,
trade, on
on natural
natural resource
resource management
management and
andconservation
conservation
issues),

2) a source ofof information

informationand
andknowledge
knowledge(technical
(technicalinformation
informationon onproducts,
products,methodologies
methodologies
and statistical data on production and trade on agriculture,
agiculture, forestry
forestry and
and fishery
fishery products),
products),

3) a provider
provider of oftechnical
technicalassistance
assistance(field
(fieldprojects
projectstotodevelop/introduce
develop/introduce new
new products
products or
technologies, to assist governments in
in institutional capacity
capacity building, etc.).
etc.).

Each of these roles offers ample opportunity

opportunity toto advance
advance the
the cause
cause of NWFP'S through
through a more
more
sustainable management and utilisation
utilisation of
ofall
all forest
forest resources.

FAO deals with

How FAO with NWFP's
NWFP's
what FFAO
To understand what is doing
AO is doing on
on these
these products,
products,we
wemust
mustfirst
first recognise
recogiise that
that there
there exist
exist two
two
main categories in producing them:

l)
1) Products
Products which
which are fully domesticated and which can be cultivated by farmers
farmers as
as agricultural
agricultural
crops, such as some spices,
cash crops, spices, medicinal plants,
plants, aromatic
aromatic oils
oils (geranium oil),
oil), mushrooms.
mushrooms.

group of plants is covered by several units of

This group of FAO's
FAO's Agriculture Department, such as the
Department, such the
'Industrial Crops Group', which deals with the industrial production of
of plantation crops for major
edible oils,
edible oils, medicinal
medicinal and
and aromatics
aromatics and
and food
food additives.
additives. The Agriculture Department has
The Agiculture Department has
accumulated
accumulated over the years a wealth of
of information on the production and development
development of ofthese
these
 103
p~~ts
plants and their products,
products, and which can be accessed through FAO's
FAO's publications
pUblications catalogue or
or
VIa mtennent at:
via interment
<<http://www.fao.orgIW AICENTlFaoInfo/Agricult»~
<<http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FaoInfo/Agricult>>.

2) The second group contains products which are gathered from (wild) sources in forests or other
related land uses. This large
large group of plant and animal products
products is
is part of what we call
call "Non-
"Non-
Wood Forest Products" (NWFP'S) at at FAO
FAO (also
(also called
called minor
minor forest products, non-timber forest
forest
products and
products and special
special forest
forest products); and fall
products); and fall under
under the
the responsibility
responsibility of
of FAO's
FAO's Forestry
Department.

For these products, which are used as human food or asas food
food additives,
additives,the
theFood
Foodand
and Nutrition
Nutrition
Division (of
(of FAO's
FAO's Economic
Economic andand Social
Social Department)
Department) is providing
providing technical information
infonnation and
and
assistance regarding food quality control.
controL
Further information of given NWFP'S is
infonnation on the nutritional use of is available
available on their website
website at:
at:
http://www.fao.orgIWAICENTIFAOINFOIECONOMICIESNINURI.HTM
http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/ECONOMIC/ESN/NURI.HTM

This paper focuses on the

the role
role of FAO's Forestry
ofFAO's Forestry Department
Department as it's activities
activities in
in this
this field
field may
be lesser
lesser lcnown.
known.

The FAO Forestry

The ForestryProgramme
Programmeis isunique
uniqueamong
amonginternational
internationalorganisations.
organisations. FAO's
FAO'sForestry
Forestry
Department is
Department is in fact among the largest and oldest international forestry units of of its kind with a
broad
broad and
and comprehensive charter that
comprehensive charter that addresses
addressesall all forests
forests and
and all
all forest
forest products
products in a
comprehensiveand
comprehensive and interdisciplinary
interdisciplinaryway;
way;this
thisisisdone
done inin a manner
manner which
which recognises
recognises that
environmental protection and economic
economic development
development areare mutually
mutually dependent.
dependent.

FFAO
AO is aa major
major source
source of
ofinformation
infonnation onon the
the world's
world's forest
forest resources
resources and
and forest
forest products.
products.
Currently,
Currently, FFAO
AO undertakes a global forest assessment every 10 years, highlighting forest
10 years, forest cover,
cover,
deforestation
deforestation and
and forest
forest degradation.
degradation. We We work
work collaboratively
collaboratively with
with many
many countries
countries on
on this.
this. In
In
addition,
addition, we
we make
make use ofof satellite imagery and other means of of obtaining
obtaining accurate data. We are
detailed plan
now developing a detailed plan for
for assessment
assessment for
for the
the year
year 2000.
2000.

FAO
FAO also regularly provides information
infonnation on production
production of wood products,
products, trade and capacity
capacity
statistics; regional
statistics; regional and
and world forestry outlook studies;
studies; and forest sector
sector studies.
studies. FAO
FAO will
will also
also
attempt to
attempt to broaden
broaden the
the range
range ofof statistical
statistical data to include
include non-wood
non-wood forest
forest products
products andand to
undertake long-term
long-tenn strategic outlook for the forest sector
sector on
on global
global and
and regional
regional scales,
scales, taking
taking
into account impacts on forests
into forests from
from other
other sectors,
sectors, such
suchasaspopulation,
population,ag,riculture,
agriculture, energy
energy andand
mIlling.
milling

F AO is also a major
FAO major source
source of
ofinformation
infonnation onon forest
forest science,
science, technology
technology and
and practice.
practice. ItItdevelops
develops
and facilitates
and the exchange
facilitates the exchange of technical
technical information, often in
infonnation, often in multiple
multiple languages,
languages, on on the
environmental, economic and social dimensions of forestry including, the protection and
environmental, economic and social dimensions of forestry including, the protection
forests and other natural resources;
management of forests resources; rehabilitation
rehabilitation of
of degraded
degaded orormarginal
marginal lands;
lands;
tree planting,
tree planting, especially in in aa land-use
land-use context;
context; enhancing
enhancing the value,
value, efficiency and
environmental
environmental soundness of of harvesting, utilisation and marketing of of wood and
and non-wood
non-wood forest
forest
policy analysis,
products; and policy analysis, plarming
planning and institution strengthening.

A good example of of the information

infonnation provided
provided onon technolog,y
technology is the work in
in community
community forestry,
forestry,
which is one ofFAO activities. For a number of years,
of FAO priority activities. years, FAO has been pioneering work work
on the social
social dimension
dimension of of sustainable
sustainable forest
forest management,
management, with aa focus
focus on
onself-reliance
self-reliance and
and
participatory approaches
participatory approaches involving
involving local
local communities.
communities. Through
Through this community
community forestry
forestry
initiative, FFAO
initiative, AO stresses
stresses decentralised
decentralised planning, communal management
planning, communal management of of forests
forests and
and tree
tree
 104
resources, conflict
resources, conflict resolution
resolutionamong
amonguser
usergroups,
groups,equity
equityissues,
issues,the
the role
role of
of gender,
gender, and
and the
contribution of
of forests, trees, and NWFP's to food
food security
security and
and nutritional well-being.

FAO's
F AO's Forestry Department has
Forestry Department has published
published many
many pUblications
publicationson on the
the issues
issues dealing
dealing with
with
sustainable forestry
forestry development.
development. However,
However, its
its flagship
flagship publication
publication is
is the
the "State
"State of
ofthe
the World's
World's
Forests", a report published every
every tvvo years, which
two years, which isis providing
providing a comprehensive overview of
comprehensive overview
the status of
of the world's forests and its products (including NWFP'S).
NWFP'S). More detailed
detailed information
regarding FFAO's
AO's activities and publications can be obtained at its web site:
site:
htp:www.fao.org/WAICENTIFAOINFOIFORESTRY/forestry.htm.
htp :www. fao org/WAICENT/FAOINF 0/F ORESTRY/forestry.htm.

Forestry Department
FAO's Forestry Department programme
programmeand
andpublications
publications on
on NWFP's
NWFP's
Three main activities make up our programme on NWFP'S:
NWFP'S:

i) information gathering,
ii) partnerships
iii) technical assistance.

i) Information gathering

Successful implementation
Successful implementationof of programmes
programmes on on NWFP'S
NWFP'S require
require comprehensive,
comprehensive, quality
quality
information
information onon the
the plants
plants themselves, the forest
themselves, the forest ecosystems
ecosystemsinin which
which they
they grow,
gow, on on their
their
harvesting and processing practices
practices and on the marketing
marketing and
and trade
trade aspects
aspects of
ofthese
these products.
products.
The collection,
collection, analysis,
analysis, interpretation
interpretation and dissemination
dissemination of
of such
such information
information world-wide
world-wide has
has
been a priority of
ofFFAO
AO from the very beginning.

provide three
Essentially, we provide three types
types of
ofinformation,
information, namely;
namely;
• descriptive information
informationon ongiven
givenNVVFP'S
NWFp's
information on
• information on technologies, methodologies and
technologies, methodologies and best
best practices
practices for their
their production,
production,
harvesting, processing and marketing
• production
production and
and trade
trade statistics.
statistics.

In our NWFP'S
NWFP'S work
workprogramme,
programme, we
we have
have two
two types
types of
ofpublications:
publications:

a) the "Non Wood Forest

the ForestProducts
ProductsSeries":
Series":which
whichare
arein-depth
in-depthtechnical
technical documents
documents on
specific NWFP'S
specific NWFP'S or or issues.
issues. Examples
Examples of
ofalready
already published
published issues
issues with
withparticular
particular
relevance to this
this Conference,
Conference, are:
are:

• "Flavours
"Flavours and fragrances":
fragrances": dealing
dealing with
with cinnamomum,
cinnamomum, sassafras,
sassafras, rosewood,
rosewood,
eucalyptus, sandalwood, litsea
eucalyptus, sandalwood, litsea cubeba,
cubeba, frankincense,
frankincense, cedarwood,
cedarwood, myrrh and and
and resources
opopanax oils (including product and resources description,
description, uses,
uses, world
world supply,
supply,
demand trends, harvesting, processing)
• "Gum naval stores: turpentine and rosin from
from Pine
Pine resin"
• "Gums, resins and latexes ofof plant origin" (gum arabic,
arabic, carob,
carob, tara,
tara, copal,
copal, damar,
damar,
benzoin, copaiba,
copaiba, chicle,
chicle, balata).
• "Natural colourants and dyestuffs" (annatto, henna, lac, cochineal)
•o "Nutmeg and derivates"; "Edible
"Edible nuts"
• "Marketing and information systems for NWFP'S"
• "Domestication and
"Domestication and commercialisation
commercialisation of of NWFP'S
NWFP'S in in agroforestry
agroforestry systems";
systems";
"NWFP'S for
"NWFP'S for rural
rural income"
income"
 105
"Non Wood
Wood Forest
Forest Products from
from Tropical Palms",
Palms", (in preparation is an issue on
Medicinal Plants)
"International trade in
"International trade in NWFP'S:
NWFP'S: an overview";
overview"; "Trade
"Trade restrictions
restrictions affecting
affecting
international trade in NWFP'S";
Copies of
ofsome
some of
ofthese
these publications
publications are put on display for your information.

b)
b) the "Non Wood
the Wood News"
News" bulletin:
bulletin: which
which isis a newsletter
newsletter published
published yearly
yearly by
by FAO
FAO of
approximately 60
approximately 60 to 80
80 pages
pages compiling
compiling all
all relevant
relevant information
information on ongoing
oncroing activities
activities
dealing with NWFP'S
NWFP'S world-wide,
world-wide, and
and for
for which
which text contributions are ~ade
text contributions made by readers
themselves. The bulletin
themselves. The links some 1400 people, institutions
bulletin links institutions and agencies
agencies which areare
involved in one way or other with the
the promotion
promotion and and development
development ofNWFP'S.
of NWFP'S.

The newsletter is available on internet No.33 onwards) at:

intemet (from issue No.
http:/www.fao.org/waicentlfaoinfo/forestry/nwnews/default.htrn
http:/www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/forestry/nwnews/defaulthtm

ii) Partnerships

Although FAO
FAO is an intergovernmental organisation,
organisation, and
and as
as such
such its
its main
main line
line of
ofcommunication
communication
is with our member governments, it also needs to to receive a welcome input from a broad range of
interest groups, including the private sector, universities, forest industries and non-governmental
organisations
organisations representing environmental and developmental interests. need, therefore,
interests. There is need, therefore,
ensure collaboration
to ensure collaboration and to avoid
and to avoid duplication
duplication of
ofeffort
effort so
so that
thatslcills
skills and
and resources
resources are
are most
most
efficiently utilised.

To increase
increase awareness
awareness on NWFP'S
NWFP'S and andstrengthen
strengthen national
national collaboration
collaboration at
at the
theregional
regional level,
level,
Wood and
FAO's Wood and Non-Wood
Non-Wood Products
Products Utilisation
Utilisation Branch (FOPW)
(FOPW) has organised
organised three
three regional
regional
expert consultations.
consultations. The
The first
first was
was for
for Asia
Asia and
and the
the Pacific
Pacific Region
Region in
in Bangkok,
Bangkok, Thailand,
Thailand, in
1991, the second was for Anglophone African Countries,
Countries, held in Arusha,
Arusha, Tanzania, in 1993; and
the third was for Latin
Latin America
America andand the
the Caribbean,
Caribbean, and was organised
organised in
in Santiago,
Santiago, Chile,
Chile, 1994.
1994.

Two global
global expert consultations have also
consultations have also been
been organised.
organised. A
A 'Social,
'Social, Economic
Economic andand Cultural
Cultural
of NWFP'S', was
Dimensions ofNWFP'S', was organised
organised in Bangkok, Thailand,
Thailand, in 1994; and an
an "Inter-regional
"Inter-regional
Expert Consultation
Consultation on NWFP'S',
NWFP'S', was was organised
organised in
inYogyalcarta,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia,
Indonesia, in
in 1995.
1995. During
1997, a workshop was organised by FOPW on: on: 'Medicinal, Culinary and Aromatic Plants in the
Near East', in Cairo, Egypt, from 19 to 21 May.
from 19

For 1998,
1998, an 'Expert
'Expert Consultation on NWFP'S
Consultation on NWFP'S in in the
the Congo Basin', is
Congo Basin', is planned to be held in
planned to
Cameroon. In addition, preparations have started for
Cameroon. In addition, preparations have started for expert consultations
consultations on 'NWFP'S
'NWFP'S from
from
Boreal Forests' and on 'NWFP'S
'NWFP'S from
from the
the North
North American Region.

Especially related to
Especially related to FAOs
FAOs networking activity on
networking activity on NWFP'S, is is the
the identification,
identification, through
through aa
questionnaire
questionnaire of all interested partners involved
involved in one way or or the
the other
otherwith
withthe
thedevelopment
development
and promotion
and promotion ofof NWFP'S.
NWFP'S. The Theresults
results of
ofprocessing
processing this
this questionnaire
questionnaire willwill lead
lead to the
development
development of of aa global
global Directory
Directory onon "Who
"Who isis Who"
Who" in thethe field of NWFP'S (including
field of NWFP'S (including
government, private sector, universities, funding agencies,
universities, funding agencies, etc.)
etc.) Later on this DirectOlY
Directory will
will also
also
serve as a base to further
further develop
develop FAO's
FAO's statistical
statistical knowledge
knowledge on global
global production
production and trade
figures on NWFP'S.
 106
Technical assistance
iii) Technical

To help put into

into practice
practice policies
policies and
and technologies
technologies on NWFP'S
NWFP'S management,
management, production
production andand
commerce, FFAO
commerce, offers technical
AO offers technical assistance
assistance to
to all
all member
member countries.
countries. The objective
objective ofof such
such
assistance isis to
assistance to strengthen national
national capacities
capacities to
to effectively
effectively plan
plan and
and carry
carry out the full
full project
project
cycle of improving or introducing new products
products and
and or
or techniques
techniques for
for NWFP'S development
development in in
a sustainable
sustainable manner. Technical project-level
marmer Technical project-level assistance
assistance covers
covers most dimensions of of sustainable
sustainable
development, but
NWFP'S development, but with
with emphasis
emphasis on
on resource
resource protection
protection and
and management,
management, information
information
gathering and
gathering and processing,
processing, improved
improved people's
people's participation through community
participation through community forestry,
forestry, and
and
institutional strengthening.

At the project level, FAO

FAO is currently active in some 250 forestry technical assistance projects in
90 countries,
90 in which
countries, in which forfor many
many ofofthem
them NWFP'S
NWFP'S activities
activities are
areananessential
essentialcomponent.
component.
Financial support for
Financial support for such
such projects comes from
projects comes from aa variety
variety ofof sources
sources including
including FAO,
FAO, but
but
especially
especially from
from donor governments,
governments, the United Nations
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and
Bank and
the World Bank and others.
others.

Conclusion
Developing and implementing
implementing sustainable
sustainable production and conservation
conservation ofofNVTFP'S,
NWFP'S, with rigid rigid
product quality control, efficient marketing and equitable distribution of benefits to all concerned
along the full
along the full chain from
from the producer
producer till the consumer,
consumer, is a key
key component
component forfor aa successful
successful
programme
programme toto achieve more sustainable
sustainable management
management of the forest
forest resources,
resources, including
including better
better
conservation of
of their biodiversity.

FAO,
F AO, by serving as aa neutral
neutral policy
policy forum,
forum, a source of
of technical
technical information and by assisting
assisting
countries in field
countries in field projects,
projects, can
can do
do a great
great deal
deal to
to help
help with
with the
the successful
successful development
development and
productionof
sustainable production ofNWFP'S.
NWFP ' S .
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382773 107

THE ROLE OF
OF IGAD
IGAD IN PROMOTING COLLABORATION
COLLABO T ON
NETWORKS AMONG MEMBER COUNTRIES

ROSEMARIE R.N. KIGAME

KlGAME (MRS)
IGAD Desk
Ministry of
of Environment and Natural Resources
P.O. Box 30126
Nairobi, Kenya.

Background
The
The Intergovernmental Authority on
Intergovernmental Authority on Development
Development (IGAD)
(IGAD) sub-region
sub-region has beenbeen in the
the
limelight
limelight with
with problems
problems associated
associated with
with recurring
recurring droughts,
droughts, internal
internal and sub-regional
sub-regional
conflicts, food
conflicts, food insecurity
insecurity and
andenvironmental
environmentaldeg,radation.
degradation. In anan attempt
attempt to
to address
address these
these
problems, while also convinced
convinced that
that drought
drought and
and desertification
desertification can be combated
combated effectively
effectively
through development, the
through development, States, (Djibouti,
the Member States, (Djibouti, Ethiopia,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia,
Somalia, Sudan
Sudan and
and
Uganda)
Uganda) established in 1986
1986 the Intergovernmental
Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and and Development
Development
(IGADD). In 1993, the State of
of Eritrea became the seventh member of the Authority.
ofthe

At the beginning
At beginning ofof 1995,
1995, itit became
became clear
clear that
that the
the original
original IGAD
IGAD priorities
priorities and
andstrategies
strategies
required revisiting to
required revisiting to enable
enable the the institution
institution toto respond
respond totothetheemerging
emergingsub-regional
sub-regional
challenges. The member
challenges. The member states
states were convinced that the current economic problems as well as
were convinced
poverty
poverty can be be addressed
addressed effectively
effectively tluough
through closer
closereconomic
economicco-operation,
co-operation, infrastructure
infrastructure
development,
development, food security and environment protection and conflict prevention, management management
and resolution.
and resolution. As a result, a declaration
declaration to revitalise and expand
expand the mandate
mandate of ofIGAD
IGAD waswas
signed in April
signed April 1995. The Declaration took
1995. The Declaration took into account the development issues. The
account the development issues.
Declaration which was signed by the Heads of of State paved the way for the birth
birth of
ofaa dynamic
dynamic
institution on development,
institution development, ably
ably revitalised
revitalised in
incontent,
content, orientation
orientationand
andstru.cture.
structure.

IG I Priority
IGAD Priorityareas
areas
The IGAD strategy is is based
based on
on its
its overall
overall policy
policy objectives
objectives which
which isissustainable
sustainableeconomic
economic
development in which regional co-operation and integration is given special impetus impetus and
and high
high
priority
priority to promote
promote long-teim
long-term collective
collective self-sustaining
self-sustaining and and integrated
integrated social-cultural
social-cultural and
and
economic development.
economic development. However,
However, due due to
to its
its limited
limited capacity,
capacity, IGAD
IGAD currently
currently concentrates
concentrates
on its three
on three priority
priority areas
areas which
which areare Food,
Food, Security
Security and
and Environment
Environment Protection,
Protection, Conflict
Conflict
Prevention, Management and Resolution as as well
well as
as Humanitarian
Humanitarian Affairs,
Affairs, and
andInfrastructure
Infrastructure
Development. IGAD's
Development. IGAD'svision
visionisisbased
basedonon determination
determination of ofthe
the govenunents
governments of ofthe
the sub-region
sub-region
to pool resources
to resources and
and co-ordinate
co-ordinate development
development activities thus enabling
activities thus enabling the
the sub-region
sub-region toto
and compete in global economy on behalf of
interact and of its inhabitants; this will eventually
eventually lead
to regional integration.

Policy organs
Policy organs and function of the Authority
IGAD has three policy levels of of operations namely the Heads of of State
State and
and Government
Government level,
level,
who are the
who the ultimate
ultimate decision
decision makers
makers for
for sanctioning
sanctioning and ratifying
ratifying new
new initiatives
initiatives and
and
policies; the Council of
policies; of Ministers, who administer the operation of of the organisation
organisation at
at policy
level and ensure that implementation at the national levels takes place; and the Committee of
national levels
Ambassadors who
Ambassadors who work
work closely
closely with
with the
the Secretariat on matters
Secretariat on matters already
already approved
approved by the
Council but may need further clarification to put them into concrete programmes and plan of of
actions.
actions. The
The policy
policyorgans
organs provide
provide direction
direction and
and advice
advice to
to the
the executive
executive secretariat
secretariat as and
when required.
 108

The Assembly Heads of State and Government

Assembly of Heads Government meets meets once
once a year and at at any
any time
time upon
upon
request of any member state if accepted
accepted by by aa two
two thirds
thirds majority.
majority. The Council of of Ministers is
composed of
composed of Ministers
Ministers of Foreign Affairs and one other focal
Foreign Affairs focal Minister
Minister designated
designated by by each
each
member state.
state. The
The Council
Council may
may establish
establish ad
ad hoc
hoc sectoral
sectoral ministerial
ministerial committees
committees to dealdeal with
issues in
issues in their
their respective
respective sectors.
sectors. The Council meetsmeets twice
twice aa year
year at
at any
any time
time upon
uponrequest
requestof of
member state.
any member state. The
The committees
committees meetmeet as
as often
often asas is necessary for thethe attainment
attainment of of their
their
objective. TheThe Committee
Committee of of Ambassadors
Ambassadors comprises member state
comprises member state Ambassador
Ambassador at the the
headquarters of
headquarters of the
the organisation
organisation (Djibouti)
(Djibouti)andandininmajor
majorpartners'
partners' capitals.
capitals. The committee of
Ambassadors
Ambassadors holds meetings as as and
and when
when necessary.
necessary. These
These committees
committees in in donor
donor capitals
capitals are
are
chaired by
by the
the Ambassador representing the country chairing the Authority.

formulation, implementation
Project identification, formulation, implementation and
and resource
mobilisation
In selecting
selecting projects,
projects, IGAD
IGAD ensures
ensures that
that a project
project must
must fall
fall under the IGAD priority areas; a
project must be sub-regional in nature;
nature; there should be an expressed interest by at at least
least two
two
member
member states;
states; the proposed project is manageable,
manageable, has funding
funding potentiality,
potentiality, is
is sustainable
sustainable
and economically feasible.

With the understanding that each project is a joint undertaking of

the understanding more countries,
of two or more countries, andand
agreed upon by all member states, the project preparation is a joint responsibility of of the IGAD
IGAD
secretariat
secretariat and
and experts
experts from
from member
member states. However, member
states. However, member states
states themselves
themselves are
are directly
directly
in charge
charge of
of project
project implementation.
implementation. The The IGAD
IGAD secretariat
secretariat is involved
involved inin planning,
planning, fund
fund
mobilisation, monitoring and evaluation.
mobilisation, monitoring evaluation. IGAD's stru.cture
structure includes aa section
section specifically
specifically
devoted to resource mobilisation. IGAD's IGAD's resource
resource mobilisation has has been
been further
strengthenedby
strengthened by the
the establishment
establishment ofof the IGAD
IGAD Partners'
Partners' Forum (IPF). In the spirit
Forum (IPF). spirit of
partnership building, the
partnership building, the financing agencies (donors)
financing agencies (donors) and
and other
other relevant
relevant and
and interested
interested
institutions and
institutions and NGOs
NGOs cancan be involved
involved in the appropriate
appropriate states of of the
the project
project development.
development.
For example,
example, in order to enhance
enhance dialogue
dialogue and
and transparency,
transparency, IGAD partners in in development
development
can participate inin technical
technical committee meetings and contribute in discussing the programmes.

Depending on the
Depending on the nature and
and size
size of
ofthe
theproject,
project, two
twoinstitutional
institutional approaches
approaches have
have been
been
envisaged:
envisaged:--

•o Apart from
Apart from the political
political focal
focal point from
from the
the Ministry
Ministry of
ofForeign
Foreign Affairs,
Affairs, the
the
technical focal points are designated by each member state for the co-operation of of
overall IGAD sub-regional
sub-regional programmes. However, member states participating in
programmes. However,
the project identify technical ministries,
ministries, departments
departments or other institutions and set-
up aa national
up national technical
technical committee.
committee. TheThe chairman
chairman (or representatives)
representatives) in each
each
country constitute the sub-regional technical committee of the project, chaired by
technical committee
the proj ect co-ordinator at the IGAD
project I GAD secretariat.

•
o As a matter
As matter ofofexpediency
expediency and
and where
where thethe secretariat
secretariat does
does not
not have
have sufficient
sufficient
capacity, IGAD may decided to appoint a Centre of Excellence, a Host Centre or a
consortion to function as an executing agency for project implementation, with the
secretariat still remaining
secretariat remaining with
with facilitation,
facilitation, co-ordination,
co-ordination, planning,
planning, monitoring
monitoring
and evaluation functions.
 109
109
Interaction of IGAD
IG I with
with the
the international
international community,
community, other
other sub-regional,
sub-regional,
regional and international institutions, NGOs and the private sector
regional
The role of of the
the International
International Community
Community is to to actively
actively support,
support, individually
individually or jointly, the
the
efforts
efforts of IGAD
IGAD in in implementing
implementing its programmes
programmes by, by, inter alia,
alia, providing
providing financial
financial and
and
technical means,
means, promoting and facilitating access to appropriateappropriate technology, know-how and and
knowledge
knowledge and and capacity
capacity building.
building. In implementing
implementing its its mandate,
mandate, IGAD
IGAD finds
finds itself
performing similar
similar activities
activities in
in some
some areas
areaswith
withother
otherorganisations.
organisations. Towards
Towards the spirit of
the spirit of co-
operation
operation andand collaboration
collaboration to to avoid
avoid duplication
duplication of efforts
efforts and
and enhance
enhance synergy,
synergy, IGAD
IGAD
endeavours
endeavours to to participate
participate in joint programming with these organisations and indicate where
joint action
action is
is possible.
possible. These
These institutions
institutions support
support the
the efforts
efforts of
of IGAD
IGAD in the exchange
exchange of of
information
information and and experience,
experience, capacity
capacity building,
building, research
research andand networking
networking in different relevant
fields.
fields. Some
Some institutions
institutions sometimes
sometimes may be or are contracted
contracted to to do
do specific jobs for IGAD
IGAD
where the capacity within IGAD is limited.
where limited. In preparation
preparation of of projects/programmes,
projects/programmes, IGADIGAD
identifies collaborating
identifies collaborating institutions
institutions and
and agencies
agencies in in all
all the
the projects
projects within the three
three priority
priority
areas.

The Authority
The places a lot
Authority places lot of
ofimportance
importance on on information
information generation
generation and
and exchange
exchange among
among
member states
member states apart
apart from
from other institutions/organisations
institutions/organisations asaspointed
pointed out
out above.
above. Information
Information
is crucial for policy co-ordination,
crucial for harmonisation and
co-ordination, harmonisation andco-operation.
co-operation. Due to this fact,
fact, IGAD
makes use
makes use of
of different
different institutional
institutional arrangements developed and
arrangements developed and approved
approved by by its
its policy
policy
organs, in implementing its mandate. The mention
mandate. The mention but
but aa few:-
few:-

• IGAD's political and technical

technical focal
focal points
points are
are strengthened
strengthened with
with the
the necessary
necessary and
and
modern communication
modem communication and
and transport
transport facilities
facilities in
in order
order to facilitate
facilitate IGAD
IGAD related
related
activities in the
activities the member
member state. The focal
state. The focal points
points organise
organise Intersectoral
Intersectoral and
and Inter
Inter
Ministerial Committees on relevant sub-regional issues,

Ell To enhance synergy,

synergy, IGAD
IGAD creates
creates and maintains
maintains networks
networks with most national,
national, sub-
regional, regional
regional, regional and
and international
international organisations dealing with
organisations dealing with issues relevant
relevant to
to
IGAD's mandate,

• As a sub-regional
sub-regional organisation
organisation dealing with development
development aspects of
of the
the sub-region,
sub-region,
IGAD assists and
IGAD co-ordinates the sub-regional
and co-ordinates sub-regional common
common positions, represents
represents the
the
sub-regions in
sub-regions in negotiations
negotiations of major meetings
meetings and conferences
conferences and in other
other relevant
relevant
fora of sub-regional interest,

• Undertake national sub-regional

Undertake national workshops and
sub-regional workshops and seminars
seminars to
to enhance
enhance coherence
coherence
between
between national
national and sub-regional
sub-regional policies,
policies, strategies
strategies sand actions
actions of
ofsub-regional
sub-regional
interest,

Ell With
With respect
respect toto publicity
publicity and
and public
public awareness, IGAD has
awareness, IGAD has an
an Information
Information and
and
Documentation Section
Documentation Section that
that regularly produces information
regularly produces and press releases
information and releases on
on
IGAD. In addition,
addition, IGAD
IGAD involves
involves thethesub-regional
sub-regional media
mediaprofessionals
professionals in
publicising its activities
pUblicising its activities from
from time
time to
to time and
and intends
intends to institutionalise
institutionalise a sub-
sub-
regional media network,

Ell Apart from

Apart from the regular
regular meetings
meetings ofof IGAD
IGAD policy
policy organs, sectional ministerial
organs, sectional ministerial
member states
between member
meetings are also being convened to enhance the co-operation between
and harmonise policies set out in the amended Charter.
 110
Besides, IGAD has several
several information
information projects
projects that
that are
are at
at different
different stages
stagesof
ofimplementation.
implementation.
These
These projects
projects seek
seek to
to promote
promote collaboration
collaboration among
among such such networks
networks asasenvironmental
environmental
information systems/networks, food security and early warning
systems/networks, food warning inforrnation
information systems,
systems, library
library
and documentation networks, as
documentation networks, as well
well as improving
improving member states' communication
communication viavia the
the
Internet.

Capacity building of member

Capacity building member states'
states' institutions
institutions is
is another
another area
area where
where IGAD
IGAD promotes
promotes
regional collaboration
regional collaboration and
and co-operation.
co-operation.This
Thismaymay be
be in form
form ofofprovision
provision of
ofequipment
equipment
andlor regional training seminars,
and/or seminars, or on the job backstopping.
backstopping. Currently,
Currently, IGAD
IGAD has two EU-
has two
funded projects aimed at training the government and Private Sector staff staff in grain marketing
as well as artisanal
artisanal fisheries.
fisheries. Training in water resource management is another
another priority area
for
for which
which IGAD
IGAD is is soliciting
soliciting donor
donor support.
support. However,
However, to to improve
improve thethe internal
internal IGAD
IGAD
utilise in-house
operational capacity, the Secretariat continues to utilise in-house as
as well
well as
as external
external training.
training.

Conclusion
IGAD activities are demand-driven,
demand-driven, and the Secretariat is ready to work with any
any individuals
of the sub-region.
to address development challenges of
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382775 III
111

ROLE OF
OF NETWO " S IN
NETWORKS IN ADVANCING
ADVANCINGNATURAL
NATU'' L PRODUCTS
PRODUCTS
RESEARCH IN AFRICA: THE E
EXAMPLE
MPLE OF NAPRECA
ERMIAS DAGNE
of Chemistry, Addis
Department of Addis Ababa
Ababa University,
P.O. Box 30270,
Addis Ababa,
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ethiopia.

Introduction
Most natural products chemists in Africa,
Africa, as is indeed the case with scientists
scientists in other
other fields
are often forced to work with
with inadequate
inadequate facilities,
facilities, both in in terms
tenns of
ofappropriate
appropriate infrastructure
infrastructure
modem equipment. The disadvantaged
and modern researcher is
disadvantaged researcher is forced to send samples
samples for
for analysis
analysis
to laboratories
laboratories in developed
developed countries.
countries. It is
is difficult
difficult toto conduct
conduct meaningful
meaningful research under
such circumstances as samples often get lost in the mail, decompose
decompose on long standing and the
measurementssometimes
measurements sometimesdodo not
not come
come to to the full
full satisfaction
satisfaction ofofthe
theresearcher.
researcher. These
These
problems coupled with lack of
problems of full access
access to the scientific
scientific literature and inadequate financial
resources pose as serious stumbling blocks to the development of of natural products research in
Africa.

The establishment of networks with the aim of initiating,

initiating, developing
developing and promoting research
research in
way of
natural products is one way ofaccelerating
accelerating the development of of this science both at
at the local
local and
levels.
regional levels.

An example of of a network,
network, with
with which
which the author
author is familiar,
familiar, is the Natural
Natural Products Research
Research
Central Africa (NAPRECA), which was established in 1984 to promote
Network for Eastern and Central
the science of natural products in our sub-region.
sub-region. NAPRECA
NAPRECA set set out to achieve its goals not by
attempting
attempting to to build
build infrastructure
infrastructure ofof its
its own
own but
but instead
instead totowork
worktowards
towardsstrengthening
strengthening
capabilities through regional
capabilities regional and
and international
international cooperation.
cooperation. It called
called for
for sharing
sharing of
of existing
existing
facilities and resources in the sub-region.
facilities sub-region. This
This cooperation
cooperation was
was accelerated
accelerated through
through information
infonnation
dissemination
dissemination and exchange of of ideas,
ideas, effected
effected by means
means ofofpublications,
publications, workshops,
workshops, symposia,
symposia,
fellowship schemes.
exchange visits and fellowship schemes.

This paper
This paper is
is an attempt to briefly present the efforts
present the NAPRECA in
efforts of NAPRECA in the
the past
past 13
13 years
years in
promoting natural products research in the sub-region.

Historical Background
Background and
and Basic
Basic Objectives
The main
The main aim of of NAPRECA
NAPRECA as as articulated
articulated in its
its constitution
constitution is
is to
to "initiate,
"initiate, develop
develop and
and
promote research
promote research in
in the area
area of
of natural
natural products
products in thethe Eastern
Eastern and
and Central
Central African
African sub-
sub-
region." Dissemination
region." Dissemination of information pertaining to
infonnation pertaining to natural
natural products
products research
research isis one of
of the
the
major objectives
major objectives of NAPRECA.
NAPRECA. The The importance
importance of of establishing
establishing links with counterparts
counterparts in
other parts of the world was
was emphasised
emphasised right from the outset, as one of of the
the objectives
objectives ofof the
the
network is
network is to "foster
"foster and
and maintain
maintain links
links with
with such
such scientists
scientists who
who are
are actively
actively working
working in in
specific areas
specific areas of natural products that are pertinent to Africa."
Africa." The sections
sections that
that follow
follow will
will
attempt to
attempt to show
show to what
what extent
extent NAPRECA
NAPRECA has has been successful
successful inin putting
putting these
these aims
aims to
practice.
The activities of
of the network fall under five main categories of of::
It Dissemination of
Dissemination ofinformation
infonnation
• Exchange ofofResearchers Scheme
Scheme
• Summer Schools and Workshops
Natural Products Sumrner
 112
112

It Natural Products Symposium

It Post-graduate scholarship programme

Dissemination of Information
Much
Much emphasis was given
emphasis was given within
within the framework
framework of NAPRECA
NAPRECA to
to create
create aacondusive
condusive
atmosphere in
atmosphere in the region for
for the exchange and wider dissemination of research results in the
natural This has
field. This
natural products field. has been mademade possible
possible in part
part through
through publication
publication of the
the
Newsletter. The
NAPRECA Newsletter. The first issue
issue of
of the
the NAPRECA
NAPRECA Newsletter
Newsletter was published
published in
September 1984, immediately
September 1984, immediatelyafter
after founding
foundingNAPRECA
NAPRECAininJuly Julythe
thesame
sameyear.
year. One of
of the
objectives of the
objectives of the Newsletter is to
Newsletter is to disseminate infoimation on
disseminate information on progress
progress made
made in the natural
natural
products field
products field of relevance
relevance to
to Africa.
Africa. About
About 1000
1000 copies of
of each
each issue ofof the
the Newsletter
Newsletter are
published twice
published twice aa year
year and
and are
are distributed
distributed free
free of
of charge
charge to
to readers
readers inin various
various parts
parts of the
the
world.

The suggestions and criticisms ofof NAPRECA readership greatly contributed

contributed to
to sustaining
sustaining the
the
Newsletter for
Newsletter for 12
12 years
years (Vol.
(Vol. 11 to
to 12).
12). The
The new
new NAPRECA
NAPRECA Coordinating Office in Dar es
Coordinating Office es
Salaam under the leadership
leadership of
of the
the Executive
Executive Secretary,
Secretary, Prof
ProfM.H.H.
M.H.H. NIcunya
Nkunya is successfully
successfully
maintaining the momentum and has since published the subsequent issues of ofVol.
Vol. 13
13 and
and 14.
14.

A popular column in the the Newsletter,

Newsletter, "African
"African Plants in the Current
Current Phytochemical
Phytochemical Literature"
Literature"
lists
lists reports
reports on African
African plants
plants that
that appeared
appeared inin the
thethree
threeleading
leadingnatural
naturalproducts
productsjournals
journals
namely: Phytochemistry,
namely: Phytochemistry,Journal
Journalof of Natural
Natural Products
Products and Planta
Planta Medica.
Medica. The The reason
reason for
selecting these journals
selecting these journals lies
lies in
in the
the fact
fact that these
these are the leading
leading fora
fora for
for the
the publication
publication of
of
research results on the chemistry and biological activities of of plants and their products
products originating
originating
from many parts of
from many of the world
world including
including Africa.
Africa. The column serves
serves to alert
alert researchers
researchers to the
appearance in the literature ofof articles inin particular
particular on African plants
plants

Consequently, since a large body of information has has accumulated over thethe years we felt that it
should be treated systematically
systematically in a searchable format. For this reason the citations dealing
searchable format.
with African plants that appeared in these three journals in the period
period 1984-1994
1984-1994 were
were entered
entered
in aa computer
computer using
using the
the commercially
commercially available
available Bibliographic
Bibliographic Retrieval
Retrieval Program System
System
known as "Reference Manager"
Manager" developed by Research
Research Information
Information Systems
Systems Inc.,
Inc., USA.
USA. This
This
helped
helped usus build aa useful
useful database
database of
ofinterest
interest to
to phytochemists
phytochemists and
and other
other natural
natural products
products
researchers.

When the database had nearly 1000 entries, a NAPRECA Monograph Series No 8 (1995) was
published showing the
published showing the potential
potential of
of the
the information
information itit offered
offered then.
then. At
At the
the moment
moment there
there are
are
over 4000
4000 records in the database and plans are under way to raise this to 6000 by June 1998
6000 by June 1998
with
with support
support from
from the
the Network
Network ofofAnalytical
Analytical and
and Biological
Biological Services
Services (NABASA).
(NABASA). The The
database has enabled us to render limited literature search for scientists in the region, with the
database has
result sent by ordinary or electronic mail.

The Table
The Table below
below shows the current number of
shows the of papers available
available in the
the database
database on African
African
plants indicating the country of
of origin of
ofthe
the plants.
 113
Country Entries Country Entries Country Entries
Algeria 13 Ethiopia 213 Rwanda 29
Angola 7 Ivory Coast 34 Senegal 33
Benin 4 Kenya 153 Sierra Leone 9
Botswana 33 Lesotho 11 Somalia 24
Burkina Faso 33 Libya 88 South Africa 339
Burundi 2 Madagascar 95 Sudan 22
Cameroon 128 Malawi 30
30 Tanzania 56
Central Afr. Rep. 5 Mali 44 Togo 2
Chad 4 Mauritius 14
14 Tunisia 9
Congo 6 Morocco 36 Uganda 55
Gabon 15 Mozambique 66 Zaire 61
Ghana 68 Namibia 14 Zambia 6
Guinea 35 Niger 6 Zimbabwe 37
Egypt 325 Nigeria 233 Miscellaneous 1700

NAPRECA's effort for dissemination

NAPRECA's effort dissemination of information has also
information has also included
included the publication
publication of a
series of monographs
series monographs as
as shown
shown below.
below. Nine
Nine monographs
monographs have
have been
been published
published so
so far, the first
first
one of
of which came out in 1992 and the ninth on March 1996. A summary is presented below.

Monographs published by NAPRECA in 1992-96

No. 1: Z.
No.1: Z. Asfaw
Asfaw(ed)
(ed)1992.
1992. NAPRECA
NAPRECA YearYear Book:
Book: Eight
Eight Years
Years of
ofExistence
Existence and
and Four
Four Years
Years
of Intensive Activities, 16
ofIntensive 16 pp.
No.
No.2:2: S. Edwards and Z. Asfaw (eds) 1992. The Status of Some Plant Resources in Tropical
S. Edwards Tropical
Parts of
of Africa, 66 pp.
No. 3: N. Saleh (E.
No.3: (E. Dagne
Dagne andand W.
W. Mammo,
Mammo, eds)
eds) 1992.
1992. Flavonoids in the African Flora, 85 pp.
No. 4: M.H.H.
No.4: M.H.H. Nktuaya (B.M. Abegaz
Nkunya (B.M. Abegaz and
and W.
W. Mammo,
Mamrno, eds)
eds) 1992.
1992. Progress
Progress in the Search
Search for
for
Antimalarials, 36 pp.
No. 5: S.S. Edwards
No.5: Edwards and
and Z.Z. Asfaw
Asfaw (eds)
(eds) 1992.
1992. Plants
Plants used
used in Tropical
Tropical Medicine
Medicine as Practiced in
Ethiopia and Uganda, 35 pp.
No. 6: NAPRECA
No.6: NAPRECA 1993 1993 Report, 1414 pp.
No. 7: Proceedings of
No.7: of the
the DAAD-NAPRECA
DAAD-NAPRECA Follow-up
Follow-up Conference, Addis
Addis Ababa,
Ababa, Nov.
Nov. 5-9,
5-9,
1993,65
1993, 65 pp
No. 8: African
No.8: African Plants
Plants in
in the
the Current
Current Phytochemical
Phytochemical Literature: List of
of Papers in Three Leading
PhytochemicalJournals, 1996, 103
Phytochemical Journals, 1996, 103 pp.
No. 9: Remigius
No.9: Remigius Bukenya-Ziraba
Bukenya-Ziraba (1996).
(1996). The
The Non-cultivated edible plants of
of Uganda. 60 pp.

Exchange of
Exchange of Researchers'
Researchers' Scheme
Under the Exchange Scheme, a selected fellow fellow is granted the opportunity to spend a month
granted the month oror
two in aa laboratory
two laboratory within the
the sub-region.
sub-region. OneOne consequence
consequence of exchange programs
programs is that
that itit
encourages African
encourages African researchers
researcherstoto cooperate
cooperatewith
with each
eachother.
other.ItIt also
also helps
helps to
to create an active
active
research environment.
environment. The
The outcome
outcome of of these
these efforts
efforts can
can be
be gauged
gauged by by the
the increasing
increasing number
number ofof
publications that
pUblications that are
are coming out with African researchers
researchers from
from different universities appearing
as authors
as authors of scientific
scientific papers.
papers. The
The list below
below comprises some of
comprises some of the
the publications
publications of
of our
our
research group
research group that
that resulted
resulted from
from the
the above mentioned
mentioned exchange
exchange programmes
programmes with the country
of the exchange fellow indicated in parenthesis.

Dagne, E.,
Dagne, E., Marnmo,
Mammo, W.,W., Bekele,
Bekele, A.,
A., Odyek
Odyek , O.
O. (Uganda), and
and Byaruhanga,
Byaruhanga, M.A.
M.A. Flavonoids
Flavonoids
of Millettia dura. Bull
of Bull Chem
Chern Soc Ethiop, 5: (2).
(2). 81-86(1991).
81-86(1991).
 114

Dape, E.,
Dagne, E.,Yenesew,
Yenesew, A.,
A.,Asmellash, S., Demisseew,
Asmellash, S., S. and
Demisseew, S. and Mavi,
Mavi, S.
S. (Zimbabawe),
(Zimbabawe),
Anthraquinones, pre-anthraquinones and isoeleutherol III
in the roots of Aloe
Aloe species,
Phytochemistry 35,
Phytochemistry 401-406 (1994).
35,401-406 (1994).

Midiwo, J.O.
Midiwo, Owino, N.O.
J.O. ,, Owino, N.O. (Kenya)
(Kenya) and
and Dagne,
Dagne, E.
E. (1994).
(1994). Flavonoids
Flavonoids ofofPolygonum
Polygonurn
senegalense
senegalense part III:
III: Isolation
Isolation of
ofdihydrochalcone
dihydrochalcone glucoside
glucoside and
and quercetin
quercetin glycosides.
glycosides. Bull.
Bull.
Chem. Soc.
Chern. Soc. Ethiop., 8, 79-84.

Mirghani, M.E.S. (Sudan),

Mirghani, M.E.S. (Sudan), I.H.
LH. Hussein
Hussein,, E.
E. Dag,ne
Dagne and T. Bekele, A comparative
comparative study
study of
seedoils of Chrozophora brochiana and Guizotia abyssinica, Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop., 10, 161-
seedoils ofChrozophora brochiana and Guizotia abyssinica, Bull. Chern. Soc. Ethiop.,
164 (1996).

Muchori,
Muchori, P. (Kenya),
(Kenya), Manguro,
Manguro, L.,
L., Chikamai,
Chikamai, B.,
B., Dag,ne,
Dagne, E. and Bekele,
Bekele, T. (1997).
(1997). Essential
Essential
oils of five Eucalyptus species grown
offive grown inin Kenya,.
Kenya,. Sinet:
Sinet: Ethiop.
Ethiop. J.
J. Sci.,
Sci., 20,
20, 139-143.
139-143.

Nkengfack, A. E. (Cameroon),
Nkengfack, A. Kouam, J.J. ,, Vouffo,
(Cameroon), Kouam, W. T. Fomum, Z. T., Dagne, E.,
Vouffo, W. E., Sterner,
Sterner,
0., Browne,
O., Browne, L. M.and
M.and Ji,
Ji, G.
G. Further
Furtherflavonoids
flavonoids from
from Erythrina
Erythrina species,
species, Phytochemistry,
Phytochemistry, 32,
32,
1305-11
1305-11 (1993).

Noamesi, B.K. (Ghana), Bogale,

Noamesi, B.K. Bogale, M.M. and
and Dagne,
Dagne, E.
E.Intestinal
Intestinalsmooth
smoothmuscle
musclespasmolytic
spasmolytic
actions
actions of the aqueous extract
extract of the roots
roots of
of Taverniera
Taverniera abyssinica,
abyssinica, J.
J Ethnopharmacol.
Ethnopharmacol. 30,
30,
107-113 (1990).

Van Wyk,
Wyk, B.E.,
B.E., (South
(SouthAfrica),
Africa),Yenesew,
Yenesew,A.
A.and
andDagne,
Dagne,E.
E. (1995)
(1995) Chemotaxonomic
Chemotaxonomic survey
survey
of
of anthraquinones
anthraquinones and pre-anthraquinones
pre-anthraquinones in roots
roots of
ofAloe
Aloe species.
species. Biochem.
Biochem. Syst.
Syst. Ecol.
Ecol. 23,
23,
267-275.

Yankep, E. (Cameroon),
Yankep, E. (Cameroon), Fomum, Z.T. Z.T. and
and Dagne,
Dape, E.
E. (1997).
(1997). An 0-geranylated
O-geranylated
isoflavone from Millettia grijfoniana,
griffoniana, Phytochemistry, 46, 591-593.
591-593.

Natural
Natural Products
Products Summer
SummerSchools
Schools and Workshops
A regular activity of NAPRECA is the organisation
ofNAPRECA organisation of
of Natural Products Summer Schools. The
main
main aim
aim of
of the
the Summer
Summer School
School is
is to
to enhance
enhance the
the research
research capabilities
capabilities of
of participants,
participants, in
particular in chromatographic, spectroscopic, and bioassay techniques. Seven such programmes
have been organised
have organised so far.
far. Research
Research scientists
scientists and
and technical
technical assistants
assistants working for various
various
institutions in
institutions in the
the region
region have used thethe opportunity
opportunity to improve
improve upon
upon their
their laboratory
laboratory skills.
skills.
Usually about 12 participants take part in the Summer School,
School, half of which come
come from outside
the country where the programrne
programme takes place.
Likewise workshops
Likewise workshops areare organised from
from time to time toto upgrade
upgrade skills
skills of
ofresearchers.
researchers. Among
Among
the successful workshops mention could be made of:

@ IFS-NAPRECA Workshop on on NMR

NMR techniques
techniques (Addis
(Addis Ababa,
Ababa, Dec.
Dec. 1991)
1991)
@ Workshop on bioassay methods
methods (Antananarivo,
(Antananarivo, Sept. 1993)
• Workshop on herbarium techniques (Addis
(Addis Ababa,
Ababa, April
April B
B June
June 1993)
1993)
• Training program on glass blowing
blowing techniques
techniques (Makerere,
(Makerere, Jan.
Jan. 1995)
1995)

Natural Products
Products Symposia
Symposia
As the NAPRECA concept got off off the ground
ground inin an
an IUPAC Symposium
Symposium on Natural Products, it
is only natural for
for the
the network
network to
to pay
pay special
special attention
attention to
to organising
organising similar
similar conferences
conferences in
in
 115
Africa.
Africa. So far seven natural products symposia have
have been organised
organised in five member countries.
The first symposium was indeed a modest
modest one,
one, convened
convened immediately
immediately after
after the
the first
first meeting
meeting of
of
the NAPRECA
NAPRECA Coordinating Board in
Coordinating Board in March
March 1988.
1988. No
No book of of abstracts
abstracts came
came out ofof that
that
event,
event, the
the second
second was
was held
held quickly
quickly thereafter
thereafter in
in Nairobi
Nairobi ininSeptember
September 1988.
1988. Sixteen
Sixteen
outside Kenya
participants came from outside to this
Kenya to this symposium.
symposium.

The third
third symposium
symposium was was held
held in Arusha, Tanzania, in
Arusha, Tanzania, in May
May 1989
1989 followed
followed by thethe fourth
symposium
symposium in in Addis
Addis Ababa,
Ababa, in December 1991.
1991. The increased number of papers required for
increased number
the first
first time,
time, the
the holding
holding of
ofparallel
parallel sessions.
sessions. The
The fifth
fifth symposium
symposium held
held ininAntananarivo,
Antananarivo,
Madagascar, in
Madagascar, in September
September 1993, enabled a large number of
1993, enabled of researchers from
from South
South Africa
Africa to
to
participate
participate inin a NAPRECA activity for the first time. The sixth symposium
activity for symposium that
that took
took place
place in
in
Kampala, Uganda,
Kampala, Uganda, inin September
September 1995
1995 attracted
attracted about
about 80
80 participants
participants who came from various
countries in Africa,
Africa, Europe and North
North America.
America. Three
Three pre-symposium
pre-symposium short courses on Nuclear
Magnetic
Mag,neticResonance
Resonance (NMR),
(NMR), Mass
Mass Spectrometry,
Spectrometry, and
and Organic
Organic Synthesis were held at the same
same
venue. i h NAPRECA
venue. The 7th NAPRECA Symposium
Symposiumwas
was successfully
successfullyorganised
organisedinin August
August 1997
1997 in Dar es
Salaam by the new Coordinating Office ofthe
of the Network based in Tanzania.

Post Graduate Scholarship Programme

In the
the DAAD-NAPRECA
DAAD-NAPRECA scholarship
scholarship programme
programme NAPRECA
NAPRECA is responsible
responsible for
for selecting
selecting
candidates, who
candidates, who must
must enroll
enroll in aa post-graduate
post-graduate programme
programme in in a university outside
outside their
their own
own
country. DAAD scholarships
country. DAAD scholarships cover
cover tuition,
tuition, research
research costs,
costs, and
and subsistence
subsistence allowances
allowances of the
fellows
fellows in universities
universities in the sub-region.
sub-region. The first
first beneficiaries
beneficiaries were two
two Ethiopians
Ethiopians who,
who, in
in
September 1988, joined
September 1988, joined the MSc programme of of the University
University of
of Nairobi
Nairobi and
and three
threeKenyans
Kenyans
who came to to Addis Ababa to join postgraduate programmes in
postgraduate programmes in biology
biology and
and chemistry.
chemistry. Since
Since
then nearly 50 post graduate students have benefited from the scheme.

It may
may be
be fitting
fitting to
to conclude
conclude this
this brief
briefpresentation
presentation by stating
stating that
that NAPRECA
NAPRECA has has helped
helped
natural products researchers inin the
the region to get
region to get to
to lcnow
know each other and assist
assist one
one another.
another.

Reference
Dagne, E. 1996.
Dagne, E. 1996. NAPRECA
NAPRECA and its Role
Role in
in the
the Dissemination
Dissemination of
ofInformation
Information in
in Africa.
Africa. In:
In:
Bridge
Bridge Builders,
Builders, African
African Experiences
Experiences with
with Information
Information and
andCommunication
Communication Technology.
Technology.
National Academy Press, Washington
Washington D.C.
D.C. p.
p. 217-231.
217-231.
 FAO LIBRARY AN: 382777 116

GARA
GA AND ITS INITIATIVES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT
AND
D RESINS IN KENYA
GUMS AND

A. K. HASSAN and V.
HASSAN and A. ODIPO,
V. A. ODIPO,
AfriGums,
P. 0.
O. Box
Box 71968,
71968, Nairobi,
Nairobi, Kenya.

Abstract
Gum Arabic
Gum Arabic and Resins
Resins Association (GARA) was
Association (GARA) was fOlmded
founded out out of thethe desire
desire by
byvarious
various
stakeholders
stalceholderstoto have
have aa coordinating
coordinating body/organisation
body/organisation with with the
the responsibility
responsibility ofof promoting and
developing gum
developing gum arabic
arabic and
and resins
resins in Kenya.
Kenya. The overall
overall aim
aim isis to
to improve
improve production
production and
and
the product. This is expected to
quality of the to result
result in increased income
income to to rural
rural cornmunities
communities where
where
the resources are found while meeting the specifications
specifications for
for international
international trade.
trade. GARA is aa non-
non-
profit making organisation with membership that includes gum/resin gumlresin farmers, traders/merchants,
government and
government and non-govemmental
non-governmental organisations,
organisations, development agencies, manufacturing
industry; exporters
industry; exporters and importers.
importers. It is is already
already registered
registered and
and hashas technical
technical and
and financial
financial
assistance respectively. It has embarked on
assistance from research institutions and development agencies respectively.
a programme
programme of of enlightening
enlightening the communities
cornmunities and traderstraders inin sound
soundproduction
production practices.
practices.
However, being
However, being atat an infant
infant stage
stage itit requires
requires more
more support.
support. ThisThis brief paper presents
presents the
the
aspirations and initiatives of the association.
ofthe association.

Introduction
Gum
Gum Arabic
Arabic and Resins
Resins Association
Association (GARA)
(GARA) is is aa non-profit
non-profit making
making organisation with the
organisation with
responsibility of promoting and developing gum arabic and resins Kenya.
responsibility of promoting and developing gum arabic and resins in Kenya. It brings together
members from
members from varied
varied fields,
fields, including
including farmers/collectors,
farmers/collectors, traders,
traders, government
government and non- non-
governmental organisations, exporters
governmental organisations, exporters and
and importers
importers who
who have a common
cornmon interest
interest to
to improve
improve
the production and quality
quality of
of locally
locally produced
produced g,um
gum arabic and resins (myrrh and frankincense)
frankincense)
for the domestic and
and export
export markets.
markets.

GARA'ss Activities
Activities and
and Organisation
Since its formation
Since its formation over a year
year ago,
ago, GARA
GARA has has been
been atatthe
thefore
forefront
frontofofhighlighting
highlighting critical
critical
issues affecting the g,um and resin
gum and resin industry
industry in
in the
the country.
country. ItIt operates
operates in
in the
the form
form of
ofconsultative
consultative
meetings where
meetings where pertinent
pertinent issues
issues are
are discussed.
discussed. During the early meetings, two workshops were
workshops were
organised to
organised to identifY
identify and prioritise
prioritise problems
problems affecting
affectingproduction
productionand andmarketing.
marketing. The outcome
of
of the workshops
workshops were:
were:
CD Formation of
Formation of a data base of
of major stakeholders in gum and resin industry
CD F ormation
Formation ofof GARA
CD Development
Development of a plan of of GARA's activities.
activities. Based
Based on
on this,
this, two
twogroups
groups (sub-
(sub-
cornmittees) research and
committees) namely research and extension
extension were
were established.
established.

The research
The research group
group attempts
attempts toto answer
answer questions
questions from
from collectors,
collectors, traders,
traders, exporters
exporters and
and
importers concerning the new sources of of gum and resin species,
species, potential quantities, appropriate
harvesting times, storage and quality
harvesting times, quality through
through generation
generation of
of data.
data. The
The infoimation
information generated
generated is
is
packages by
made into user-friendly packages by the
the extension
extension group
group and
and relayed
relayed to
to the
the relevant
relevant stakeholder
stakeholder
group such as collectors,
collectors. For example, a simple field manual is being elaborated by the extension
group from information
inforniation generated by the research group.

One of the significant

significant achievements
achievements made by the organisation
organisation is removing
removing suspicion between
collectors and
collectors and traders/merchants.
traders/merchants. This has been done by explaining
explaining the trend
trend in market prices
 117
this affects
and how this affects purchase
purchase price
price at
at farmer/collector
farmer/collector level
level and reasons that
that lead
lead to to low
low prices
prices
or rejection
rejection of
ofgum
gumfrom
fromfarmers/collectors.
farmers/collectors. Building confidence between
Building confidence between thethe two two groups
groups
eliminates cheating
cheating and
and leads
leads to
to willingness
willingness to accept
accept introduction
introduction ofofnew
new ideas
ideas atat the
thegrassroots
grassroots
without resentment. The Theorganisation
organisation has
has also
also established continuous purchase programme of
established a continuous
gums
gums and resins
resins through
through its members.
members. In this way,way, itit will
will be
besolving
solvingproblems
problems facing facing the
the
industry,
industry, in promoting better management
promoting better managementand and handling
handlingof ofthe
the product
product soso as
as to meet export
quality requirements. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,GARA GARAisisworking
workingononaapolicy
policy framework
framework forfor adoption
adoption by by the
the
government which
which will
will create
create an
an enabling
enabling environment
environmentsupportive
supportive of the industry.
of the industry.

GARA is still aa young

young organisation
organisation very much dependent
dependent on the goodwill
goodwill of
of her
her members
members forfor
operation. It has toto date
date received
received facilitational
facilitational support
support from Integration
Integration of
of Tree
Tree Crops
Crops into
into
technical input from the Kenya Forestry
Farming Systems Project (ITFSP), technical Forestry Research
Research Institute
Institute
(KEFRI) and some financial
financial assistance
assistance from Mennonite Central others. To
Central Committee among others. To
make
make it self-sustaining and more
self-sustaining and more focused,
focused, aa project has been
project has been drawn
drawn up
up to
to elaborate
elaborate the
the
organisation's operational mechanisms. It is hoped that a strong self-sustaining GARA will result
in a viable gum and resin industry
industry in the country.
 118

HERSI, Ali (Mr.)

PARTIII:
PART III: LIST
LIST OF SALTLICK,
PARTICIPANTS P.O. Box 301, lsiolo,
Isiolo, KENYA
Tel: 254 165 2350
1652350
Fax: 254 165
165 2414
1.0
1.0 RESOURCE
RESOURCE PERSONS/
PARTICIPANTS HOLMES, Ivans (Mr.)
AGRILAB, Tylas,
Tylas, Rievaulx,
Rievaulx, York,
York,
BARROW, Edmund (Mr.)
BARROW, North Yorkshire Y06 5LH,
5LH,
African Wildlife Foundation, UNITED KINGDOM
P.O. Box 48177, Nairobi, KENYA
P.O. Tel: 1439798308
Tel: 1439 798308
Tel: 254 2 710367 Fax: 1439 798308
1439798308
Fax: 2542
Fax: 254 2 710372
Email: [email protected] KARAMALLAH, A. K. (Prof.)
of Khartoum,
University of
CASADEI, Enrico (Dr.) SUDAN
P.O. Box 857, Khartoum, SUDAN
F AO - Food & Nutrition Div.,
FAO 11 774852
Fax: 249 11
Via Terme di Caracallo, 00 100
100 Rome,
ITALY KATZ, Ester (Dr.)
396 570 54794
Tel: 39657054794 CIFOR, P.O.Box 6596,
Email: [email protected] JKPWB, Jarkarta 10065, INDONESIA
62251
Tel: 62 251 622622
CHIKAMAI, Ben (Dr.)(Dr.) Fax: 62 251 622 100
62251 100
Kenya Forestry Research Insti.(KEFRI) Email: e.katz@cg,net.com
[email protected]
P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi, KENYA
Tel: 254 2761063/761246/764726
2 761063 / 761246 / 764726 KIGAME, Rosemary (Mrs)
Fax: 254 2 760034 I GAD ,
IGAD,
Email: [email protected] of Environment
Ministry of Environment and
and Natural
Resources,
DAGNE, Ermais
DAGNE, Ermais (Dr.)
(Dr.) P.O.Box 30126, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA -
Addis Ababa University, Tel: 254 2 229261
2542229261
Dept. of
of Chemistry,
P.O.Box 30270, Addis Ababa, LADIPO, David (Dr.)
ETHIOPIA CENRAD, 5 Akinola Maja Avenue,
Tel: 251
251 1 114854
1148541/ 126276
126276 P.M.B. 5052,
5052, Jericho,
Jericho, Ibadan,
Ibadan,
Fax: 251
251 1 551244 NIGERIA.
Email: [email protected] Tel: 234 2 241 2694
2342241
Fax: 234 2 241 3839
GACHATHI, Norman (Mr.) Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
Kenya Forestry Research Insti.
lnsti. (KEFRI),
P.O. Box 20412, Nairobi, KENYA
P.O. MAKONDA, F.B.S. (Mr.)
Tel: 254 154
15432891
32891 /32892 /32893
132892/32893 Sokoine University - Wood Utilisation Dept.,
Fax: 254 154
15432844
32844 P.O. Box 3014, Morogoro, TANZANIA.
Email: [email protected] Tel: 255 56 3694 / 4648:
3694/4648:
Fax: 255 56 4648
HASSAN, A. A. (Mr.) E-mail: [email protected]
AFRIGUMS,
AFRI GUMS,
P.O. Box 71968, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA MHINZI, Gaspar
Gaspar (Dr.)
Tel: 2542
254 2 725931 University of
of Dar-es-Salaam,
Chemistry Department,
 119
P.O.Box 35061, Dar-es-Salaam, P. O.
0. Box
Box 53547,
53547, Nairobi, KENYA
TANZANIA Tel: 254 2 227496 /227627
2542227496/227627
Tel: 255 51
Tel: 51 43038 Fax: 254 2 227982
255 51 43038
Fax: 25551
Email:
Email: [email protected] ALI, Ahmed (Mr.)
Arid Lands Project
MULLER, Didier (Mr.) P. 0.
O. Box
Box 53547,
53547, Nairobi, KENYA
Applications Techniques Forestieres Tel: 254 2 227496 /227627
2542227496/227627
1,
1, Rue
Rue des
des gentes, 33980, Audege, Fax: 254 2 227982
FRANCE
Tel: 33 1 56268415
56 26 8415 ANGWENYI, Joe (Mr.)
Fax:
Fax: 33
33 1 56 26 8584 KAKUZI Ltd.,
P.O.
P.O. Box 24, Thika, KENYA
NG'ETHE, Robinson (Mr.) Tel: 254 151
Tel: 151 64620
Applied Research Unit - Laikipia Fax: 254 151 64240
P.O. Box 144, Nanyuki,
Nanyuki, KENYA
Tel: 254 176 22574 / 32527 /131854
17622574/32527 31854 BII, William (Mr)
176 22201
Fax: 254 176 Kenya Forestry Research Institute, KEFRI
P.O.Box468
P.O.Box 468
NOUR,
NOUR, Hassan Abdel (Prof.) Lodwar,
Lodwar, KENYA
Minister of and Forestry,
of State, Agriculture and Forestry,
P.O. Box 285, Khartoum, SUDAN
SUDAN CURRY, Particia
Particia (Ms.)
(Ms.)
Tel: 249 11
11 780359 SALTLICK,
Fax: 249 11 770586: P.O. Box 301, Isiolo, KENYA
P.O.
Tel: 254 165
Tel: 2350
1652350
OCHIENG, George (Mr.) Fax: 254 165 2414
Deputy Chief Conservator of
Chief Conservator of Forests, Nationality
Nationality:: British
Forest Department,
Forest D ep artment ,
P.O.Box 305l3,
P.O.Box 30513, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER,
OFFICER, Isiolo,
Isiolo,
Tel: 2542
Tel: 254 2 764288 1/ 764249 NJOKA, S. N. (Mr.)
P.O. Box
P.O. Box 141,
141, Isiolo,
Isiolo, KENYA
KENYA
OSMAN, M.E.
OSMAN, M.E. (Dr.)
The Gum
Gum Arabic Company DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER,
OFFICER, Kwale,
Kwale,
P.O. Box 857, Khartoum, SUDAN
SUDAN NJUGUNA, F. N.N. (Mr.)
P.O. Box 5, Kwale,
P.O. Kwale, KENYA
PHILLIPS, G.O. (Prof.)
New Tech Innovation Centre DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER, Turkana,
Wrexham, Clywdd LLl3
Wrexham, LL13 7YP, UK KARUIKI, F.
KARUIKI, F. K.
K. (Mr.)
Tel: 44 1222 843298 P.O. Box
P.O. Box 39,Lodwar,
39,Lodwar, KENYA
KENYA
Fax: 44 1222 843298
Fax:
ELOKAOKICH, Paul (Mr.)
WASON, Rajiv
WASON, Rajiv (Mr.) Minstry of Natural Resources - Forest Dept.,
Rosin Kenya Ltd P.O.
P.O. Box 7124, Kampala,
Kampala, UGANDA
Nakuru, KENYA
P.O.Box 3126, Nakuru, Tel: 256 41
Tel: 41 251917
Tel: 2543743939/212387
254 37 43939 / 212387 Fax: 25641
Fax: 256 41 251918
EYAPAN, James (Mr)
EYAPAN, James
2.0
2.0 PARTICIPANTS
PARTICIPANTS Arid Lands Project
P. O.
0. Box
Box 53547,
53547, Nairobi, KENYA
ADAN,
ADÁN, Bika
Bika (Dr.) Tel: 254 2 227496 /227627
2542227496/227627
Arid Lands Project Fax: 254 2 227982
 120
MWASARU, P. (Mr.)
FARAH, Ahmed (Mr) AFRI GUMS,
AFRIGUMS,
Arid Lands Project Nairobi, KENYA
P.O. Box 71968, Nairobi,
P. 0.
O. Box
Box 53547,
53547, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA Tel: 254
25422 725931
2542227496/227627
Tel: 254 2 227496 /227627
Fax: 254 2 227982 ODIPO, V. (Mr.)
G.A.R.A.
HALAKHE, M. M. (Mr.)
(Mr.) P.O.Box 50803
Arid Lands Project Nairobi, KENYA
P. 0.
O. Box
Box 53547,
53547, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA
2542227496/227627
Tel: 254 2 227496 /227627 ONDACHI, P. (Mrs.)
Fax: 254 2 227982 Kenya Forestry Research Institute
P.O.Box 20412, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA
KARIUKI, A. A. (Mr.) Tel: 254 154 32891 132892/32893
15432891 / 32892 /32893
Applied Research Unit - Laikipia Fax: 254 154 32844
15432844
P.O. Box 144, Nanyuki, KENYA
Tel: 254 176 22574 / 32527 / 31854
Tel:25417622574/32527/31854 MUNG'ALA,
MUNG' ALA, P. (Mr.)
Fax: 254 176 22201
17622201 National Council of
of Science and
and Technology
Technology
P.O. Box 30623,
30623, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA.
KONUCHE, Paul (Dr.) 2542221918/221516
Tel: 254 2 221918 / 221516
Director
Kenya Forestry Research Institute MWANGI,
MWANGI, Joe (Prof.)
Nairobi, KENYA
P.O.Box 20412, Nairobi, KENYA Moi University - Wood Sc. & Tech. Dept.
15432891/32892/32893
Tel: 254 154 32891 / 32892 /32893 P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret,
Eldoret, KENYA
Fax: 254 154 32844
15432844 Tel: 254 321 63105
254321 / 63197
63105/63197
Fax: 254 321 63257
LELEI,
LELEI, V.
V. K.
K. (Mr.)
(Mr.)
Arid Lands Resource Management
Management Project,
Proj ect, NGIMOR, Daniel (Mr.)
P.O.Box 53547, Nairobi, KENYA Arid Lands Project
Tel: 254 2 227627 / 227496
2542227627/227496 P. 0.
O. Box
Box 53547,
53547, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA
254 2 227496 /227627
Tel: 2542227496/227627
LEMPUSHUNA, Mungoni (Mr) Fax: 254
25422 227982
227982
Arid Lands Project
P. 0.
O. Box
Box 53547,
53547, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA NJENGA, Hellen (Dr.)
Tel: 254 2 227496 /227627
2542227496/227627 University of
of Nairobi - Chemistry
Chemistry Dept.
Dept.
Fax: 254 2 227982 P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, KENYA
Tel: 254
25422 745055
745055
MILIMO, P. (Dr.)
African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS) NOVARLY,
NOVARLY, John (Mr.)
Nairobi, KENYA
P.O.Box 45917, Nairobi, School of
of Forestry, University of
of Canterbury
Canterbury
Tel: 254 2 565173 1/ 569986 Private Bag 4800, Christ Church,
Church,
Fax: 254 2 57300 NEWZEALAND
Tel: 64 3 3482727
Fax: 64 3 3432148
6433432148
MURRER, Erik E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
Monosato Company
307 West Burbank Street ODERA J. (Dr.)
Harvard, IL 60033 National Museums of
of Kenya
United States of
of America P.O.Box 40658, Nairobi, KENYA
2542742161/751319
Tel: 254 2 742161 / 751319
 121
2542751319/741424
Fax: 254 2 751319 / 741424 NDEGWA,
NDEGWA, Nellie
Nellie (Ms.)
(Ms.)
Kenya Forestry
Forestry Research
Research Institute
Institute (KEFRI),
(KEFRI),
OPONDO, C. (Mr.) P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi, KENYA
Applied Research Unit
Unit -- Laikipia,
Laikipia, 2542761063/761246/764726
Tel: 254 2 761063 / 761246 / 764726
144, Nanyuki, KENYA
P.O. Box 144, KENYA Fax: 254 2 760034
2542760034
Tel: 254 176
Tel: 17622574/32527
22574 / 32527 / 31854 Email: [email protected]
17622201
Fax: 254 176 22201
MBIRU, Sheila
Sheila (Mrs.)
OSMAN, Abdisemet
OSMAN, Abdisemet (Mr.) Forestry Research
Kenya Forestry Research Institute
Institute (KEFRI),
(KEFRI),
Project
Arid Lands Project P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi, KENYA
P. 0.
O. Box
Box 53547,
53547, Nairobi, KENYA 2542
Tel: 254 761063 //761246/764726
2 761063 761246 / 764726
Tel: 2542227496/227627
Tel: 254 2 227496 /227627 Fax: 254 2 760034
760034
Fax: 254 2 227982 Email: [email protected]

SHAH, Kamel (Mr.) NJAGI, T.

T. K.
K. (Mr.)
Mr.)
Twiga Chemicals Laision Co-ordinator
Co-ordinator FD / KEFRI
30712, Nairobi,
P.O.Box 30712, Nairobi, KENYA
KENYA Forest Department
Tel: 254338333
Tel: 254 338333 /338334 P.O.Box 30513, Nairobi, KENYA
254 2 223167
Fax: 2542223167 Tel: 2542764288/764249
254 2 764288 / 764249

WATA, Issoufou (Mr.) TEMU, August (Prof.)

Direction des Etudes, de la ICRAF,
Programmation et P.O.Box 30677, Nairobi, KENYA
l'Intergration
l'Intergration regional
regional au
au Ministere 2542521450
Tel: 254 2 521450
de l'Hydraulique
I'Hydraulique et
et de
de l'environi-nent
l'environment Fax: 254 2 521001
2542521001
Naimey, NIGER
B.P. 10252, Naimey, NIGER Email: [email protected]

WATAI, K. (Mr.)
Kenya Forestry Research Institute
P.O.Box 20412, Nairobi,
Nairobi, KENYA
Tel: 254 154
15432891
32891 //32892/32893
32892 /32893
Fax: 254 154 32844
15432844

WAWERU,
W A WERU, S (Mr.)
Kenya Forestry College,
P.O. Box 8, Londiani, KENYA
Tel: 254 362 64043

3.0 SECRETARIAT

CHIKAMAI, Ben (Dr.)

Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI),
P.O. Box 30241, Nairobi,
P.O. Nairobi, KENYA
Tel: 254
2542761063/761246/764726
2 761063 / 761246 / 764726
2542760034
Fax: 254 2 760034
Email: [email protected]
DIX0098E/200
D/X0098E/200