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There are different components and hardware devices that participate and create a computer
network. Each one has a key role to play and functions on a different layer of the OSI model.
Scroll below for a list of the various types of networking devices.

A computer network is not made up of one machine or even one type of machine. It is a
carefully designed system of different hardware components (networking devices) working in
tandem with various rules and communication protocols. From the network scenario in a
household, to a medium scale network in a school or mall to a large, border-crossing network of
a corporation or service, a computer network is made up of various hardware parts, some
standard and some rare and more complex. So, what are the different types of network
hardware? Read on for a listing of such devices and a brief explanation of each.

Types of Network Hardware

Cables & Wires

Everything may be turning wireless nowadays but at least 2-3 wired connections have to exist
somewhere in a computer network. Connecting a desktop to a router or the router to the
modem, such connections are always wired and the common cable type used is CAT5 RJ-45.
Wiring is typically thought of as being a Layer 1 (physical layer) device as raw data or signals are
transferred from one end to the other.

NIC

Network interface cards is easily one of the most important components of a computer
network. It is a hardware part that allows the computer to be identified amongst others in a
network and allows the computer to connect to a network. It works in the physical and data link
layer of the OSI model. This card provides the circuitry required to implement a networking
standard. The most common NIC form used is Ethernet. Recent computers, both desktops and
laptops have their NIC built on the motherboard, earlier computers needed an internal or
external NIC to be added. Laptops with built-in Wi-Fi have wired and wireless NIC capability, but
most desktops have only wired connection capabilities and will require a wireless adapter to
connect wirelessly.

Hubs

Connecting more than one computer to a higher layer networking device like a router can be
difficult, if you do not have a hub. A hub collects various devices through a wired connection
and groups them into a segment. So, the network recognizes all devices connected to the hub,
as one segment. Typical hubs allow Ethernet wired connections and have at least 4-5 ports on
them and can have 8, 12 or even more ports. They are very simple devices, they do not manage
or filter or function in any other manner, other than to act as a collection point. They operate in
the physical layer of the OSI model.

Modems

A modem acts as a sort of converter or translator. It allows digital data or information to be

transmitted over traditionally analog lines of transmission such as a telephone line. The word
“modem” is a mix of two transmission terms, “modulate” and “demodulate”, which are the two
main operations performed. The digital signal from a computer is converted into analog form,
sent over the analog medium and then decoded back into its digital form at the receiving end.

Routers

Routers can be thought of as the mailroom of a network. They receive incoming data packets,
decipher their addressing information (where did they come from, where do they have to go)
and send them accordingly. Routers are essentially used for traffic management. They function
in Layer 3 (network layer) of the OSI model. Routers are much smarter than hubs, they can
implement security protocols, assign IP addresses, both static and dynamic and can function in
both the wired and wireless transmission band. There are different router types based on their
area of use, such as home or small-use routers to enterprise routers, which are used for
complex routing functions in large corporations.

Gateways

A gateway acts as the meeting point or go between point between 2 different networks, using
different protocols. e.g. Network A uses one protocol, Network B uses another. A computer
from A wants to communicate with a machine from B but due to the difference in protocols, it
does not know how to communicate. It can adopt or add B’s protocol but this is a tasking
process and is not really efficient. Instead, a gateway will translate the request from the
computer in A’s network, into B’s language and then translate the reply from B’s language into
A’s. So, the 2 machines can communicate without any change in protocol. Gateways function in
all layers of the OSI model, since they perform conversion or translation functions.

Wireless Access Points

An access point acts as a middle station for a network and helps in adding more users to it. They
are connected to the network but act as a transmitter and receiver for the network signals, so
other devices can connect to the access point and in turn will be connected to the main
network. The best example for an access point scenario is a large house, where the router is
located in the basement. So, the ground floor can receive the wireless signal but the first floor
cannot, due to the network’s limited range. An access point connected on the ground floor will
receive the router’s wireless signal and emit it to reach the first floor, enabling users on that
floor to access the original network.
With advances in technology, the features and specifications of such devices may change or the
device itself may become obsolete. But for now, this collection of network hardware remains
constant; and at least one or two of the above devices can be found in any computer network.

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Types of Network Topologies

A network topology describes the configuration of a communication network and the physical
and logical arrangement of the nodes that form it. Here is a description of the different types of
network topologies and their use.

The way in which the elements of a network are mapped or arranged is known as a network
topology. It describes the physical and logical interconnection between the different nodes of a
network and defines the way in which they communicate with each other. Network topologies
are classified as physical, logical, and signal.

A physical topology describes the placement of network nodes and the physical connections
between them. This includes the arrangement and location of network nodes and the way in
which they are connected.

A logical topology describes the paths taken by data packets as they travel over the network.
The logical topology of a network is governed by the protocols used by the data moving over it.
A signal topology describes the paths that signals take while they traverse the network. It
pertains to the actual connections established by the signals that travel over the network. The
terms signal topology and logical topology are closely related and used interchangeably.

Based on the arrangement of nodes in a network, topologies can be classified as bus, ring,
mesh, star, and tree. In these topologies, the network terminals are arranged in a manner
suggested by their names. Another type of network topology is hybrid, which uses a
combination of two or more topologies.

A point-to-point topology is the most basic way of connecting two terminals. As the name
suggests, it is a dedicated permanent link between two network nodes.

In daisy-chaining, multiple nodes are connected with the help of point-to-point connections
between consecutive nodes, thus forming a chain. It refers to the linking of a series of devices,
which is done linearly or in the form of a ring.

Bus Topology
In this type, all the nodes of a network are connected to a common transmission medium
having two endpoints. The data that travels over the network is transmitted through a common
transmission medium known as the bus or backbone of the network.

Linear Bus Topology

When the transmission medium has exactly two endpoints, the network topology is known by
the name linear bus topology.
Distributed Bus Topology

In case the transmission medium has more than two endpoints, the network is said to have a
distributed bus topology.

Bus topology is easy to handle and implement and is best-suited for small networks. But the
downside of this topology is that limited cable length limits the number of stations, thus
limiting the performance to a less number of nodes.

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, every node in the network is connected to two other nodes and the first and
last nodes are connected to each other. The data transmitted over the network passes through
each of the nodes in the ring until it reaches the destination node.
Ring Topology

In a ring network, the data and signals that pass over the network travel in a single direction.

Dual Ring Topology

The dual ring topology varies in having two connections between each of the network nodes.
The data flows along two directions in the two rings formed thereby. The rings are independent
of one another and the data flow in them is in opposite directions. In case one ring fails, the
other serves as its backup for data transmission.

The ring topology does not require a central server to manage connectivity between the nodes.
Thus it facilitates orderly network operation. But the failure of a single station can render the
entire network inoperable. Changes in the stations affect the network operation. A ring
topology is suitable for networks where reconfigurations are rare.

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, all the network nodes are connected to each other. The interconnections
between nodes introduce redundancy and also make it more reliable. In case a link between
two nodes breaks, any other link connecting them can take over. A mesh network can be
designed using routing or flooding.

In routing, the nodes possess some kind of routing logic so that the signals and data traveling
over the network take the shortest path during each transmission. Apart from choosing the
shortest path, the routing algorithm can also be used to avoid broken or blocked links. Self-
healing algorithms allow for the reconfiguration of broken links. Using a routing technique
increases the amount of data traveling over the network, as routing information has to be
transmitted along with the data signal.

When using the flooding technique, the same message is transmitted to all network nodes,
which is why messages do not need to be routed. This eliminates the need to send routing
information with the data signal. As the same data travels over multiple paths, a flooding-based
mesh network is robust. A drawback with flooding is the blocking of network links due to heavy
data transmission, especially when multiple nodes transmit data at the same time.
Fully Connected Mesh

In a full mesh network, each node is connected to every other node in the network. Due to this
arrangement, a simultaneous transmission of signals from one node to several other nodes is
possible.

Partially Connected Mesh

In a partially connected mesh network, only some of the network nodes are connected to more
than one node. This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in terms of the redundancy
introduced by the point-to-point links between nodes.

Star Topology

Star Network

In this type of network topology, each node of the network is connected to a central node,
which is known as a hub. The data that is transmitted between the network nodes passes
across the central hub. The hub acts as a signal repeater; i.e., it receives signals and retransmits
them such that they can travel longer distances on the network. In an extended star, repeaters
are introduced between the hub and the network nodes. The repeaters are used to increase
the distance over which signals can travel.
Distributed Star Network

A distributed star is formed by the interconnection of two or more individual star networks.
Multiple star networks are arranged linearly with no particular hierarchy.

The centralized nature of a star network provides a certain amount of simplicity while also
achieving isolation of each device in the network. However, the disadvantage of a star topology
is that the network transmission is largely dependent on the central hub. Its failure renders the
entire network inoperable.

Tree Topology
It is also known as a hierarchical topology and has a central root node that is connected to one
or more nodes of a lower hierarchy. In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the network has a
specific number of nodes connected to those at a lower level. A tree topology can also be
described as a combination of star and bus topologies. The primary or root node is connected
to one or more secondary nodes, which are connected to tertiary nodes, thus forming a
hierarchical or tree structure.
Tree Topology

A tree topology is scalable and easy to manage. The disadvantage of this type of topology is
that, if the backbone fails, the network becomes inoperable. In case of the root node’s failure,
the networks branching out from it cannot communicate with each other.

Hybrid Topology
Apart from these basic types of network topologies, there are hybrid network topologies, which
have a combination of two or more basic network structures. The image here shows a
combination of bus, star, and ring topologies.
Hybrid Topology

As a hybrid topology results from a combination of two or more topologies, it has both the
advantages and disadvantages of the topologies involved. The main advantage of a hybrid
network is that two dissimilar topologies can be combined without disturbing the existing
architecture of a network. The use of hybrid technologies makes a network easily expandable.

Network topologies are physical arrangements of network nodes and wires. What’s interesting
is that those inanimate nodes and wires turn ‘live’ for transmission of information.
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Network Protocols

In the world of technology, there are vast numbers of users' communicating with different
devices in different languages. That also includes many ways in which they transmit data along
with the different software they implement. So, communicating worldwide will not be possible if
there were no fixed 'standards' that will govern the way user communicates for data as well as the
way our devices treat those data. Here we will be discussing these standard set of rules.

Yes, we're talking about "protocols" which are set of rules that help in governing the way a
particular technology will function for communication. In other words, it can be said that the
protocols are digital languages implemented in the form of networking algorithms. There are
different networks and network protocols, user's use while surfing.

Table of Contents

1. Types of Protocols

2. Some Other Protocols

There are various types of protocols that support a major and compassionate role in communicating
with different devices across the network. These are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher

Let's discuss each of them briefly:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol which is used for
communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets that are sent from
source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used with TCP.
The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a network until it
reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to Transmission
Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking
between different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
 5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing E-
Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to another.
Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among two
or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be in any form like text
or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow a client system for
establishing a connection with the server machine for making a request. The server
acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication among two computers one
using the browser and other fetching data from web server. HTTP is used for transferring data
between the client browser (request) and the web server (response) in the hypertext format,
same in case of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done in an encrypted format. So it
can be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or modification of data throughout the
transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The connecting
process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for connection is the local
computer, and the system which accepts the connection is the remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as
displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server principle.

Some other popular protocols act as co-functioning protocols associated with these primary
protocols for core functioning. These are:

 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol)
 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
 RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)
 RLP (Resource Location Protocol)
 RAP (Route Access Protocol)
 L2TP (Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol)
 PPTP (Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol)
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
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Communication Technologies - Terminologies

Before we dive into details of networking, let us discuss some common terms associated with
data communication.

Channel
Physical medium like cables over which information is exchanged is called channel.
Transmission channel may be analog or digital. As the name suggests, analog channels transmit
data using analog signals while digital channels transmit data using digital signals.

In popular network terminology, path over which data is sent or received is called data channel.
This data channel may be a tangible medium like copper wire cables or broadcast medium like
radio waves.

Data Transfer Rate

The speed of data transferred or received over transmission channel, measured per unit time, is
called data transfer rate. The smallest unit of measurement is bits per second (bps). 1 bps means
1 bit (0 or 1) of data is transferred in 1 second.
Here are some commonly used data transfer rates −

 1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second

 1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
 1 Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
 1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps

Bandwidth
Data transfer rates that can be supported by a network is called its bandwidth. It is measured in
bits per second (bps). Modern day networks provide bandwidth in Kbps, Mbps and Gbps. Some
of the factors affecting a network’s bandwidth include −

 Network devices used

 Protocols used
 Number of users connected
 Network overheads like collision, errors, etc.

Throughput
Throughput is the actual speed with which data gets transferred over the network. Besides
transmitting the actual data, network bandwidth is used for transmitting error messages,
acknowledgement frames, etc.

Throughput is a better measurement of network speed, efficiency and capacity utilization rather
than bandwidth.

Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules and regulations used by devices to communicate over the network. Just
like humans, computers also need rules to ensure successful communication. If two people start
speaking at the same time or in different languages when no interpreter is present, no meaningful
exchange of information can occur.

Similarly, devices connected on the network need to follow rules defining situations like when
and how to transmit data, when to receive data, how to give error-free message, etc.

Some common protocols used over the Internet are −

 Transmission Control Protocol

 Internet Protocol
 Point to Point Protocol
 File Transfer Protocol
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 Internet Message Access Protocol
Switching Techniques
In large networks, there may be more than one paths for transmitting data from sender to
receiver. Selecting a path that data must take out of the available options is called switching.
There are two popular switching techniques – circuit switching and packet switching.

Circuit Switching
When a dedicated path is established for data transmission between sender and receiver, it is
called circuit switching. When any network node wants to send data, be it audio, video, text or
any other type of information, a call request signal is sent to the receiver and acknowledged
back to ensure availability of dedicated path. This dedicated path is then used to send data.
ARPANET used circuit switching for communication over the network.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

Circuit switching provides these advantages over other switching techniques −

 Once path is set up, the only delay is in data transmission speed
 No problem of congestion or garbled message

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

Circuit switching has its disadvantages too −

  Long set up time is required

 A request token must travel to the receiver and then acknowledged before any
transmission can happen

 Line may be held up for a long time

Packet Switching
As we discussed, the major problem with circuit switching is that it needs a dedicated line for
transmission. In packet switching, data is broken down into small packets with each packet
having source and destination addresses, travelling from one router to the next router.

Transmission Media
For any networking to be effective, raw stream of data is to be transported from one device to
other over some medium. Various transmission media can be used for transfer of data. These
transmission media may be of two types −

 Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a
fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.

 Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form of
electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.

Each transmission media has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of bandwidth,
speed, delay, cost per bit, ease of installation and maintenance, etc. Let’s discuss some of the
most commonly used media in detail.

Twisted Pair Cable

Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals because of good
performance at low costs. They are most commonly used in telephone lines. However, if two or
more wires are lying together, they can interfere with each other’s signals. To reduce this
electromagnetic interference, pair of copper wires are twisted together in helical shape like a
DNA molecule. Such twisted copper wires are called twisted pair. To reduce interference
between nearby twisted pairs, the twist rates are different for each pair.
Up to 25 twisted pair are put together in a protective covering to form twisted pair cables that are
the backbone of telephone systems and Ethernet networks.

Advantages of twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cable are the oldest and most popular cables all over the world. This is due to the
many advantages that they offer −

 Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve

 Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions
 Least expensive for short distances
 Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some disadvantages too −

 Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters

 High error rate for distances greater than 100m
 Very thin and hence breaks easily
 Not suitable for broadband connections

Shielding twisted pair cable

To counter the tendency of twisted pair cables to pick up noise signals, wires are shielded in the
following three ways −

 Each twisted pair is shielded.

 Set of multiple twisted pairs in the cable is shielded.
 Each twisted pair and then all the pairs are shielded.

Such twisted pairs are called shielded twisted pair (STP) cables. The wires that are not shielded
but simply bundled together in a protective sheath are called unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
cables. These cables can have maximum length of 100 metres.

Shielding makes the cable bulky, so UTP are more popular than STP. UTP cables are used as the
last mile network connection in homes and offices.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted pair cables, so that
transmitted signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists of these
layers, starting from the innermost −

 Stiff copper wire as core

 Insulating material surrounding the core

 Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding the insulator

 Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire

Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.
Advantages of Coaxial Cables

These are the advantages of coaxial cables −

 Excellent noise immunity

 Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Km cable

 Can be used for both analog and digital signals

 Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables

 Easy to install and maintain

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables

These are some of the disadvantages of coaxial cables −

 Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables

 Not compatible with twisted pair cables

Optical Fibre
Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are called optical fibre.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light waves at the source, which is
read by a detector at the other end. Optical fibre cable has a bundle of such threads or fibres
bundled together in a protective covering. Each fibre is made up of these three layers, starting
with the innermost layer −

 Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic

 Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower refractive index than
the core

 Protective outer covering called buffer

Note that both core and cladding are made of similar material. However, as refractive index of
the cladding is lower, any stray light wave trying to escape the core is reflected back due to total
internal reflection.
Optical fibre is rapidly replacing copper wires in telephone lines, internet communication and
even cable TV connections because transmitted data can travel very long distances without
weakening. Single node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment length of 2 kms and
bandwidth of up to 100 Mbps. Multi-node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment length
of 100 kms and bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.

Advantages of Optical Fibre

Optical fibre is fast replacing copper wires because of these advantages that it offers −

 High bandwidth
 Immune to electromagnetic interference
 Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
 Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

Despite long segment lengths and high bandwidth, using optical fibre may not be a viable option
for every one due to these disadvantages −
  Optical fibre cables are expensive
 Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and maintaining optical fibre
cables
 Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full duplex transmission

Infrared
Low frequency infrared waves are used for very short distance communication like TV remote,
wireless speakers, automatic doors, hand held devices etc. Infrared signals can propagate within
a room but cannot penetrate walls. However, due to such short range, it is considered to be one
of the most secure transmission modes.

Radio Wave
Transmission of data using radio frequencies is called radio-wave transmission. We all are
familiar with radio channels that broadcast entertainment programs. Radio stations transmit radio
waves using transmitters, which are received by the receiver installed in our devices.

Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or capture radio signals. These radio
frequencies can also be used for direct voice communication within the allocated range. This
range is usually 10 miles.
Advantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions −

 Inexpensive mode of information exchange

 No land needs to be acquired for laying cables
 Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap

Disadvantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave transmissions −

 Insecure communication medium

 Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.

Network Devices
Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other electronic
devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and
correct way over same or different networks. Network devices may be inter-network or intra-
network. Some devices are installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas
some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc. Let us explore some of these devices in
greater detail.
Modem
Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable lines.
The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can transmit
only analog data.

The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa. Modem
is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator. The modulator converts digital
data into analog data when the data is being sent by the computer. The demodulator converts
analog data signals into digital data when it is being received by the computer.

Types of Modem
Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit data, type of
connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.

Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types −

 Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from digital device
to network (modulator) or network to digital device (demodulator).

 Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the
directions but only one at a time.

 Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions
simultaneously.

RJ45 Connector
RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack used by devices
to physically connect to Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). Ethernet is a technology
that defines protocols for establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair
ones and have RJ45 connector pins at both ends. These pins go into the corresponding socket
on devices and connect the device to the network.

Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware component used by
computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices on the LAN. The
earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be installed manually. In
modern computer systems, it is an internal hardware component. The NIC has RJ45 socket
where network cable is physically plugged in.
Ethernet card speeds may vary depending upon the protocols it supports. Old Ethernet cards
had maximum speed of 10 Mbps. However, modern cards support fast Ethernets up to a speed of
100 Mbps. Some cards even have capacity of 1 Gbps.

Router
A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another if
both networks support the same set of protocols. So a router is typically connected to at least
two LANs and the internet service provider (ISP). It receives its data in the form of packets,
which are data frames with their destination address added. Router also strengthens the signals
before transmitting them. That is why it is also called repeater.
Routing Table
A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet can take to reach its
destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may be of these two types −

 Static − In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable only for very
small networks that have maximum two to three routers.

 Dynamic − In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other routers
through protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited for larger networks
where manual feeding may not be feasible due to large number of routers.

Switch
Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks through twisted
pair cables. It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on
the network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices connected to it.
On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet to the correct
port. Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other network errors. The data
is transmitted in full duplex mode

Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices like hubs used
for networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed with all the devices connected
to it. This helps in maintaining network speed even during high traffic. In fact, higher data
speeds are achieved on networks through use of multiple switches.

Gateway
Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks. In networking
parlance, networks that use different protocols are dissimilar networks. A gateway usually is a
computer with multiple NICs connected to different networks. A gateway can also be configured
completely using software. As networks connect to a different network through gateways, these
gateways are usually hosts or end points of the network.
Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to another. In this
way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can transmit data only over
networks that use same protocols.

Wi-Fi Card
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve wireless
connection to any network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device to the local
network wirelessly. The physical area of the network which provides internet access through Wi-
Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space. Hotspots
themselves are connected to the network through wires.
A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing, downloading digital camera
images, video chat, etc. to old devices. Modern devices come with their in-built wireless
network adapter.

Network Topologies
The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is called network topology.
Some of the factors that affect choice of topology for a network are −

 Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an

infrastructure. So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc. have to
be considered when designing a network.

 Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow reconfiguration

of office set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing nodes.

 Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum down time.
Failure of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the whole network useless.

 Scalability − Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can accommodate load of new
devices and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.
  Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware, software
and technical personnel requirements.

 Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be easy.

Bus Topology
Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial, to which
many network devices and workstations are attached along the length. Server is at one end of
the bus. When a workstation has to send data, it transmits packets with destination address in
its header along the bus.

The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the destination terminal sees the data,
it copies it to the local disk.

Advantages of Bus Topology

These are the advantages of using bus topology −

 Easy to install and maintain

 Can be extended easily
 Very reliable because of single transmission line

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

These are some disadvantages of using bus topology −

  Troubleshooting is difficult as there is no single point of control
 One faulty node can bring the whole network down
 Dumb terminals cannot be connected to the bus

Ring Topology
In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the network a circular
shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.

When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring node which transmits it to the
next one. Before further transmission data may be amplified. In this way, data raverses the
network and reaches the destination node, which removes it from the network. If the data reaches
the sender, it removes the data and resends it later.

Advantages of Ring Topology

These are the advantages of using ring topology −

 Small cable segments are needed to connect two nodes

 Ideal for optical fibres as data travels in only one direction
 Very high transmission speeds possible
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

These are some the disadvantages of using ring topology −

 Failure of single node brings down the whole network

 Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty one is
identified

 Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact

Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is also called the central
node. Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through the server. It is the most
popular topology for information and voice networks as central node can process data received
from source node before sending it to the destination node.

Advantages of Star Topology

These are the advantages of using star topology −

 Failure of one node does not affect the network

  Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be detected from central node immediately

 Simple access protocols required as one of the communicating nodes is always the central
node

Disadvantages of Star Topology

These are the disadvantages of using star topology −

 Long cables may be required to connect each node to the server

 Failure of central node brings down the whole network

Tree Topology
Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable. It
incorporates features of both star and bus topologies. Tree topology is also called hierarchical
topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the advantages of using tree topology −

 Existing network can be easily expanded

  Point-to-point wiring for individual segments means easier installation and maintenance

 Well suited for temporary networks

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the disadvantages of using tree topology −

 Technical expertise required to configure and wire tree topology

 Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network

 Insecure network

 Maintenance difficult for large networks

Types of Networks
Networks can be categorized depending on size, complexity, level of security, or geographical
range. We will discuss some of the most popular topologies based on geographical spread.

PAN
PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network. PAN is the interconnection between devices
within the range of a person’s private space, typically within a range of 10 metres. If you have
transferred images or songs from your laptop to mobile or from mobile to your friend’s mobile
using Bluetooth, you have set up and used a personal area network.
A person can connect her laptop, smart phone, personal digital assistant and portable printer in a
network at home. This network could be fully Wi-Fi or a combination of wired and wireless.

LAN
LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a single site like an office, building
or manufacturing unit. LAN is set up to when team members need to share software and
hardware resources with each other but not with the outside world. Typical software resources
include official documents, user manuals, employee handbook, etc. Hardware resources that can
be easily shared over the network include printer, fax machines, modems, memory space, etc.
This decreases infrastructure costs for the organization drastically.
A LAN may be set up using wired or wireless connections. A LAN that is completely wireless is
called Wireless LAN or WLAN.

MAN
MAN is the acronym for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a network spread over a city, college
campus or a small region. MAN is larger than a LAN and typically spread over several
kilometres. Objective of MAN is to share hardware and software resources, thereby decreasing
infrastructure costs. MAN can be built by connecting several LANs.
The most common example of MAN is cable TV network.

WAN
WAN or Wide Area Network is spread over a country or many countries. WAN is typically a
network of many LANs, MANs and WANs. Network is set up using wired or wireless
connections, depending on availability and reliability.

The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/communication_technologies/communication_technologies_network_
protocols.htm

Network Protocols

Network Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy, reliable and
secure way. Before we discuss the most common protocols used to transmit and receive data
over a network, we need to understand how a network is logically organized or designed. The
most popular model used to establish open communication between two systems is the Open
Systems Interface (OSI) model proposed by ISO.
OSI Model
OSI model is not a network architecture because it does not specify the exact services and
protocols for each layer. It simply tells what each layer should do by defining its input and output
data. It is up to network architects to implement the layers according to their needs and resources
available.

These are the seven layers of the OSI model −

 Physical layer −It is the first layer that physically connects the two systems that need to
communicate. It transmits data in bits and manages simplex or duplex transmission by
modem. It also manages Network Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network, like
cabling, cable terminators, topography, voltage levels, etc.
 Data link layer − It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It assembles
datagrams into frames and adds start and stop flags to each frame. It also resolves
problems caused by damaged, lost or duplicate frames.
 Network layer − It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling flow of
information between the workstations. It also breaks down transport layer datagrams into
smaller datagrams.
 Transport layer − Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport layer breaks it
down into data frames, provides error checking at network segment level and prevents a
fast host from overrunning a slower one. Transport layer isolates the upper layers from
network hardware.
 Session layer − This layer is responsible for establishing a session between two
workstations that want to exchange data.
 Presentation layer − This layer is concerned with correct representation of data, i.e.
syntax and semantics of information. It controls file level security and is also responsible
for converting data to network standards.
 Application layer − It is the topmost layer of the network that is responsible for sending
application requests by the user to the lower levels. Typical applications include file
transfer, E-mail, remote logon, data entry, etc.
It is not necessary for every network to have all the layers. For example, network layer is not
there in broadcast networks.

When a system wants to share data with another workstation or send a request over the network,
it is received by the application layer. Data then proceeds to lower layers after processing till it
reaches the physical layer.

At the physical layer, the data is actually transferred and received by the physical layer of the
destination workstation. There, the data proceeds to upper layers after processing till it reaches
application layer.

At the application layer, data or request is shared with the workstation. So each layer has
opposite functions for source and destination workstations. For example, data link layer of the
source workstation adds start and stop flags to the frames but the same layer of the destination
workstation will remove the start and stop flags from the frames.

Let us now see some of the protocols used by different layers to accomplish user requests.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set of
layered protocols used for communication over the Internet. The communication model of this
suite is client-server model. A computer that sends a request is the client and a computer to
which the request is sent is the server.
TCP/IP has four layers −

 Application layer − Application layer protocols like HTTP and FTP are used.
 Transport layer − Data is transmitted in form of datagrams using the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP). TCP is responsible for breaking up data at the client side and
then reassembling it on the server side.
 Network layer − Network layer connection is established using Internet Protocol (IP) at
the network layer. Every machine connected to the Internet is assigned an address called
IP address by the protocol to easily identify source and destination machines.
 Data link layer − Actual data transmission in bits occurs at the data link layer using the
destination address provided by network layer.

TCP/IP is widely used in many communication networks other than the Internet.

FTP
As we have seen, the need for network came up primarily to facilitate sharing of files between
researchers. And to this day, file transfer remains one of the most used facilities.The protocol
that handles these requests is File Transfer Protocol or FTP.

Using FTP to transfer files is helpful in these ways −

 Easily transfers files between two different networks

 Can resume file transfer sessions even if connection is dropped, if protocol is configure
appropriately
  Enables collaboration between geographically separated teams

PPP
Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables transmission of TCP/IP
traffic over serial connection, like telephone line.

To do this, PPP defines these three things −

 A framing method to clearly define end of one frame and start of another, incorporating
errors detection as well.
 Link control protocol (LCP) for bringing communication lines up, authenticating and
bringing them down when no longer needed.
 Network control protocol (NCP) for each network layer protocol supported by other
networks.

Using PPP, home users can avail Internet connection over telephone lines.

Email Protocols

Email is one of the most popular uses of Internet world wide. As per a 2015 study, there are 2.6
billion email users worldwide who send some 205 billion email messages per day. With email
accounting for so much traffic on the Internet, email protocols need to be very robust. Here we
discuss some of the most popular email protocols used worldwide.

SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is connection oriented application layer
protocol that is widely used to send and receive email messages. It was introduced in 1982 by
RFC 821 and last updated in 2008 by RFC 5321. The updated version is most widely used email
protocol.

Mail servers and mail transfer agents use SMTP to both send and receive messages. However,
user level applications use it only for sending messages. For retrieving they use IMAP or POP3
because they provide mail box management

RFC or Request for Comments is a peer reviewed document jointly published by Internet
Engineering Task Force and the Internet Society. It is written by researchers and computer
scientists describing how the Internet should work and protocols and systems supporting them.

POP3
POP3 or Post Office Protocol Version 3 is an application layer protocol used by email clients
to retrieve email messages from mail servers over TCP/IP network. POP was designed to move
the messages from server to local disk but version 3 has the option of leaving a copy on the
server

POP3 is a very simple protocol to implement but that limits its usage. For example, POP3
supports only one mail server for each mailbox. It has now has been made obsolete by modern
protocols like IMAP.

IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP was defined by RFC 3501 to
enable email clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers over a TCP/IP connection.
IMAP is designed to retrieve messages from multiple mail servers and consolidate them all in the
user’s mailbox. A typical example is a corporate client handling multiple corporate accounts
through a local mailbox located on her system.

All modern email clients and servers like Gmail, Outlook and Yahoo Mail support IMAP or
POP3 protocol. These are some advantages that IMAP offers over POP3 −

 Faster response time than POP3

 Multiple mail clients connected to a single mailbox simultaneously
 Keep track of message state like read, deleted, starred, replied, etc.
 Search for messages on the server

Mobile Communication Protocols

Any device that does not need to remain at one place to carry out its functions is a mobile device.
So laptops, smartphones and personal digital assistants are some examples of mobile devices.
Due to their portable nature, mobile devices connect to networks wirelessly. Mobile devices
typically use radio waves to communicate with other devices and networks. Here we will discuss
the protocols used to carry out mobile communication.

Mobile communication protocols use multiplexing to send information. Multiplexing is a method

to combine multiple digital or analog signals into one signal over the data channel. This ensures
optimum utilization of expensive resource and time. At the destination these signals are de-
multiplexed to recover individual signals.
These are the types of multiplexing options available to communication channels −

 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) − Here each user is assigned a different

frequency from the complete spectrum. All the frequencies can then simultaneously
travel on the data channel.
 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) − A single radio frequency is divided into multiple
slots and each slot is assigned to a different user. So multiple users can be supported
simultaneously.

 CDMA (Code Division Multiplexing) − Here several users share the same frequency
spectrum simultaneously. They are differentiated by assigning unique codes to them. The
receiver has the unique key to identify the individual calls.
GSM
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communications. GSM is one of the most widely used
digital wireless telephony system. It was developed in Europe in 1980s and is now international
standard in Europe, Australia, Asia and Africa. Any GSM handset with a SIM (Subscriber
Identity Module) card can be used in any country that uses this standard. Every SIM card has a
unique identification number. It has memory to store applications and data like phone numbers,
processor to carry out its functions and software to send and receive messages

GSM technology uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to support up to eight calls
simultaneously. It also uses encryption to make the data more secure.

The frequencies used by the international standard is 900 MHz to 1800 MHz However, GSM
phones used in the US use 1900 MHz frequency and hence are not compatible with the
international system.

CDMA
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It was first used by the British military during
World War II. After the war its use spread to civilian areas due to high service quality. As each
user gets the entire spectrum all the time, voice quality is very high. Also, it is automatically
encrypted and hence provides high security against signal interception and eavesdropping.

WLL
WLL stands for Wireless in Local Loop. It is a wireless local telephone service that can be
provided in homes or offices. The subscribers connect to their local exchange instead of the
central exchange wirelessly. Using wireless link eliminates last mile or first mile construction of
network connection, thereby reducing cost and set up time. As data is transferred over very short
range, it is more secure than wired networks.

WLL system consists of user handsets and a base station. The base station is connected to the
central exchange as well as an antenna. The antenna transmits to and receives calls from users
through terrestrial microwave links. Each base station can support multiple handsets depending
on its capacity.

GPRS
GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Services. It is a packet based wireless communication
technology that charges users based on the volume of data they send rather than the time duration
for which they are using the service. This is possible because GPRS sends data over the network
in packets and its throughput depends on network traffic. As traffic increases, service quality
may go down due to congestion, hence it is logical to charge the users as per data volume
transmitted.
GPRS is the mobile communication protocol used by second (2G) and third generation (3G) of
mobile telephony. It pledges a speed of 56 kbps to 114 kbps, however the actual speed may vary
depending on network load.

Since the introduction of first commercial mobile phone in 1983 by Motorola, mobile technology
has come a long way. Be it technology, protocols, services offered or speed, the changes in
mobile telephony have been recorded as generation of mobile communication. Here we will
discuss the basic features of these generations that differentiate it from the previous generations.

1G Technology
1G refers to the first generation of wireless mobile communication where analog signals were
used to transmit data. It was introduced in the US in early 1980s and designed exclusively for
voice communication. Some characteristics of 1G communication are −

 Speeds up to 2.4 kbps

 Poor voice quality
 Large phones with limited battery life
 No data security

2G Technology
2G refers to the second generation of mobile telephony which used digital signals for the first
time. It was launched in Finland in 1991 and used GSM technology. Some prominent
characteristics of 2G communication are −

 Data speeds up to 64 kbps

 Text and multimedia messaging possible
 Better quality than 1G

When GPRS technology was introduced, it enabled web browsing, e-mail services and fast
upload/download speeds. 2G with GPRS is also referred as 2.5G, a step short of next mobile
generation.

3G Technology
Third generation (3G) of mobile telephony began with the start of the new millennium and
offered major advancement over previous generations. Some of the characteristics of this
generation are −

 Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps

 High speed web browsing
 Running web based applications like video conferencing, multimedia e-mails, etc.
 Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files
  3D gaming

Every coin has two sides. Here are some downsides of 3G technology −

 Expensive mobile phones

 High infrastructure costs like licensing fees and mobile towers
 Trained personnel required for infrastructure set up

The intermediate generation, 3.5G grouped together dissimilar mobile telephony and data
technologies and paved way for the next generation of mobile communication.

4G Technology
Keeping up the trend of a new mobile generation every decade, fourth generation (4G) of mobile
communication was introduced in 2011. Its major characteristics are −

 Speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps

 Mobile web access
 High definition mobile TV
 Cloud computing
 IP telephony

Communication Technologies - VoIP

VoIP is the acronym for Voice over Internet Protocol. It means telephone services over
Internet. Traditionally Internet had been used for exchanging messages but due to advancement
in technology, its service quality has increased manifold. It is now possible to deliver voice
communication over IP networks by converting voce data into packets. VoIP is a set of protocols
and systems developed to provide this service seamlessly.

Here are some of the protocols used for VoIP −

 H.323
 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
 Session Description Protocol (SDP)
 Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
 Skype Protocol

We will discuss two of the most fundamental protocols – H.323 and SIP – here.

H.323
H.323 is a VoIP standard for defining the components, protocols and procedures to provide real-
time multimedia sessions including audio, video and data transmissions over packetswitched
networks. Some of the services facilitated by H.323 include −

 IP telephony
 Video telephony
 Simultaneous audio, video and data communications

SIP
SIP is an acronym for Session Initiation Protocol. SIP is a protocol to establish, modify and
terminate multimedia sessions like IP telephony. All systems that need multimedia sessions are
registered and provided SIP address, much like IP address. Using this address, caller can check
callee’s availability and invite it for a VoIP session accordingly.

SIP facilitates multiparty multimedia sessions like video conferencing involving three or more
people. In a short span of time SIP has become integral to VoIP and largely replaced H.323.

Wireless Technologies
Wireless connection to internet is very common these days. Often an external modem is
connected to the Internet and other devices connect to it wirelessly. This eliminated the need for
last mile or first mile wiring. There are two ways of connecting to the Internet wirelessly – Wi-Fi
and WiMAx.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve connection to
the Internet without a direct cable between device and Internet Service Provider. Wi-Fi enabled
device and wireless router are required for setting up a Wi-Fi connection. These are some
characteristics of wireless Internet connection −

 Range of 100 yards

 Insecure connection
 Throughput of 10-12 Mbps

If a PC or laptop does not have Wi-Fi capacity, it can be added using a Wi-Fi card.

The physical area of the network which provides Internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi
hotspot. Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space like airport, railway stations,
etc. Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires.

WiMax
To overcome the drawback of Wi-Fi connections, WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access) was developed. WiMax is a collection of wireless communication standards
based on IEEE 802.16. WiMax provides multiple physical layer and media access control
(MAC) options.

WiMax Forum, established in 2001, is the principal body responsible to ensure conformity and
interoperability among various commercial vendors. These are some of the characteristics of
WiMax −

 Broadband wireless access

 Range of 6 miles
 Multilevel encryption available
 Throughput of 72 Mbps

The main components of a WiMax unit are −

 WiMax Base Station − It is a tower similar to mobile towers and connected to Internet
through high speed wired connection.
 WiMax Subscriber Unit (SU) − It is a WiMax version of wireless modem. The only
difference is that modem is connected to the Internet through cable connection whereas
WiMax SU receives Internet connection wirelessly through microwaves.

Network Security
Computer networks are an integral part of our personal and professional lives because we carry
out lots of day-to-day activities through the Internet or local organizational network. The
downside of this is that huge amount of data, from official documents to personal details, gets
shared over the network. So it becomes necessary to ensure that the data is not accessed by
unauthorized people.

Practices adopted to monitor and prevent unauthorized access and misuse of network resources
and data on them is called network security.

A network has two components – hardware and software. Both these components have their own
vulnerability to threats. Threat is a possible risk that might exploit a network weakness to breach
security and cause harm. Examples of hardware threats include −

 Improper installation
 Use of unsecure components
 Electromagnetic interference from external sources
 Extreme weather conditions
 Lack of disaster planning
Hardware threats form only 10% of network security threats worldwide because the components
need to be accessed physically. 90% threats are through software vulnerabilities. Here we discuss
the major types of software security threats.

Virus
A virus is a malicious program or malware that attaches itself to a host and makes multiple
copies of itself (like a real virus!), slowing down, corrupting or destroying the system.

Some harmful activities that can be undertaken by a virus are −

 Taking up memory space

 Accessing private information like credit card details
 Flashing unwanted messages on user screen
 Corrupting data
 Spamming e-mail contacts

Viruses mostly attack Windows systems. Till a few years ago, Mac systems were deemed
immune from viruses, however now a handful of viruses for them exist as well.

Viruses spread through e-mails and need a host program to function. Whenever a new program
runs on the infected system, the virus attaches itself to that program. If you are an expert who
tinkers with the OS files, they can get infected too.

Trojan Horse
Trojan horse is a malware that hides itself within another program like games or documents and
harms the system. As it is masked within another program that appears harmless, the user is not
aware of the threat. It functions in a way similar to viruses in that it needs a host program to
attach itself and harms systems in the same ways.

Trojan horses spread through emails and exchange of data through hard drives or pen drives.
Even worms could spread Trojan horses.

Worms
Worms are autonomous programs sent by the attacker to infect a system by replicating itself.
They usually infect multitasking systems that are connected to a network. Some of the harmful
activities undertaken by worms include −

 Accessing and relaying back passwords stored on the system

 Interrupt OS functioning
 Disrupt services provided by the system
 Install viruses or Trojan horses
Spams
Electronic junk mail, unsolicited mail or junk newsroom postings are called spam. Sending
multiple unsolicited mails simultaneously is called spamming. Spamming is usually done as part
of marketing tactics to announce a product or share political or social views with a wide base of
people.

The first spam mail was sent by Gary Thuerk on ARPANET in 1978 to announce launch of new
model of Digital Equipment Corporation computers. It was sent to 393 recipients and together
with lots of hue and cry it generated sales for the company as well.

Almost all mail servers give you the option of stopping spams by marking a received mail as
junk. You should take care to share your email ID only with trusted people or websites, who will
not sell them to spammers.

Communication Technologies - Firewall

There exist multiple approaches to counter or at least reduce security threats. Some of these are −

 Authenticating users accessing a service

 Providing access to authorized users
 Using encrypted passwords for remote log on
 Using biometric authorization parameters
 Restricting traffic to and from

Firewalls are the first line of defense against unauthorized access to private networks. They can
be used effectively against virus, Trojan or worm attacks.
How Firewalls Work
Dictionary defines firewall as a wall or partition designed to inhibit or prevent spread of fire. In
networks, a system designed to protect an intranet from unauthorized access is called firewall.
A private network created using World Wide Web software is called an intranet. Firewall may
be implemented in both hardware and software.

All traffic to and from the network is routed through the firewall. The firewall examines each
message and blocks those that does not meet the pre-defined security criteria.

These are some of the prevalent techniques used by firewalls −

 Packet level filtering − Here each packet is examined depending on user-defined rules. It
is very effective and transparent to users, but difficult to configure. Also, as IP address is
used to identify users, IP spoofing by malicious parties can prove counterproductive.
 Circuit level filtering − Like good old telephone connections, circuit level filtering
applies security mechanisms while connection between two systems is being established.
Once the connection is deemed secure, data transmission can take place for that session.
 Application level filtering − Here, security mechanisms are applied to commonly used
applications like Telnet, FTP servers, storage servers, etc. This is very effective but slows
down performance of the applications.
 Proxy server − As the name suggests, proxy server is used to interrupt all incoming and
outgoing messages and mask the true server address.
A firewall may use a combination of two or more techniques to secure the network, depending
on extent of security required.