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Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials

Chapter · March 2011

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 21

Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials

Masoud Salavati-Niasari1,2 and Davood Ghanbari1
1Instituteof Nano Science and Nano Technology, University of Kashan,
2Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Kashan,
Islamic Republic of Iran

1. Introduction
Nowadays the enormous use of polymer materials is attributed to their extraordinary
combination of properties, low weight and ease of processing. However for improvement of
some properties such as thermal and mechanical stability, large numbers of additives were
added to polymeric matrix and formed polymer matrix composite [1, 2].
A composite is defined as a combination of two or more materials with different physical
and chemical properties and distinguishable interface. Composite materials have a
wonderful and different range of applications. Important advantages of composites over
many metal compounds are high specific stiffness and specific strength, high toughness,
corrosion resistance, low density and thermal insulation [1-3].
In most composite materials, one phase is usually continuous and called the matrix, while
the other phase called the dispersed phase. On the basis of the nature of the matrices,
composites can be classified into four major categories:
1. Polymer matrix composite
2. Metal matrix composite
3. Ceramic matrix composite
4. Carbon matrix composite [4].
Polymer matrix composite can be processed at a much lower temperature, compared to
other composite. Depending on the types of polymer matrices, polymer matrix composite
are classified as thermosetting composites and thermoplastic composites [4].

2. Polymer matrix nanocomposite

Scientists for improve the properties of composite materials investigate composites with
lower and lower fillers size, leading to the development of microcomposites and the recent
trend in composite research is nanocomposites. Nanocomposites refer to composites in
which one phase has nanoscale morphology such as nanoparticles, nanotubes or lamellar
nanostructure [1-5].
The improvement of the properties by the addition of particles can be achieved when:
a. Adequately good interaction between the nanoparticles and the matrix
b. Good dispersion ofparticles within the matrix.
In nanocomposites, covalent bonds, ionic bonds, Vander Waals forces, hydrogen bonding
could exist between the matrix and filler components [3,4].
502 Advances in Diverse Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites

2.1 Classification of nanocomposite

One of the classifications is based on the nanomaterial’s dimensional morphology.
1. Zero dimensional nanomaterial such as nanoparticle [6-8].
2. One dimensional nanomaterial such as nanowire and nanotube [9]
3. Two dimensional nanomaterial such as silicate layers
4. Three dimensional nanomaterial such as zeolites [10-12]

2.2 Classification based on kind of synthesis procedure

1. Direct incorporation of nanoscale into a polymer melt or solution, such as addition
several type metal oxide and hydroxide to polymeric matrix [5].
2. In situ generation of nanoscale building blocks in a polymer matrix (reduction of metal
ions in polymer matrix) [5].
For example for synthesis of polyaniline/cadmium sulfide, polyaniline was dissolved in
dimethyl formamide solution. Then dimethyl cadmium was added and simultaneously H2S
was passed through solution (Fig1) [13].

Fig. 1. Poly aniline/cadmium sulfide nanocomposite

3. Polymerization of monomers in the presence of nanoscale building bloks, such as
polymerization of methyl metha acrylate or styrene in present nanoparticles [5].
4. A combination of polymerization and formation of nanoscale building blocks (for
example intercalation of monomers into layered structures followed by polymerization) [5].
When a material structure has one dimension less than 100 nm, usually appear totally
different behavior of its material properties, the properties of nanomaterials can sometimes
produce an inverse transition of a property.

3. Some application of polymer matrix nanocomposite:

3.1 Flame retardant nanocomposite
Together with numerous advantages that synthetic polymeric materials provide to society in
everyday life, there is one obvious disadvantage related to the high flammability of many
Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 503

synthetic polymers. Consequently, improving the fire retardant behavior of polymers is a

major challenge for extending their use to most applications. Nanocomposites are very
attractive due to the fact that small amount of nanostructure can lead to great improvement
in fire resistant property of nanocomposite.

3.2 Nanocomposite with high mechanical stability, stiffness, strength, toughness

By using minimal addition levels, can be achieved excellent mechanical properties. For
example polyamide-6clay nanocomposite, containing 5% clay, shows an increase of 40% in
tensile strength, 68% in tensile modulus, 60% in flexural strength and 126% in flexural
modulus [14].

3.3 Nanocomposite solar cells

Polymer-based solar cells have the capability of being used to make cheap large flexible
panels. The only downside is substantially low efficiency compared to commercial solar
cells [15]. Cadmium chalcogenides such as CdS nanoparticles in polymers have been used to
make solar cells. Numerous efforts are being taken to improve the efficiency of the cells. In
general a higher density of the nanoparticles is advantageous. Control of the band edge of
the particles is also very important factor controlling the efficiency of the solar cell. Polymer-
semiconductor nanocomposites offer the promise of a new generation of hybrid materials
with numerous possibilities of applications such as in optical displays, catalysis,
photovoltaics, gas sensors, electrical devices, mechanics, photoconductors and
superconductor devices [15].

3.4 Nanocomposite membrane for gas separation and gas permeability

Many inorganic filler have dispersed in polymer matrices to improve pure polymeric
membrane properties and constituted mixed-matrix membranes (MMMs). Result of such
mixed matrix membrane is to the superior transport properties. With addition of low
amount of nanoparticles to polymeric membrane, we achieved great increasing in
permeability of membrane. There are many reports of improved penetrate permeability [16].

3.5 Nanocomposite with gas barrier performance

By addition alumina silicate layers to polymer matrix can be obtained gas barrier
performance for nanocomposite.

4. Determination of the morphology of nanocomposites

As the nanocomposite properties dramatically depend on the good dispersion of the filler in
the matrix, it is necessary to develop technical methods to characterise the nanodispersion.
For determination of morphology, polymer matrix nanocomposite were characterized by
some techniques such as transmission electron microscopy, TEM, scanning electron
microscopy, SEM, atomic force microscopy, AFM and X-ray diffraction, XRD.

4.1 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM)
SEM determined morphology and shape of surface of material, in polymer matrix
nanocomposite especially when low amount of nanoparticles is added to polymer,
polymeric chains cover the nanoparticle, thereupon in surface image of SEM, cannot be
504 Advances in Diverse Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites

determined nanoparticles in matrix. However when high percent of nanoparticles is added

to polymer, usually can be seen nanoparticles in matrix. One way for determined of
nanoparticles in polymeric matrix is using cross sectional SEM image, for preparation
images of cross section of polymeric nanocomposite, a small amount of sample was
immersed in liquid nitrogen for nearly some minute to ensure it was completely frozen. It
was then removed from the liquid nitrogen and immediately was broken. AFM also
determined surface of thin film sample, and in high loading nanoparticle, can be detected
fillers in polymeric matrix. For example SEM images of tin and bismuth sulfide
nanostructure and polymer matrix nanocomposite of those with acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene (ABS) copolymer are shown in Fig 2, that confirm SEM images cannot perfectly
determine nanoparticles in polymer matrix[17,18]. Also AFM images of pure copolymer and
ABS/tin sulfide are shown in Fig 3, which shows the same results.

Fig. 2. SEM images of a) SnS nanoflowers b) ABS/SnS c) Bi2S3 nanorods d) ABS/Bi2S3 ref:17,
18

4.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) technique

XRD enables the determination of the d-spacing of the clay. An immiscible system is
obtained if the d-spacing in the presence of the polymer is unchanged from that of the
pristine clay. If the d-spacing increases, this indicates that intercalation has occurred. Since
the registry between the clay layers is lost in an exfoliated system, no peak is expected.
Unfortunately, this same situation will occur if the clay has extensively disordered, so XRD
Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 505

Fig. 3. AFM images of a) pure ABS b) ABS/SnS nanocomposit

information alone is not enough to identify the morphology. For these reasons, in general,
XRD analysis is not used alone in studies to deduce the nanocomposite morphology [14].
XRD pattern ABS–clay hybrid nanocomposites are shown in Fig 4. With exchange Na+ by
alkyl ammonium, distance between layers increase and XRD peak shift to lower angle. XRD
patterns of ABS-OMMT because of intercalation of single chains of ABS in the galleries of
the host shows an increasing interlayer distance and peak shift to lower angle [19].

Fig. 4. XRD patterns of a) pristine sodium montmorillonite b) modified montmorillonite

(OMT) c) ABS/OMT nanocomposite. ref:19

4.3 Transmission electron microscopy

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is widely employed, in its simplest bright-field
mode, as a tool for direct visualization of the nanocomposite structure of polymer
nanocomposites. This is possible because there exists sufficient contrast for the transmitted
506 Advances in Diverse Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites

electrons between the polymer matrix and most filler (inorganic material such as metal
oxides). In the extreme case, high-resolution TEM can even provide a qualitative picture of
the inorganic filler crystal structure [20]. One must remember that to obtain one TEM
requires only a miniscule piece of material and one cannot be certain that this is
representative of the whole. The morphology can only be clearly determined by either
sampling enough of the material [14]. Fig 5a shows TEM image of PMMA/TiO2 and TEM
image of ABS/clay is shown in Fig 5b [19, 21].

Fig. 5. TEM images of a) PMMA/TiO2 nanocomposite b) ABS/OMMT nanocomposite

ref:19,21

5. Flame retardancy
Flammability of polymers is one of their unpleasant properties that most often accompanied
by the production of corrosive or toxic gases and smoke during combustion. Consequently,
improving the fire retardant behavior of polymers is a major challenge for extending their
use to most applications Flame retardation is a process by which the normal degradation or
combustion of polymers is altered by addition of certain chemicals. Various flame retardant
additives, such as halogenated additives, are being phased out for their proven or suspected
adverse effects on the environment. The combined challenge thus consists in developing
effective and environmentally friendly flame retardant systems for polymer materials. Most
researches have been done for improving thermal stability by addition of nanoparticles [20,
22]. Any type of inorganic filler, even inert, can influence the reaction of polymers to fire for
several reasons:
1. Reduction of content of combustible products
2. Changing the viscosity of the resulting material
3. Modification the thermal conductibility of the resulting material [22].
All these actions have an indirect incidence on the polymer’s fire performance. Nevertheless,
some minerals are more specifically used as flame retardants owing to their behavior at high
temperature [22].
Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 507

6. Some of laboratory fire testing

6.1 ThermoGravimetric Analysis (TGA)
TGA is an experimental technique in which the weight of a sample is measured as a
function of sample temperature or time. The sample is typically heated at a constant heating
rate. The results of a TGA measurement are usually displayed as a TGA curve in which
percent weight is plotted against temperature. Different effects can cause a sample to lose, or
even gain, mass, these include the following:
1. Evaporation of volatile constituents; such as desorption of gases and moisture
2. Thermal decomposition in an inert atmosphere with the formation of gaseous products
3. Oxidation of constituents[23].
TGA are often equipped with DTA (differential thermal analysis). In addition to showing the
energetic nature of weight loss events, the DTA signal can also show thermal effects that are
not accompanied by a change in mass, e.g. melting, crystallization or a glass transition [23].

6.2 Limited Oxygen Index: LOI

LOI is one of the most important and representative parameter for describing the flame-
retardant properties of plastics because of it is relatively simple method. The measurement
consists of determining the minimum concentration of oxygen in a nitrogen–oxygen mixture
that will sustain combustion. The higher LOI better the flame retardant property. This does
not mean that a material with a high oxygen index will not burn; the test measures the ease
of extinction of the fire [22].
The value of the LOI is defined as the minimal oxygen concentration [O2] in the
oxygen/nitrogen mixture [O2/N2] ,As air contains 21% oxygen, materials with an LOI below
21 are classified as ‘‘combustible’’ whereas those with an LOI above 21 are classified as
‘‘self-extinguishing’’, because their combustion cannot be sustained at ambient temperature
without an external energy contribution [22].

6.3 Differential scanning calorimetry: DSC

DSC is the most widely used of the thermal techniques available to the analyst and provides
a fast and simple method for obtaining beneficial information about a material. A DSC
analyzer measures the energy changes that occur as a sample is heated, cooled or held
isothermally. The energy changes enable the user to find and measure the transitions that
occur in the sample quantitatively such as measurement of glass transitions [23].

6.4 Cone calorimeter

Cone calorimeter is one of the most effective medium-sized polymer fire behavior tests. The
cone calorimeter measures the rate at which heat is released in a fire. This instrument
calculate the quantity of heat released per unit of time and surface area: HRR (heat release
rate) expressed in kW/m2. The evolution of the HRR over time, in particular the value of its
peak (pHRR), is usually taken into account in order to evaluate the fire properties [22].
Currently, numerous fire retardant fillers for the preparation of polymer nanocomposites
have been proposed, some famous flame retardant are:

7. Polymer/metal sulfide nanocomposite

With incorporation of a variety of nanoparticles in the polymer matrices, nanocomposites
are much different from the conventional composites. Exfoliated metal sulfide filler particles
508 Advances in Diverse Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites

have significant barrier effect to slow down product volatilization and thermal transport
during decomposition of the polymer, which assists composites with high thermal stability.
For example influence of the content of cadmium sulfide (CdS) on the thermal degradation
of poly styrene/ cadmium sulfide composites were examined [24]. TG curves (Fig 6), shows
that thermal stability of PS/CdS composites is higher than in pure PS. Improved thermal
stability of composites with respect to the pure PS can be assigned to partially altered
molecular mobility of the polymer chains due to their adsorption on the surface of the filler
particles. Simultaneously, adsorption of polymer chains onto the surface of CdS filler
particles results in restriction of segmental mobility and serves to suppress chain transfer
reactions .Polymer adsorption on the surface of filler particles is a crucial step for
explanation of changed thermal stability of polymer/metal sulfide composites [25, 26].
Much effort has been made to develop novel methods to prepare nanostructured metal
chalcogenide. Hydrothermal method and thermal decomposition provides a more
promising way for the synthesis of crystals due to its low cost, high efficiency and potential
for large-scale production [27-34].

Fig. 6. TGA curves of pure poly styrene and polystyrene/cadmium sulfide nanocomposite
from ref:24

8. Polymer/metal hydroxide nanocomposite

The most commonly used mineral flame retardants are metal hydroxides (The two most
commonly used products are aluminum hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide) .These
material are used in wire , cables , poly(vinyl chloride) , polyethylene, various elastomers ,
phenolics, epoxies, and unsaturated polyesters. As the temperature rises, aluminum hydroxide
decomposes endothermically and therefore absorbs energy. Moreover, they release non-
flammable molecules (H2O, CO2), which dilute combustible gases upon heating at about 220◦C
with an endotherm of 1.17 kJ/g, whereas MH starts releasing water at about 330◦Cwith an
endotherm of 1.356 kJ/g [20]. Since both anhydrous alumina and magnesia are white highly
refractory powders, they provide heat insulation by reflecting heat when they accumulate on a
surface these flame retardants can also promote the formation of a protective ceramic or
vitreous layer. To be used as polymer flame retardants, metal hydroxides need to decompose
endothermically and release water at a temperature higher than the polymer processing
temperature range, and around the polymer decomposition temperature [20].
Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 509

The fire properties of ATH-filled polymers are only interesting at high loading levels. To
pass flame retardancy tests, 35 to 65 wt% of metal hydroxide is required [20]. Increasing the
loading of metal hydroxides will result in a significant loss in physical properties; therefore,
the use of nanometric MDH and ATH can enable interesting fire performances to be
achieved at lower loading levels. The enhancement of flame retardancy by nanosized
Mg(OH)2 was attributed to the good dispersion of the nanoparticles, which leads to the
formation of more compact and cohesive char during the combustion test [35].

9. Polymer/metal and metal oxide nanocomposite

Filler particles have significant barrier effect to slow down product volatilization during
decomposition of the polymer, which assists composites with high thermal stability.
Adsorption of polymer chains onto the surface of filler particles results in restriction of
segmental mobility and serves to suppress redistribution and chain transfer reactions [24].
Beside current famous flame retardant additives, many researches have been done about
effect of metal oxide and metal nanoparticle to thermal property of polymers. In recent
years, synthesis of transition metal nanoparticles is a growing research field in chemical
science [36-39]. Metal particles have attracted considerable attention because of application
in modern technologies. Metal oxide nanoparticles can be obtained by several methods, via
a sol–gel technique a hydrothermal, sonochemistry and co-precipitation method [40-46].
For examples effectiveness of several type of metal oxide such as silica, ferric oxide, titanium
oxide and copper oxide for improve thermal property of polymer matrix were surveyed [47-
49]. For example influence of the content of ferric oxide and titanium oxide on the thermal
degradation of poly methyl methaacrylate was examined. TGA curves, shows that thermal
stability of nanocomposites is higher than in pure polymer (Fig7) [21]. Improved thermal
stability of composites can be assigned to partially alter molecular mobility of the polymer
chains due to their adsorption on the surface of the filler particles [24].

Fig. 7. TGA curves of pure PMMA and PMMA/metal oxide nanocomposite ref: 21
510 Advances in Diverse Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites

10. Polymer/layered silicate nanocomposite

The formation of well-dispersed polymer nanocomposites leads to modification of the
degradation pathway of polymers and this clearly affects the fire behavior of
nanocomposites. The currently accepted explanation for enhanced fire properties is that the
clay forms a barrier to mass transport and which also insulates the underlying polymer from
the heat source (Fig8) [20].

Fig. 8. Formation of insulator layer in polymer/clay nanocomposite

10.1 Crystal structures of some major clay minerals

10.1.1 Kaolinite
Kaolinite is called a 1:1 type of layered mineral that is composed of a tetrahedral silica sheet
and an octahedral alumina sheet. The tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are connected with
shared oxygen atoms (Fig 9). The charge within the layers is nearly balanced, and the
chemical formula is Al4[Si4O10](OH)8 or 2Al2O3.4SiO2.4H2O [50].
Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 511

Fig. 9. Structure of kaolinite

10.1.2 Pyrophyllite
The formula for pyrophyllite is Al4[Si4O10](OH)2. Pyrophyllite has a 2:1 layer structure
consisting of two fused silica tetrahedral sheets sandwiching an edge-shared octahedral
sheet of alumina (Fig 10) [50].

Fig. 10. Structure of pyrophilite

10.1.3 Montmorillonite
The most promising candidate of the layered silicates is montmorillonite (MMT), owing to
its natural abundance and high aspect ratio [51, 52]. MMT is a derivative of pyrophyllite.
512 Advances in Diverse Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites

The difference between the crystal structure of MMT and pyrophyllite is that the latter is
neutral, while the former has layer charges due to isomorphic substitution. Substitutions
occur in the octahedral sheet with Mg2+and Fe2+for Al3+ (Fig 11) [50].

Fig. 11. Structure of sodium montmorillonite.

10.2 Organic clay modification

To make the silicate compatible with the polymer, the clay mineral is modified with an alkyl
ammonium salt by cation exchange. Attractive interaction between the surfactant and the
polymer greatly enhances the possibility of nano-dispersion of the clay within the polymer.
Modification of Na+ MMT with CTAB is shown in Fig 12.

Fig. 12. Modification of Na+ montmorillonite with CTAB

If the polymer is unable to intercalate between the silicate sheets, the obtained composite
can be considered as phase-separated composite. Beyond this classical family of composites
when extended polymer chain is inserted in a crystallographically regular fashion between
the silicate layers resulting in a well-ordered multilayer morphology built up with
alternating polymeric and inorganic layers, the obtained composites can be called as
‘intercalated nanocomposites. When the individual silicate layers are completely and
uniformly dispersed in a continuous polymer matrix, an exfoliated or delaminated structure
is obtained [53]. Different kind of interaction between polymeric chains and clay are shown
in Fig 13 .Usually, the clay content of an exfoliated nanocomposite is much lower than that
Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 513

of an intercalated nanocomposite. In the majority of the polymer nanocomposites formed, a

combination of delamination and intercalation is obtained [54].

Fig. 13. Different kind of interaction between polymer and clay

11. Polymer/layered double hydroxide nanocomposite

Hydrotalcite compounds, known as layered double hydroxides (LDHs), belong to a class of
anionic clay minerals. They have the general molecular formula [M2+1-x M3+x (OH)2]x+A
n- x/n.mH2O,where M2+and M3+ are divalent and trivalent metal cations, such as Mg2+,
Al3+, respectively, An- is an intercalated anion, such as CO32-, SO42-, and NO3-[55].
The majority of important applications are based on their permanent anion-exchange and
adsorption capacity, the mobility of interlayer anions and water molecules, their large
surface areas, and the stability and homogeneity of the materials formed by their thermal
decomposition. Because of their highly tunable properties, LDHs are considered as a new
emerging class of the most favorable layered crystals for preparing the multifunctional
polymer/layered crystal nanocomposites [55].
When LDHs were added to a polymer matrix, the LDH releases the CO2 gas and moisture,
diluting the concentration of burning gas. In addition, MgO and Al2O3 act as layers of heat
insulation. The layer structure of LDH shows in Fig 14.

12. Halogen-containing flame retardant

For explanation of correlation between halogenated flame retardant and polymer matrix
nanocomposite firstly we should explain synergistic effect concept:
A synergistic effect occurs when the combined effects of two chemicals are much greater
than the sum of the effects of each agent given alone. Halogen-containing flame retardants
514 Advances in Diverse Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites

Fig. 14. Structure of layered double hydroxide

release halogen in the form of radical of halogen at temperature of decomposition of the
polymer. Chlorine and bromine can be used as halogenated flame retardant. These
halogens, because of their low bonding energy with carbon atoms, can readily be released
and take part in the combustion process [20].
Very reactive free-radical species such as H and OH are very important for sustaining
combustion. The hydrogen radical is responsible for the chain-branching free-radical
reactions in the flame whereas the hydroxyl radical is responsible for the oxidation of CO to
CO2, which is a highly exothermic reaction and is responsible for the larger part of the heat
generation in the flame. The physical effect of halogen halides is comparable to that of inert
gases, CO2, and water[20].
Sb2O3 is synergistic with halogen-containing flame retardants because it facilitates delivery
of halogen atoms in the gas phase and prolongs residence of the halogens in the flame zone
so that more “hot” radicals can be scavenged. Antimony trioxide reacts with halogen
containing compound, forming SbCl3 or SbBr3 [20].
The use of nanometric Sb2O3 can enable interesting fire performances to be achieved at
lower loading levels. The enhancement of flame retardancy by nanosized Sb2O3 was
attributed to the good dispersion of the nanoparticles, which leads to the formation of more
compact and effective char during the combustion test.

13. Polymer/carbon nano tube nanocomposite

The investigation of carbon nanotubes (CNT) has opened a totally new window for the
development of polymer matrix composites with novel properties and applications. The
most widely studied nanofibrous materials with respect to polymer flame retardancy are
carbon nanotubes (CNTs).The extremely low diameter of CNT and their high aspect ratio
make them an ideal material to improve the properties of the polymer matrix. CNTs are an
interesting alternative to the use of conventional flame retardants and nanoclays. Their
incorporation at low loading rate (<3 wt %) has been reported to improve the flammability
of a large range of polymers [5, 23]. For example TGA curve related to PMMA/CNT
nanocomposite is shown in Fig 15. Initial degradation onset of pure PMMA and PMMA-
SWNT are at 322 and 359 ◦C, respectively. So, relatively a small amount (0.5 wt %) of SWNT
thermally stabilized the PMMA by around 37 ◦C [56].
Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 515

13.1 Treatment of carbon nanotubes

Functionalization of carbon nanotubes is an effective way to improve interaction between
CNTs and polymer matrix. Treatment has been performed by oxidation using a mixture of
sulfuric and nitric acid .The oxidized carbon nanotubes were then functionalized with
different types of agents such as amines or SOCl2 (Fig 16).The functionalization has been
performed by refluxing a suspension of oxidized CNTs with the amine to ensure a
quantitative conversion [57-61].

Fig. 15. TGA curves of a)PMMA b)PMMA/CNT nanocomposite ref:56

Fig. 16. Modification of carbon nanotube with organig agents

516 Advances in Diverse Industrial Applications of Nanocomposites

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Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 517

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photoluminescence of new cadmium sulfide/organic composite hollow sphere
nanostructures. Inorg Chim Acta. 2009; 362:3677-3683
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nanocrystalline CdS with different morphologies by hydrothermal process in the
presence of thioglycolic acid Chem. Eng. J. 2008;145: 346–350.
[29] Salavati-Niasari M, Davar F, Loghman-Estarki MR. Long chain polymer assisted
synthesis of flower-like cadmium sulfide nanorods via hydrothermal process. J.
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[30] Salavati-Niasari M, Loghman-Estarki MR, Davar F. Controllable synthesis of wurtzite
ZnS nanorods through simple hydrothermal method in the presence of thioglycolic
acid. J. Alloys Compd. 2009; 475:782–788.
[31] Salavati-Niasari M, Davar F, Loghman-Estarki MR. Controllable synthesis of
thioglycolic acid capped ZnS(Pn)0.5 nanotubes via simple aqueous solution route at
low temperatures and conversion to wurtzite ZnS nanorods via thermal decompose
of precursor. J.Alloy.Compd 2010; 494:199-204
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[32] Davar F, Salavati-Niasari M, Mazaheri M. Thermal decomposition of

[bis(salicylaldehydato)cadmium(II)] to CdS nanocrystals. Polyhedron. 2009; 28:
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[33] Salavati-Niasari M, Davar F, Mazaheri M. Synthesis, characterization and magnetic
properties of NiS1+x nanocrystals from [bis(salicylidene)nickel(II)] as new precursor.
Mat ResBulletin.2009; 44:2246-2251
[34] Salavati-Niasari M, Davar F, Mazaheri M. Synthesis and characterization of ZnS
nanoclusters via hydrothermal processing from [bis(salicylidene)zinc(II)]. J. Alloys
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and flame-retardant property of its nanocomposites with EVA. Composite
Structures 2003; 62:391–395.
[36] Salavati-Niasari M, Mir N, Davar F. A novel precursor in preparation and
characterization of nickel oxide nanoparticles via thermal decomposition approach.
J Alloys Compd 2010; 493:163–168
[37] Salavati-Niasari M , Mir N , Davar F. A novel precursor for synthesis of metallic copper
nanocrystals by thermal decomposition approach. Applied Surface Science. 2010;
256:4003–4008.
[38] Salavati-Niasari M, Davar F, Fereshteh Z .Synthesis of nickel and nickel oxide
nanoparticles via heat-treatment of simple octanoate precursor. J Alloys Compd.
2010; 494: 410–414
[39] Mohandes F,Davar F, Salavati-Niasari M. Preparation of Co3O4 nanoparticles by
nonhydrolytic thermolysis of [Co(Pht)(H2O)]n polymers. J Magnetism Magnetic
Materials. 2010;322: 872–877
[40] Salavati-Niasari M , Javidi J , Davar F. Sonochemical synthesis of Dy2(CO3)3
nanoparticles, Dy(OH)3 nanotubes and their conversion to Dy2O3 nanoparticles
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2010; 17: 870–877
[41] Salavati-Niasari , N Mir , F Dava.r Synthesis, characterization and optical properties of
tin oxide nanoclusters prepared from a novel precursor via thermal decomposition
route. Inorganica Chimica Acta 2010; 363: 1719–1726
[42] Davar F, Salavati-Niasari M, Fereshteh Z. Synthesis and characterization of SnO2
nanoparticles by thermal decomposition of new inorganic precursor. J Alloy
Compd. 2010;496: 638–643
[43] Davar F, Salavati-Niasari M , Mir N , Saberyan M, Monemzadeh M , Ahmadi E
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novel precursor. Polyhedron (2010; 29: 1747–1753
[44] Salavati-Niasari M, Javidi J, Davar F, Amini Fazl A Sonochemical synthesis of
Dy2(CO3)3 nanoparticles and their conversion to Dy2O3 and Dy(OH)3: Effects of
synthesis parameters. J Alloy Compd .2010; 503: 500-506
[45] Mohandes F, Davar F, Salavati-Niasari M. Magnesium oxide nanocrystals via thermal
decomposition of magnesium oxalate Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids
[46] Salavati-Niasari M, Hosseinzadeh G , Davar F Synthesis of lanthanum hydroxide and
lanthanum oxide nanoparticles by sonochemical method. J Alloy Compd. 2010; 503:
500-506
Polymeric Nanocomposite Materials 519

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[51] Salavati-Niasari M Synthesis, characterization and catalytic oxidation of cyclohexene
with molecular oxygen over host (montmorillonite-K10)/guest (nickel(II)
complexes of 12- and 13-membered diaza dioxa Schiff-base macrocyclic ligand)
nanocatalyst (HGN) J Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical 2007;263: 247–252
[52] Salavati-Niasari M, Zamani E, Bazarganipour M. Epoxidation of cyclohexene with K10-
montmorillonite and Schiff-base macrocyclic copper complexes Applied Clay
Science 2007;38: 9–16
[53] Kumara A P, Depana D, Tomerb N S, Singha R P. Nanoscale particles for polymer
degradation and stabilization—Trends and future perspectives. Progress in
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[54] Wang S, Hu Y, Zong R, Tang Y, Chen Z, Fan W. Preparation and characterization of
flame retardant ABS/montmorillonite nanocomposite. Applied Clay Science
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Thermal Degradation Behavior of Hydrotalcites and Flame Retardant and
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Chemistry, processing, mechanical and electrical properties. Progress in Polymer
Science. 2010; 35: 357–401
[58] Salavati-Niasari M, Mirsattari SN, Bazarganipour M. Synthesis, characterization and
catalytic oxyfunctionalization of cyclohexene with tert-butylhydroperoxide over a
manganese(II) complex covalently anchored to multi-wall carbon nanotubes
(MWNTs). Polyhedron. 2008; 27: 3653–3661
[59] Salavati-Niasari M, Bazarganipour M. Covalent functionalization of multi-wall carbon
nanotubes (MWNTs) by nickel(II) Schiff-base complex: Synthesis, characterization
and liquid phase oxidation of phenol with hydrogen peroxide. Applied Surface
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[60] Salavati-Niasari M, Bazarganipour M. Synthesis, characterization and catalytic
oxidation properties of multi-wall carbon nanotubes with a covalently attached
copper(II) salen complex. Applied Surface Science 2009;255: 7610–7617
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[61] Salavati-Niasari M, Bazarganipour M. Effect of single-wall carbon nanotubes on direct

epoxidation of cyclohexene catalyzed by new derivatives of cis-
dioxomolybdenum(VI) complexes with bis-bidentate Schiff-base containing
aromatic nitrogen–nitrogen linkers J. Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical 278 2007;278:
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