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STRUCTURING SENTENCES

Sentences are not just strings of words that make meanings. Each sentence has a
particular structure and this sentence structure is the key to punctuation and
grammar. Learning about sentence structure, therefore, helps us to avoid punctuation
and grammar mistakes and, more importantly, to write stronger, clearer, and more
‘reader-friendly’ sentences.

There are three basic sentence types:

- simple sentence (control unit)
- complex sentence (control unit plus support unit)
- compound sentence (control unit plus control unit)

SENTENCE TYPE ONE: SIMPLE SENTENCES

A simple sentence (also called a control unit) is the basis of every sentence. A simple
sentence is made up from two structural components: the subject and the predicate.

control unit = subject + predicate

The subject contains the word or group of words that does something or is
something.

The predicate contains the word or group of words that is used to express action (hit,
run) or state of being (is, will be, am). That is, the predicate always includes a verb
(‘doing’ word). A sentence must have a verb; if you leave out the verb you have a
sentence fragment, which is ungrammatical and should be avoided.

Example 1
The sun (subject) shines (predicate).

Example 2
The monsoon season (subject) is approaching (predicate).

Example 3
A new program (subject) is being developed (predicate).

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Example 4
Surfing (subject) is a popular sport (predicate).

(Note that ‘surfing’ looks like a verb, but as it is used here, it functions as a noun. It
really means the activity of surving.)

Punctuation Implications

Because subject and predicate together make one control unit, do not separate them
with a comma. In simple sentences (i.e. control units) use commas only to separate
nouns (‘naming’ words), adjectives (‘describing’ words), verbs (‘doing’ words), or
items in a list within the subject or within the predicate, but not between subject
and predicate. (In the following examples, the subject is in bold type and the
predicate is in normal type).

Example 1
Bananas, mangoes, papaya, rambutan, lychee, and durian are tropical fruits.

Example 2
The new management system is efficient, innovative, and cost-effective.

Example 3
Reading carefully, taking notes, and making summaries are essential stages in
writing an academic research paper.

Subject/Predicate Exercise

Underline the subject in the following simple sentences. One of these is a sentence
fragment. Which one?

1. Mr. Tan is a quiet but impressive presenter.

2. I have lost my wallet, passport, credit cards, and car keys.
3. A large, black, hairy spider with red, staring eyes lowered itself from the dark,
overhanging branches.
4. Playing golf can lead to making valuable business contacts.
5. The capital of Thailand is Bangkok.

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6. Bangkok is the capital of Thailand.
7. Cell samples were taken from the organism being researched.
8. Conferences delegates from Japan, Australia, South Korea, and many other
countries in the Asian region.
9. Rainfall records of the region have been kept since 1927.

Subject/Predicate Exercise

Underline the subject in the following simple sentences.

1. Generating good communication is an important aspect of management.

2. Motorcycles, cars, buses and trucks entering the industrial complex were
stopped by the security team.
3. The key to a successful presentation is sound planning.
4. The case is being prepared by our most experienced lawyer.
5. Business practices which are unethical should be avoided.
6. Good writing can be achieved with practice.
7. Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore are important trade partners with Australia.
8. No amount of high technology can disguise faulty logic.
9. Clarity, simplicity, and conciseness are essential to effective writing.
10. Fixed assets deteriorate over time.

SENTENCE TYPE TWO: COMPLEX SENTENCES

A complex sentence is one in which the control unit has a support unit added to it.

Support units

A support unit is a group of words supporting the meaning of the control unit by
adding more meanings to it. In the following examples, the control unit appears in
bold type to emphasise the fact that it carries the main meaning of the sentence.

Example 1:
Although a steady drizzle was falling (support unit), we went to the beach (control
unit)

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Example 2:
The examination was postponed (control unit), giving students extra time to revise
(support unit).

Support units cannot stand on their own: they need a control unit to complete the
sentence.

Example 1:
Since the building was almost complete ...

Example 2:
When he checked the fuel gauge ...

In these examples, the meaning is incomplete because there is no control unit. The
control unit carries the essential action of the sentence.

Note that these support units begin with a word (called a ‘subordinator’) that tells the
reader that the phrase ahead does not stand alone but is subordinate to or dependent
upon the control unit for its meaning. Some common subordinators are:

although after when

because before where
since whenever which
while if who
as unless whom
whereas until whose

Support units may also begin with the ‘ing’ form of verbs (verb participles).

Example 1:
Conceding that the survey results were inconclusive (support unit), the economist
argued that his hypothesis was still valid (control unit).

Example 2:
Arriving late for the promotions interview (support unit), the candidate made a
poor impression on the interviewing panel (control unit).

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Punctuation Implications

As a general rule, keep a control unit and a support unit apart by using a comma or a
pair of commas.

Example 1:
The company made a record profit. (simple sentence)

Example 2:
Despite the economic downturn, the company made a record profit. (complex
sentence)

Example 3:
The company made a record profit, despite the economic downturn. (complex
sentence)

Example 2:
The company, which recently appointed a new CEO, made a record profit.
(complex sentence)

Note that support units may be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of
a sentence. Sentences can have more than one support unit.

Example 1:
Carrying our heavy backpacks (support unit), we found the journey long and
tiring.

Example 2:
The new lecturer, a highly respected scholar with many publications to his credit
(support unit), began his classes today.

Example 3:
The town planner supported the rezoning scheme, even though she disagreed with
some of the proposals. (complex sentence)

When support units are placed last, a comma may not always be necessary.

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Periodic Sentences

Reading is a linear, forward-moving process in which readers tend to move quickly

over the first part of a sentence, momentarily slowing down over the end of the
sentence as they register the period (full stop). The periodic sentence exploits this
psychological phenomenon by placing all or part of the control unit at the end of the
sentence, thus creating a moment of suspense for the reader before delivering or
completing the main statement at the end of the sentence, where it impresses itself
more forcefully on the reader’s mind.

Example 1:
Because the company was losing money and its creditors were threatening legal
action, the director was forced to resign.

Example 2:
The director, who had made false entries in the accounts, wrote fraudulent cheques,
and misappropriated millions of dollars of company funds, was jailed for ten years.

Control Unit Exercise

Underline the control unit in the following sentences.

1. Reflecting lower word prices, income figures from this year’s production were
lower than anticipated.
2. We continued with the research, event though our funding was reduced.
3. The results, however, were disappointing.
4. MacBeth, Othello, and King Lear, Shakespeare’s four great tragedies, are as
powerful today as they were when they were written.
5. As the statistics suggest, young women constitute the largest category of new
smokers.
6. Erns and Young, which is a large international company, employs many
graduates.
7. Rain, that comes after drought, is always welcome.
8. Reading the report late at night, he lost his concentration.
9. Unfortunately, many recently licensed drivers, no matter how confident they
feel, have accidents that could have been avoided.

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10. Company executives, who collude in making fraudulent insurance claims, will
be prosecuted.

Control Unit Revision Exercise (HOMEWORK, also translate these sentences to

Bahasa Indonesia)

1. Although it was stressful, he enjoyed his work.

2. Success, though it came late, was sweet.
3. Clients should be warned about investments which carry a high risk.
4. Mr. Spurgeon, the managing director, called for a meeting.
5. The results, with a few exceptions, were pleasing.
6. Spinning out of control, the car hit a tree.
7. Mary, Jasmine, and Zubaidah brought bouquets of roses, camellias, lilies, and
chrysanthemums to the distinguished foreign visitor, who thanked them most
graciously.
8. If at first you don’t succeed, try again.
9. Questionnaires, which are widely used in this institution, are only one way
among many of surveying professional practices.
10. After waiting twenty minutes for the lecture to begin, we left.

SENTENCE TYPE THREE: COMPOUND SENTENCES

A compound sentence is one in which there are two or more control units (simple
sentences).

You cannot join control units with a comma alone; you must use either a comma plus
a conjuction or a semicolon. If you join control units with a comma, you have made
an error called a ‘comma splice’.

Comma plus conjuction

Independent control units can be linked by the following conjunctions, preceded by a

comma: ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘for’, ‘nor’, ‘since’, ‘so’, ‘yet’.

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Example 1:
She did well in her examination. She is an able student.
This becomes
She did well in her examination, for she is an able student.

Example 2:
He worked hard. He did not achieve high marks
This becomes
He worked hard, yet he did not achieve high marks.

Notice that as well as joining control units, the comma plus conjunction indicates a
particular relation between the two statements.

In Example 1, the conjunction ‘for’ indicates causality: the first statement, that ‘she
did well in her examination’ is caused by the fact stated in the second statement, that
‘she is a good student’.

In Example 2, the conjunction ‘yet’ indicates a contradiction between the first

statement, that ‘he worked hard’, and the second statement, that ‘he did not achieve
high marks’.

Example 3:
Fred was a conscientious worker, but Harry was lazy.

Example 4:
Fred was a conscientious worker, and he did not approve of Harry’s laziness.

Example 5:
Fred was a conscientious worker, so he completed the job on time.

Note that the ‘and’ in Example 4 has a comma before it because it functions as a
conjunction joining control units. It does not have a comma before it when it is
joining words or phrases. In the following examples, control units are in bold type.

Example:
The lecture was short but informative.

The lecture was short, but the speaker was knowledgeable and interesting.

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Semicolon

An alternative way of joining independent control units (simple sentences) is to use a

semicolon.

Example 1:
Fred was a conscientious worker. Harry was lazy.
This becomes
Fred was a conscientious worker; Harry was lazy.

Example 2:
Fred was a conscientious worker. He did not approve of Harry’s laziness.
This becomes
Fred was a conscientious worker; he did not approve of Harry’s laziness.

The semicolon is particularly useful in academic writing because it allows you to

convey more subtle connections between statements than can be expressed by
conjunctions.

Example 1:
The cultural aspects of presage are not simply cognitive acquisitions; they are,
in fact, essential elements in the construction of subjectivity and sense of self.

Example 2:
In the Cultural Discussion, Chinesse culture was posed as incommensurable
with Western culture; to affirm a different modernity.

Summing up

The following sentences are correct:

Fred was a conscientious worker. Harry was lazy.
Fred was a conscientious worker; Harry was lazy.
Fred was a conscientious worker; however, Harry was lazy.
Fred was a conscientious worker, but Harry was lazy.

The following sentences are incorrect:

Fred was a conscientious worker, Harry was lazy.
Fred was a conscientious worker, however, Harry was lazy.

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Note: ‘However’ is not a conjunction; it cannot be used to join control units. The
same rule applies to ‘therefore’ and ‘thus’.

SUBORDINATION/COORDINATION EXERCISE

In each of the following sentences, join the simple sentences to make new simple,
complex, or compound sentences. Pay special attention to punctuation.
HOMEWORK

1. Jetlag affects most long-distance travellers. Jetlag is the urge to sleep at

inappropriate times.
2. I enjoy watching football. I hate watching tenis.
3. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The installation cost of solar
heating systems is very high.
4. Many international researchers attended the science convention. The convention
was very successful.
5. I was reading the newspaper. I noticed an advertisement for a job I could apply
for.
6. Indonesia is Australia’s closest northern neighbour. Indonesia is an archipelago.
7. This blueprint presents details of the architect’s plans. It must be interpreted
correctly by the builder.
8. We needed to increase sales. We tried a new advertising campaign.
9. Thomas Edison was an inventor. He invented the incandescent light globe. The
incandescent light globe improved life for millions of people.
10. Effective writing is not easy. The ability to write effectively is a graduate skill.
Employers highly value effective writing.

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