VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

“JnanaSangama”, Belagavi – 590 018

A Project Work
on

“Digital PI Control of Two Stage Interleaved Boost Converter”

A dissertation work submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of

Bachelor of Engineering
in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Submitted By

Harish S 1AY14EE024
Ravishankar H S 1AY15EE422
MD Afjal 1AY15EE417
Karan Kumar D 1AY15EE413
Under the guidance of
Mr. Kesari Hanumanthu
Assistant professor
Department of EEE, AIT

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum)
Hesaraghatta Main Road, Soladevanahalli, Bangalore – 560107
2017-2018
 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Soladevanahalli, Bangalore-560 107

2017-2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

CERTIFICATE
Certified that the project work entitled “Digital PI control of two stage interleaved boost
converter” carried out by Harish S (1AY14EE024), Ravishankar H S (AY15EE422), M D
Afjal (1AY15EE417), Karan Kumar (1AY15EE413), bonafide students of Acharya
Institute of Technology in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in
Electrical & Electronics Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological University,
Belgaum during the year 2017-2018 It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated
for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the report deposited in the departmental
library. The project report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in
respect of Project work prescribed for the said degree.

__________________ ___________________ ________________

Mr.Kesari Hanumanthu Dr. R. Prakash Principal,
Assistant Professor, Prof and Head Of Department AIT
Department of EEE, AIT Department of EEE, AIT

External Viva-Voice

Name of the examiners Signature with date

1. .................................. ......................................
2. .................................. ......................................
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of a task would be
incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and without whose
constant guidance and encouragement, success would not have been possible.

We would like to express my sincere thanks to my Internal Guide Mr.KESARI

HANUMANTHU, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, AIT, for his valuable guidance,
encouragement and suggestion which helped me a lot in the completion of the project work.

We would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. R. PRAKASH, HOD, Dept. of EEE,
AIT, for his valuable guidance and support.

We would like to express my gratitude to Dr. SHARANABASAVA C PILLI, Principal,

AIT, for all the facilities that he has extended throughout my work.

Finally, we express our sincere thanks to our parents, all teaching and non- teaching faculty
members, well-wishers and friends for their moral support, encouragement and help
throughout the completion of the project work.

Harish S 1AY14EE024

Ravishankar H S 1AY15EE422

M D Afjal 1AY15EE417

Karan Kumar 1AY15EE413

 ABSTRACT
The project undertaken was to design and build and demonstrate the PI
control of two phase interleaved dc to dc boost converter to improve the
dynamic response of the converter and to maintain a constant output voltage of
24V DC with input voltages ranging from 5V DC to 18V DC. The boost
converter was designed for a minimum input voltage of 5V and the output was
decided to be 24V. The interleaved boost converter was chosen for better
efficiency and lower ripple values. Both simulation and practical
implementation were carried out. The boost converter being a switching based
device, the output was controlled by varying the duty cycle of the PWM gate
pulses given to the switches in the converter by PI control method.

The simulation of the proposed system is carried out by using MATLAB

Simulink and Proteus 8 simulation tools. The output is regulated by the control
circuit which adjusts the duty cycle of the gating pulse to maintain a constant
output. An ATMEGA328P microcontroller was to generate digital control
signals to the driver circuit which supplies the gate pulses signals which drive
the MOSFET, allowing the converter’s output to be kept steady at 24V through
pulse width modulation, even with a fluctuating input voltage. A switching
frequency of 62.5 kHz was chosen. The project involved deciding the required
parameters, design of converter, its state analysis, tuning of PI controller, design
of algorithm for microcontroller programming , output simulation and practical
implementation.
 CONTENTS

1.Introduction………………………………………………………….............01

1.1 Theoretical Background

1.2 Literature Survey

1.3 Project Objectives

1.4 Project Modules

2. DC/DC Converters…………………..……………………………………....05

2.1 DC-DC Converters

2.2 Boost Converters

2.3 Modes of Operation of Boost Converter

3. Interleaving of Converter…...……….……………………….………….......13

3.1 Interleaving Technique

3.2 Working of Interleaved Boost Converter

3.3 Operating Modes of Interleaved Boost Converter

3.4 Advantages of Interleaving

4. Hardware and Software Requirements..………………………………..…...19

4.1 Arduino Uno

4.2 MOSFET Driver IR2104

4.3 Software Requirements

5. Design of the Proposed System…………………………………………..….26

5.1 Calculation of the Values of Components

5.2 Design of the Controller

5.3 State Space Analysis

 5.4 Microcontroller Programming

6. Simulation and Hardware Model…….…….……………………….…….37

6.1 MATLAB Simulation

6.2 Proteus Simulation

6.3 Hardware Model

7. Results………………………………………………..……………………41

7.1 Experimental results

7.2 Applications

7.3 Scope for Advancements

7.4 Conclusion

References……………………………………..………………………...…...44
 FIGURES

Figure Description Page

Number Number
1.1.1 Block diagram of proposed system 02
2.1.1 A fundamental buck DC/Dc converter topology 06
2.1.2 A fundamental boost DC/DC converter topology 06
2.1.3 A typical buck-boost DC/DC converter topology 07
2.1.4 A fundamental flyback DC/DC converter topology 07
2.1.5 A fundamental topology of forward DC/DC converter 08
2.2.1 Boost converter topology 09
2.3.1 Low side switch closed in boost converter 11
2.3.2 Low side switch open in boost converter 11
2.3.3 Timing diagram of boost converter 12
3.2.1 Single stage and interleaved boost converters 14
3.2.2 Currents of two stages of interleaved converter 15
3.3.1 Operating states of interleaved boost converter 16
4.0.1 MOSFET IRF540N 19
4.1.1 Arduino uno board 21
4.2.1 IR2104 driver 23
4.2.2 Basic connection of IR2104 24
5.3.1 Equivalent circuit of operating mode1 of two stage boost converter 29
5.3.2 Equivalent circuit of operating mode2 of two stage boost converter 29
5.3.3 Equivalent circuit of operating mode3 of two stage boost converter 30
5.3.4 Equivalent circuit of operating mode4 of two stage boost converter 30
5.3.5 MATLAB code for transfer function of the system 32
5.3.6 MATLAB code for PI tuning 33
6.1.1 Simulink model for proposed system 37
6.2.1 Proteus model for proposed system 38
6.2.2 Simulation output 39
6.3.1 Hardware model of the project 40
7.1.1 Output of the system for 12V DC input 41
7.1.2 PWM pulses from the driver circuit 42
Digital PI control of two stage interleaved boost converter 2017-18

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1Theoretical Background
The switching mode dc–dc converters are a class of power electronic circuits that
convert one level of DC voltage into another level by switching action . DC-DC
converters may also provide voltage isolation through the utilization of a small high
frequency transformer besides the controllable DC voltage conversion. Due to their
advantageous features in terms of size, efficiency and reliable operation they have been
used in widespread applications such as personal computers, battery charging, DC motor
drive and welding machine. The main task of the controller established in a switching
mode power converter is to drive the main switching device (IGBT or MOSFET) with a
duty cycle, the ratio ontime/switching-period, such that the dc component of the output
voltage is equal to its reference . For reliable operation, this regulation should be
maintained in despite of variations in input voltage and output load, that frequently occurs
in normal operating condition. As the name suggests the switching mode dc-dc converters
periodically entails different modes of operation, each with its own associated linear
continuous-time dynamics. This is the main adversity in controlling of the converter.
Moreover, hard constraint is also present on the input variable (duty cycle) and output
current.

Interleaving of boost converters is done for increased efficiency, better

performance and reduction of the stress on the switching elements of the converter.
Interleaving can be of multiple stages. However we have considered a two stage
interleaved boost converter.

Traditionally, regulation of the output voltage of DC-DC converters has been

achieved through the use of analog controller implemented by analog circuits. However,
change in controller gains or algorithms in an analog controller can only be done by
hardware modification which is time consuming and expensive solution. In addition, the
implementation of newly developed advanced control algorithms by analog circuits is
nearly impossible. On the other hand digital controller implemented by digital processor
such as microcontroller, digital signal processing (DSP) and personal computer has many
advantages over analog controller, including programmability, adaptability, reduced
susceptibility to environmental variations and ability to implement complicated control
algorithms and etc. And also, technological advances have yielded microcontrollers and
DSPs with the necessary on-board features, such as analog-to-digital converter (ADC),
pulse width modulation (PWM), to allow implementation of a digital controller for a DC-
DC converter using a single chip with a few extra component.

In digital implementation of switching mode power converters the main drawback

is the limited switching frequency caused by sampling time delay and processing time of
the control algorithm to calculate the new duty cycle. Nevertheless, using the high speed
DSPs a power converter working an admissible switching frequency may be

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implemented. Also the usage of microcontrollers with internal ADC and PWM operations
can solve the problem.

Figure 1.1.1 Block diagram of proposed system

1.2 Literature Survey

The research problem addressed in this dissertation is the investigation and
implementation of Two stage Boost Converter system for different applications. Design
and control of DC-DC converters is theoretically interesting because it is a multi-
disciplinary research. Theory in the areas of power electronics, systems and control and
computer systems are needed to conduct research in designing and control of DC-DC
converters. The increasing interest in switch mode power supplies is shown in
international conference proceedings and journal publications in the past few years.

Duan and Jin from University of British Columbia made a thorough evaluation of
different digital control design methods for DC-DC converters . The methods include
direct and indirect design approaches. In the direct design approach, small signal models
of the converters are first converted into discrete-time models, and digital controllers are
directly designed based on the discrete-time models. In the indirect design approach,
analog controllers are first designed based on the small signal models of the converters,
and then converted into digital controllers. The best approach is determined based on a
comparison of experimental results. It was concluded that the direct design approach is
better than an indirect design approach. Backward integration methods were suggested to
be a better discretization method for the indirect design approach.

Bibian and Jin from the University of British Columbia studied two prediction
techniques for the compensation of digital control time delay in DC-DC converters.
Modified predictor and simplified predictor were developed to increase the bandwidth of
the control loop. Vallittu, Suntio and Ovaska studied the opportunities and 16 constraints

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of digital control of power supplies. The advantages and disadvantages of analog and
digital control of power supplies were compared in.

D. Jeff Shortt et al, proposed an unconventional switched mode power supply

(SMPS) architecture, developed as four 150-W buck-boost or fly back-type switching
stages operated in phase-shifted-parallel. The fly backs are operated in the continuous
mode with intersecting conduction on both input and output sides; they are switched in
cyclic sequence with one-fourth of a switching period following turn ON of one stage
before turn ON of the next stage. This method reduces the effective input and output
ripple currents of the DC-DC converter because the frequency was N (N is the number of
parallel stages) times the switching frequency of one stage, and the powerstage ripple
current was dramatically less than a comparable converter .

In 1990 K. Mahabir et al focused on designing of control schemes for high power

factor AC to DC converters using a boost converter whose input voltage Vin(t) is the
rectified AC waveform and introduced a new linear model for high power factor AC to
DC converters. Time invariant or periodically varying controllers, acting at the time
scales of the line or switching periods respectively, can then be designed from the
resulting averaged or sampled data models .

The designing and the selection of the boost inductor and circuit performances
were developed and verified with measurements by Chen Zhou et al .A computer aided
design program was developed to select the optimal circuit components. Design
guidelines for the low frequency feedback network were presented using the switch
model for the power factor correction circuit. Small-signal transfer functions for open and
closed-loop responses were derived. Later on, the research was being carried out in
reducing the switching losses, power losses, reduction in the weight of the converter and
power factor correction methods. Richard Redl and Nathan Sokal proposed a novel soft
switching method for DC-DC converter. The converter adds up an external commutating
inductor and two clamp diodes to the phase-shifted PWM full-bridge DC-DC converter
substantially reduces the switching losses of the transistors and the rectifier diodes, under
all loading conditions. The addition of these elements also eliminates the overshoot and
ringing of the rectifier diodes associated with their charge storage and junction
capacitances. The commutating inductance also helps to ensure lossless transition of the
converter, without requiring excessive magnetizing current in the transformer

1.3 Project Objectives

The following are the objectives of the project.

1. To understand the principle and working of boost converters.

2. To understand the concept of interleaving and working modes of the converter.
3. To design a two stage interleaved boost converter for the required specifications:
 Boosting the input voltage is set for a minimum of 5v.
 Output voltage is maintained constant at 24v.
 This is achieved for a switching frequency of 62.5 KHz.

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4. To implement the same on simulation softwares such as the MATLAB Simulink

and Proteus softwares.
5. To design the required PI control algorithm for digital control
6. To decide the required specifications of each component to be used in building the
practical model.
7. Building the practical circuit required to meet the results of simulation
8. Examination of theoretical and practical results.

1.4 Project Modules

Chapter-1 deals with basic details giving a brief introduction to the project ,the
background, the objectives of the project and leads to further modules

Chapter-2 explains the basic concept and types of DC-DC converters, principle of boost
converters, their modes of working and their applications.

Chapter-3 deals with the explanation of the concept of interleaving , their modes of
working and advantages of interleaving and its applications.

Chapter-4 hardware and software requirements specifications

Chapter-5 deals with the design of the boost converter for required specifications and thus
deciding the various parameters deals with the design of the controller, state analysis of
the converter, deciding the PI gain factors and thus designing the algorithm for control
and also the program for digital control.

Chapter-6 deals with the simulation of digital control of the converter and practical
implementation.

Chapter-7 deals with the results including conclusion, evaluation of results and
applications of the project

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Chapter 2

DC/DC CONVERTERS
A DC/DC converter is class of power supply that converts a source of direct
current (DC) from one voltage level to another. There are two types of DC/DC
converters: linear and switched. A linear DC/DC converter uses a resistive voltage
drop to create and regulate a given output voltage, a switched-mode DC/DC
converts by storing the input energy periodically and then releasing that energy to
the output at a different voltage. The storage can be in either a magnetic field
component like an inductor or a transformer, or in an electric field component such
as a capacitor. Transformer-based converters provide isolation between the input
and the output.

Switch mode converters offer three main advantages:

 The power conversion efficiency is much higher.
 Because the switching frequency is higher, the passive components are smaller and
lower losses simplify thermal management.
 The energy stored by an inductor in a switching regulator can be transformed to
output voltages that can be smaller than the input (step-down or buck), greater than
the input (boost), or buck-boost with reverse polarity (inverter).

Unlike a switching converter, a linear converter can onl y generate a voltage

that is lower than the input voltage. While there are many advantages, there are also
some disadvantages with switching DC/DC converters. They are noisy as compared
to a linear circuit and require energy management in the form of a con trol loop.
Fortunately, modern switching-mode controller chips make the control task easy.

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2.1 Classification of DC/DC Converters

The DC/DC converters are mainly classified as non-isolated and isolated
converters.

Non-Isolated DC/DC converters

In essence, a switching DC/DC converter or a regulator is a circuit that uses

a power switch, an inductor, a diode and a capacitor to transfer the energy from the
input to the output. These can be arranged in a variety of ways to realize the buck,
boost or buck-boost (inverter) types identified earlier.

Step-down/buck converter

In a typical non-isolated step-down or buck converter the output voltage

VOUT depends on the input voltage V IN and the switching duty cycle D of the power
switch.

Figure 2.1.1: A fundamental buck DC/DC converter topology.

Step-up boost converter

A fundamental boost DC/DC converter uses the same number of passive

components but arranged to step-up the input voltage so that the output is higher
than the input.

Figure 2.1.2: A fundamental boost DC/DC converter topology.

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Buck-boost converter

A typical buck-boost DC/DC circuit allows the input DC voltage to be either

stepped-up or stepped-down, depending on the duty cycle. The output voltage is
given as:

VOUT = -V IN *D/(1-D)

As seen from the equation above, the output voltage is always reversed in
polarity with respect to the input. Hence, a buck-boost converter is also known as a
voltage inverter.

Figure 2.1.3: A typical buck-boost DC/DC converter topology.

Isolated DC/DC converters

There are two main types of transformer-based isolating DC/DC

converters: flyback and forward. In both these types, the transformer provides the
isolation between the input and the output.The flyback type operates like a buck-
boost but uses a transformer to store energy:

Figure 2.1.4: A fundamental flyback DC/DC converter topology.

The flyback converter is used in both AC/DC and DC/DC conversion

with galvanic isolation between the input and any outputs. The flyback converter is
a buck-boost converter with the inductor split to form a transformer, so that the
voltage ratios are multiplied with an additional advantage of is olation. When
driving for example a plasma lamp or a voltage multiplier the rectifying diode of
the boost converter is left out and the device is called a flyback transformer.

In forward topology, the transformer is used in a traditional manner to

transfer energy from the primary to the secondary when the switch is closed.

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Figure 2.1.5 A fundamental topology of forward DC/DC converter

For these examples, the switching MOSFET is represented by an ideal

switch and the control circuitry is omitted. These are non-synchronous type
converters. However, when the traditional diode rectifier is replaced by a MOSFET
for rectification, it is called synchronous rectification.

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2.2 Boost Converters

DC-DC Converters are used to convert the unregulated DC voltage into regulated
DC voltage. DC-DC converters are operated under continuous conduction mode (CCM)
or discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). As the name implies, the output voltage of
Boost converter is higher than the input voltage. The input and output power of DC-DC
converters are same for ideal case. The DC-DC boost converters operate under two case,
switch ON (SWon) and switch OFF (SWoff). Circuit diagram for the boost converter is
shown in figure:

Figure 2.2.1 Boost converter topology

For the given circuit, the current flows through the inductor (L) and the energy is
stored in inductor when the switch is ON. During SWoff mode, the sum of energy stored in
the inductor during ON time and the supply current will flows through the load resistor
(RL) and the capacitor (C). The output voltage (Vo) appears across the load and the
capacitor stores energy. During SWon mode, the supply current flows through the
inductor(L) and the energy is stored in the inductor. But, at the same time the energy
stored in the capacitor during SWoff is discharged across the load. The diode D is reverse
biased in SWoff and it blocks the reverse flow of current from load to source. Thus, the
load current and voltage is continuous. The output of the converter is controlled by the
duty cycle (D) of the switch. PWM technique is generally adapted to generate the
triggering pulses to control the switch of the DC-DC converter. For the given input supply
voltage (Vs), the output voltage (Vo) of the boost converter circuit can be obtained as
𝑉
𝑠
𝑉0= 1−𝐷

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2.3 Modes of Operation of Boost Converter

Based on different waveforms of the inductor current, there are two conduction
modes for the boost converter, which are the continuous conduction mode (CCM) and the
discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), respectively. In CCM, there is always a positive
current existing in the inductor (The positive direction is defined as flowing from the
input terminal to the output terminal). In the ideal case of CCM, one of the power
switches is immediately turned open when the other one is turned closed, which means
there is not a moment (dead time) when two power switches are simultaneously open. In
DCM, the current flowing through the inductor will go down to zero and stay in zero for
some while, which means there is a period of time (dead time) when the two power
switches will be both open.
Before analysing the basic working principle of the boost DC-DC converter working in
CCM or DCM, some general assumptions should be made first. Based on these
assumptions, it will be easy to describe the waveforms of the boost converter. The
assumptions include:
(1) The converter operates in the steady state. This means that the system parameters
including the input voltage, output voltage and the load current are all constant. For
the boost converter, it also means that the start-up phase has been passed.
(2) The ripple of the output voltage is very small with respect to the average (DC) value
of the output voltage. It means that the output voltage is regarded as a DC voltage.
(3) All the components of the converter are ideal and lossless. It means that the parasitic
effects of the inductor, the capacitor and the transistors are all ignored.
(4) The relationship between the voltage and the current for the inductor and the
capacitor are all linear. It means that the voltage across the inductor and the current
flowing out of the capacitor should always satisfy the basic equations:
𝑉L = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑑𝑖L
𝑑𝑡
𝐼C = 𝐶 ∙ 𝑑𝑣C
𝑑𝑡
Based on these assumptions, the working principle of the boost converter will be
explained as follows. When the low-side power switch (𝑆𝑤L) is closed and the high-side
power switch (𝑆𝑤H) is open, the converter works in the on-time phase. In this phase, the
structure and the waveforms of the converter are shown in Figure 2.3.1. As the middle
point of the converter is connected to ground, the voltage at this point (𝑉mid) is zero.
According to Equation, the current flowing through the inductor (𝑖L) increases by a
constant ratio, which is:
𝑑𝑖L = 𝑉in
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

As for the output voltage of the converter (𝑉out), since the load capacitor is
loaded with a constant current source, the output voltage decreases by a constant ratio,
which is:

𝑑𝑣out = 𝐼load
𝑑𝑡 𝐶load

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After the on-time phase, the boost converter enters into the off-time phase, in
which, the low-side power switch (𝑆𝑤L) is open and the high-side power switch (𝑆𝑤H) is
closed. The structure and the waveforms of the converter in this phase are shown in
Figure 2.3.2. Since the middle point of the converter is connected to the output, the
voltage of this point (𝑉mid) is approximately equal to the DC value of the output voltage
(𝑉out_dc). Therefore, the current flowing through the inductor (𝑖L) can be regarded as
decreasing by a constant ratio, which is

𝑑𝑖L = 𝑉out_dc−𝑉in
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
In this phase, the load capacitor is not only discharged by the constant load current
but also charged by the inductor releasing current which is expressed by Equation. Hence,
in the off-time phase, the output voltage satisfies that:

𝑑𝑣out = 𝑖L−𝐼load
𝑑𝑡 𝐶load

Figure 2.3.1 Low side switch closed in boost converter

Figure 2.3.2 Low side switch open in boost converter

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Figure 2.3.3 Timing diagram of boost converter

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Chapter 3

INTERLEAVING OF CONVERTERS
3.1 Interleaving Technique
Generally to boost up the voltage level or else we can say to get the output voltage
higher than the input, boost converters are used. However when these boost converters
are operated for high ratios leading to some difficulties like higher voltage and current
stress on the MOSFET & higher voltage. Hence as a solution for this, an interleaving
technique for boost converter have been adopted. This approach can be used for higher
power applications to produce high voltage gain compared to the simple boost converter.

In the field of power electronics, application of interleaving technique can be

traced back to very early days, especially in high power applications. In high power
applications, the voltage and current stress can easily go beyond the range that one power
device can handle. Multiple power devices connected in parallel and/or series could be
one solution. However, voltage sharing and/or current sharing are still the concerns.
Instead of paralleling power devices, paralleling power converters is another solution
which could be more beneficial. Furthermore, with the power converter paralleling
architecture, interleaving technique comes naturally. Benefits like harmonic cancellation,
better efficiency, better thermal performance, and high power density can be obtained. In
earlier days, for high power applications, in order to meet certain system requirement,
interleaving multi-channel converter could be a superior solution especially considering
the available power devices with limited performance at that time. Interleaving technique
was also investigated in the early days for the satellite or fuel cell applications, and was
introduced as unconventional SMPS power stage architecture. Interleaving technique can
effectively reduce the filter capacitor size and weight.

Boost power supplies are popular for creating higher dc voltages from low-voltage
inputs. As the power demands from these supplies increase, however, a single power
stage may be insufficient. Interleaving is also called „multiphasing‟ and is useful for
reducing the filter components. It is equivalent to a parallel connection of 2 sets of
switches, diodes and inductors connected to a common filter capacitor and load.

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3.2 Working of Interleaved Boost Converter

Fig 3.2.1: Single stage and Interleaved Boost converters

The diagram above shows a Single stage Boost Converter and Interleaved Boost
Converter. We can see clearly that in the Interleaved topology, between the input and
output stages, there are 2 stages of the power converter in parallel, thereby having 2
inductors, 2 switches and 2 diodes.

In the single-phase design, applying a gate voltage to MOSFET Q1 pulls the drain
potential to ground, applying the input voltage across inductor L1 and causing current to
ramp up. During the ramp time, output capacitor C1 must alone supply the load current.
When Q1 turns off, the voltage across L1 reverses polarity to maintain current flow. This
scenario forces the switch node more positive than the input voltage and forward-biases
diode D1, charging output capacitor C1 and supplying the output current. For each of the
two switching states, the inductor‟s volt-microsecond product must balance. That is,
d/fS*VIN=(1-d)/fS*(VOUT-VIN), yielding the relation VOUT=VIN/(1-d), where d is the
duty ratio, fS is the switching frequency, VIN is the input voltage, and VOUT is the
output voltage. This expression is valid in CCM (continuous conduction mode), in which
the inductor current remains positive at all times. Each phase of the interleaved- boost
converter works in the same way that this single-phase- boost converter does. The two
power stages operate 180 degree out of phase, cancelling the ripple current in the input
and the output capacitors. The interleaved-boost approach uses forced current-sharing
between the power stages to equalize the power that the stages deliver. Without this
feature, one power stage could deliver substantially more power than the other, which
would defeat the ripple cancellation.

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Fig 3.2.2: Currents of the two stages of interleaved converter

Figure above shows that the two power stages are operating 180 degree out of
phase provide a two-to-one reduction in peak-to-peak ripple current. The individual
interleaved power stages operate at the same frequency as the single-phase design, 62.5
kHz, but the effective input- and output-ripple frequency is 125 kHz. The interleaved-
design calculation used a frequency of 62.5 kHz and twice the ripple current of the
single-phase design, yielding half the inductance. Since the same input current of the
single stage is dividing into two in the interleaved design, the inductor specifications like
current rating, LI2 are greatly reduced. The losses are also reduced considerably as the
conduction losses are less compared to the single stage design.

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3.3 Operating Modes of Interleaved Boost Converter

When gate pulse is given to the first for time t1, the current across the inductor
rises and energy is stored in the inductor. When the switch s1 in the first phase turned off,
the energy stored is transferred to the load through the output diode SD1. The inductor
and the capacitor serve as voltage sources to extend the voltage and to reduce the voltage
stress on the switch. The increasing current rate across the output diode is controlled by
inductances the phases. Now the gate pulse is given to the second phase during the period
t1 to t2 when the switch in the first phase is turned OFF. When the switch in the second
phase is turned ON, the inductor charges for the same time and transfers energy to the
load in the similar way as in the first phase. Therefore, two phases feed the load
continuously. Thus the proposed converter operates in continuous conduction mode.

Figure 3.3.1 Operating states of interleaved boost converter

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1. State a :
At time t₀, SW₁ is closed. The current in the inductor L₁’ starts to rise while L₂’ continues
to discharge. The rate of change of iL₂’ is approximately given by
diL₁ = −𝑉₀
𝑑𝑡 𝐿₁′ + 𝐿₂

2. State b :
At time t₁, iL₂ falls to zero, iL₁ continues to rise and the rate of change of iL₁ is given by
diL₁= 𝑉𝑖
𝑑𝑡 L₁
Where L₁ ′ = L₁ + Lm

3. State c :
At time t₂, SW₁ is opened. The energy stored in the inductor L₁ is transferred to the load
via the boost rectifier SD₁. The rate of change of iL₁, is

diL₁= −(𝑉₀ − 𝑉𝑖)

𝑑𝑡 𝐿₁

4. State d :
The switch SW₂ is closed at time t3. The current in inductor L₂ ′ starts to rise, L₁ ′
continues to discharge. The rate of change of iL₁ is approximately given by
diL₁= −(𝑉₀ − 𝑉𝑖)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿₁

5. State e :
At time t4, the inductor current iL₂ rises at the rate of
diL₂= −𝑉₀
𝑑𝑡 𝐿₂

6. State f :
At time t5, SW₂ is opened. L₂ ′ discharges through the output circuit. The rate of change
of iL₂ is
diL₂= −(𝑉₀ − 𝑉𝑖)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿₂

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3.4 Advantages of Interleaving

In the field of power electronics, application of interleaving technique can be traced back
to very early days, especially in high power applications.

In high power applications, the voltage and current stress can easily go beyond the
range that one power device can handle.

Multiple power devices connected in parallel and/or series could be one solution.
However, voltage sharing and/or current sharing are still the concerns.

Instead of paralleling power devices, paralleling power converters is another solution

which could be more beneficial. Furthermore, with the power converter paralleling
architecture, interleaving technique comes naturally.

Benefits like harmonic cancellation, better efficiency, better thermal performance, and
high power density can be obtained.

In earlier days, for high power applications, in order to meet certain system requirement,
interleaving multi-channel converter could be a superior solution especially considering
the available power devices with limited performance at that time.

Interleaving technique was also investigated in the early days for the satellite or fuel cell
applications , and was introduced as unconventional SMPS power stage architecture.
Interleaving technique can effectively reduce the filter capacitor size and weight.

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Chapter 4

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

The basic hardware requirements are mostly the components of the boost converter. This
include two sets of MOSFETs, Inductors and diodes. MOSFETs are the usual switching
components used in the converter. The load side capacitor and input capacitor (for
current source) are also used according to the design. The load is taken to be resistive
load of suitable value. For higher current rating wire wound resistors are used. MOSFET
IRF540N is used for higher current rating and schottky diodes are used for higher forward
current rating and minimum forward voltage drop. The regulated power supply is
preferred for input source to verify the output for the varying input voltage.

Further microcontroller Atmega328P is used to supply controlled PWM pulses to the

switches. The microcontroller has inbuilt ADC and PWM features which reduces the
requirement for separate ADC and PWM modules and thus a single microcontroller will
perform most of the functions of control box. The controller is used on an Arduino Uno
platform for easy connection and communication with the microcontroller.

A driver circuit is used to drive the gate terminals of the MOSFETs and the driver IC
IR2104 is used as the driver. The driver is connected with bootstrap capacitors for
required value to drive the gate terminals. The high side and low side outputs are
available from IC and only highside output is given to the circuit.

The IRF540N is an advanced HEXFET N-channel power MOSFET, from International

Rectifier. The device is extremely versatile with its performance capabilities and thus
becomes ideal for numerous electronic applications.

Figure 4.0.1 MOSFET IRF540N

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MOSFET specifications are as follows:

ID = 33 Amps Max at 10V (VGS), It’s the maximum current handling capacity of the
device across the drain to the source, via the load, with gate voltage at 10V, at normal
temperatures (25 to 35 degrees Cel.)

IDM = 110 Amps Max, It’s the maximum current handling capacity of the device across
the drain to the source, via the load, in a pulsed mode (NOT continuous).

PD = 130 Watts Max, The maximum power the FET can dissipate with and infinite (cool)
heat sink

VGS = 10 Volts typical +/-20%. It’s the maximum trigger voltage that may be applied
across the gate and the source for optimal performance.

V(BR)DSS= 100 volts, It’s the maximum voltage that may be applied across drain to
source of the device.

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4.1 Arduino Uno

The Arduino uno is a widely used open-source microcontroller board based on
the ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is equipped
with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various
expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The board features 14 Digital pins and 6
Analog pins. It is programmable with the Arduino IDE(Integrated Development
Environment) via a type B USB cable.[4] It can be powered by a USB cable or by an
external 9 volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts.

Figure 4.1.1 Arduino Uno board

The technical specifications of Arduino Uno are as follows

 Microcontroller: ATmega328P
 Operating Voltage: 5v
 Input Voltage: 7-20v
 Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins: 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
 Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
 SRAM: 2 KB
 EEPROM: 1 KB
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz
 Length: 68.6 mm
 Width: 53.4 mm

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General Pin functions

 LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH
value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it's using an external
power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power
source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power
jack, access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board
can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector
(5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins
bypasses the regulator, and can damage the board.
 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current
draw is 50 mA.
 GND: Ground pins.
 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage reference
with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the
IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators
on the outputs to work with the 5V or 3.3V.
 Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the
board.
Special Pin Functions
Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 Analog pins on the Uno can be used as an input or
output, using pinMode(),digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5
volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as recommended operating condition and
has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50k ohm. A maximum of
40mA is the value that must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid permanent damage
to the microcontroller.The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of
which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure
from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using
the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

 Serial: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL
serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-
to-TTL Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM(Pulse Width Modulation) 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 Can provide 8-bit PWM
output with the analogWrite() function.
 SPI(Serial Peripheral Interface): 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK).
These pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.

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4.2 MOSFET Driver IR2104

A MOSFET driver IR2104 is used to drive the gate terminals of the MOSFET. The
output of the microcontroller would be at insufficient potential to drive the MOSFETs
IRF540N. The driver takes output PWM pulses from microntroller and takes 12V input
from external source and delivers gate pulses of required amplitude to drive the
MOSFETS. IR2104 is a 600 V Half Bridge Driver IC with typical 0.21 A source and 0.36
A sink currents in 8 Lead PDIP package for IGBTs and MOSFETs.

Figure 4.2.1 IR2104 driver

The summary of its features are as follows:

 Floating channel designed for bootstrap operation

 Fully operational to +600 V
 Tolerant to negative transient voltage
 dV/dt immune
 Gate drive supply range from 10 to 20 V
 Undervoltage lockout
 3.3 V, 5 V, and 15 V logic input compatible
 Cross-conduction prevention logic
 Matched propagation delay for both channels
 Internal set deadtime
 High side output in phase with HIN input
 Shut down input turns off both channels
 Matched propagation delay for both channels

The basic connection of IR2104 with MOSFET is shown here

Figure 4.2.2 Basic connection for IR2104

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4.3 Software Requirements.

The important software requirements are the Simulation tools MATLAB Simulink and
Proteus 8 and the Arduino communication software Arduino ADE for communication
with microcontroller board and the usage of C-programming language for the
microcontroller programs.

MATLAB Simulink
Simulink, developed by MathWorks, is a graphical programming environment for
modeling, simulating and analyzing multidomain dynamical systems. Its primary
interface is a graphical block diagramming tool and a customizable set of block libraries.
It offers tight integration with the rest of the MATLAB environment and can either drive
MATLAB or be scripted from it. Simulink is widely used in automatic control and digital
signal processing for multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design.

Simulink Verification and Validation enables systematic verification and validation of

models through modeling style checking, requirements traceability and model coverage
analysis. Simulink Design Verifier uses formal methods to identify design errors
like integer overflow, division by zero and dead logic, and generates test case scenarios
for model checking within the Simulink environment.
SimEvents is used to add a library of graphical building blocks for modeling queuing
systems to the Simulink environment, and to add an event-based simulation engine to the
time-based simulation engine in Simulink.
Therefore in Simulink any type of simulation can be done and the model can be simulated
at any point in this environment.
Different type of blocks can be accessed using the Simulink library browser. And
therefore the benefit could be taken out from this environment efficiently.

Proteus 8
The Proteus Design Suite is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily
for electronic design automation. The software is used mainly by electronic design
engineers and technicians to create schematics and electronic prints for
manufacturing printed circuit boards.
It was developed in Yorkshire, England by Labcenter Electronics Ltd and is
available in English, French, Spanish and Chinese languages.
It has 3 main modules
The Proteus Design Suite is a Windows application for schematic capture,
simulation, and PCB layout design. It can be purchased in many configurations,
depending on the size of designs being produced and the requirements for microcontroller
simulation. All PCB Design products include an autorouter and basic mixed mode SPICE
simulation capabilities.
Schematic Capture
Schematic capture in the Proteus Design Suite is used for both the simulation of designs
and as the design phase of a PCB layout project. It is therefore a core component and is
included with all product configurations.

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Microcontroller Simulation
The micro-controller simulation in Proteus works by applying either a hex file or a debug
file to the microcontroller part on the schematic. It is then co-simulated along with any
analog and digital electronics connected to it. This enables its use in a broad spectrum of
project prototyping in areas such as motor control, temperature control and user interface
design. It also finds use in the general hobbyist community and, since no hardware is
required, is convenient to use as a training or teaching tool. Support is available for co-
simulation of:

 Microchip Technologies PIC10, PIC12, PIC16,PIC18,PIC24,dsPIC33

Microcontrollers.
 Atmel AVR (and Arduino), 8051 and ARM Cortex-M3 Microcontrollers
 NXP 8051, ARM7, ARM Cortex-M0 and ARM Cortex-M3 Microcontrollers.
 Texas Instruments MSP430, PICCOLO DSP and ARM Cortex-M3
Microcontrollers.
 Parallax Basic Stamp, Freescale HC11, 8086 Microcontrollers.
PCB Design
The PCB Layout module is automatically given connectivity information in the form of
a netlist from the schematic capture module. It applies this information, together with the
user specified design rules and various design automation tools, to assist with error free
board design. PCB's of up to 16 copper layers can be produced with design size limited
by product configuration.
3D Verification
The 3D Viewer module allows the board under development to be viewed in 3D together
with a semi-transparent height plane that represents the boards enclosure. STEP output
can then be used to transfer to mechanical CAD software such
as Solidworks or Autodesk for accurate mounting and positioning of the board.

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Chapter 5

DESIGN OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

The design of the Interleaved Boost Converter in Continuous Conduction mode (CCM) is
similar to the design of the single stage normal boost converter with slight differences.

The design parameters are as below :

 Minimum Input Voltage (Vd ) – 5 V

 Output Voltage (VO ) - 24 V
 Output Power – 10W
 Switching frequency (of each MOSFET switch) – 62.5 KHz
 Voltage ripple – 20mV
 Current ripple – 40 % of load current .
The design is done for the ideal condition. Voltage drop across the diodes and
switches is not considered. ESR (Equivalent series resistance) of Capacitor is not
considered.

5.1 Calculation of the Values of Components:

A. Duty cycle (D)
Formula for the voltage conversion ratio is as below.
VO / Vd = 1 / (1-D)
D = (24 – 5) / 24
= 0.791666

B. Current Ripple (∆IL)

Load current
Io = Output power / Output voltage
Io = 10/ 24 = .4166 = .4166A
∆ Io = 40 % of load current (.4166A)
= .16664 A

Relation between input and output currents is as below.

IIN = Io / (1-D)
=>2IL = Io / (1-D)
=> IL = (0.5) Io / (1-D)
=> IL = (0.5)0.4166/(1- 0.79166)
= .998A = .998=1A

(Therefore IIN = 2IL = 2A)

∆ IL = 20 % of IL (2A)
∆ IL = 0.4A

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C. Inductor value
For CCM, Output current (IO) should be greater than the boundary current (IOB)
IO > IOB
Vo / R > Ts Vo D (1-D)2 / 2L
L min > RTs D (1-D)2 / 2

Ts (Time period) = 1 / fs
= 1 / 62.5 KHz = 16 µs

Vd = 5 V Vo = 24 V
The minimum value of inductance for CCM is given by the below formula:

Lmin > RTs D(1-D)2 / 2

Lmin > (150) (16/1000000)(0.79166) (1- 0.79166)2 / 2
Lmin > 41.23 µH
If the inductance value is 41.23uH, it will result in boundary condition.

L = VdDTs / ∆IL
L = (5 )(0.79166)(16*10-6) / .4,
L = 158.33µH
As we can see, this is much greater than the boundary value resulting in CCM

D. Capacitance value
C = Io D (Ts/2) / ∆V
C = (.4166) (0.79166) (16*10-6/2) / .02 = 131 µF

Thus we use 330uH Inductors and 147uF capacitor.

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5.2 Design of the Controller

The PI control technique is used in the control of the duty cycle. The
Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller is a proportional controller (simple gain ) and an

integrator . Examples of PI controllers with different zeros are on the right.

The controlled closed loop transfer function is given by 1+G(s)K(s)=0. Here Kp and Ki
are controller parameters or gains.

Thus the controller design requires the design of open loop transfer function G(s). This is
obtained by state space analysis.

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5.3 State Space Analysis

The state space averaging technique is used for the analysis of interleaved boost
converter. Using these equations mathematical model is obtained for the two phase
interleaved boost converter. The operation of the converter is explained with the help of
four switching modes of the converter. This converter comprises of four modes of
operation. The state equations are derived as follows.
Mode-1: During mode 1 the switches Q1 and Q2 are switched on and the diodes D1and
D2 are under off condition. Figure shows the equivalent circuit for this mode.

Figure 5.3.1 Equivalent circuit operating mode1 of two stage boost converter

The following equations describes the mode 1 operation where inductor current 𝑖𝐿1 and
𝑖𝐿2 are taken as state variables . Also capacitor voltage Vo is considered as third state
variable.

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 𝑉𝑠
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1

𝑑𝑉𝑜 𝑉0
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝑉𝑠
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2

1
0 0 0 𝐿1
A= [0 0 0]
−1
B=[ 1 ]
0 0 𝐿2
𝑅𝐶
0

During mode 2, the switch Q1 is in on condition and switch Q2 is in off condition and D1
is in off condition and D2 is in on condition respectively. The figure represents the
operation under mode 2.

Fig:5.3.2 Equivalent circuit during mode2 of two stage boost converter

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𝑑𝑖𝐿1 𝑉𝑠
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1

𝑑𝑉𝑜 𝑖𝐿2 𝑉0
= −
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑜
= −
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 𝐿2

1 1
0 0 𝐿1
𝐿1
A= [0 0 0] B=[ 1 ]
1 −1 𝐿2
0 𝐶 𝑅𝐶 0

In mode 3, the switch Q1 is in off condition and the switch Q2 is in on condition and the
corresponding diodes such as D1 and D2 are in on and off conditions respectively. The
figure represents the operation of IBC under mode 3.

Fig 5.3.3 Equivalent circuit during mode3 of two stage boost converter

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝑉𝑠
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2

𝑑𝑉𝑜 𝑖𝐿1 𝑉0
= −
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑜
= −
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 𝐿1

1 1
0 0 𝐿1
𝐿1
A= [0 0 0] B=[ 1 ]
1 −1 𝐿2
0
𝐶 𝑅𝐶 0

Fig 5.3.4: Equivalent circuit during mode4 of two stage boost converter

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𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑜
= −
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 𝐿2

𝑑𝑉𝑜 𝑖𝐿1 𝑖𝐿2 𝑉0

= − −
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑜
= −
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 𝐿1

1 1
0 0 𝐿1
𝐿1
A= [0 0 0] B=[ 1 ]
1 −1 𝐿2
0 𝐶 𝑅𝐶 0

The state equations and the coefficient matrix for the interleaved converter is given
below.

X   AX  BU
Y=CX+DU
 A  A1d1  A2d2  A3d3  A4d4
B  B1d1  B2d2  B3d3  B4d4
D  d1  d2  d3  d4

The transfer function of the boost converter are given as below.

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The transfer function was obtained from MATLAB program by knowing the required
component values of inductors and resistors etc as shown

Figure 5.3.5 MATLAB code for transfer function of the system

Thus transfer function was obtained as

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Various methods are available for Pi tuning like the Zieger Nicols method. However,
from the same MATLAB code the PI controller parameters were also obtained as shown:

Figure 5.3.5 MATLAB for PI tuning

Thus PI parameters were obtained as Ki=.0.427 , Kp= .0001

The controller algorithm for the control of PWM duty cycle was also prepared. Reducing
the output voltage of 24 volts to 24*1000/(10000) by connecting a series combination of
two resistors of 1k and 10k in parallel with the load resistance in accordance with
microcontroller specifications.

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5.4 Microcontroller Programming

The microcontroller program includes designing the algorithm for the

functioning of the microcontroller, creating the required C-program for the
microcontroller and loading them into the controller using Arduino ADE
driver software.
The control involves the following steps
Step1. Intialise microcontroller, ADC, ports, setting frequency and duty
cycle
Step2. Specify the reference value to maintain constant voltage at this value.
Step3. Input the PI tuning parameters and.
Step4. Compare the output voltage and the reference voltage.
Step5. Set the duty cycle to a higher or lower value based on the output from
comparison.

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The algorithm is created as shown

Initialize microprocessor

Initialize

Initialize Output and Input Ports

Declare Variables

Set Frequency to 50 kHz

Set Initial Duty Cycle = 50%

Output Pulses

Read A to D Converter

YES

Keep duty Feedback =

cycle constant Desired
Output

NO

Feedback>Desired Increase Duty Cycle

Output
NO

YES

Decrease Duty Cycle

The ADC is a 10 bit ADC and hence, the voltage is divided between 5serial input pins as
5/1024. Similarly, the output voltage is divided by a series combination of two resistors
of 10k and 1k connected in parallel to the output resistor as Vo*1k/(1k+10k).
Thus the 24v reference is taken as to be around 446 out of 1024.

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Further the duty cycle is divided between 0 to 255 states and the 79.166% duty
cycle is corresponding to 203. This is considered while writing the program for the
controller. The pin Ao of the serial input is taken as the input pin and the pin 9 which is a
PWM pin is taken as the output pin.

The ouput of the microcontroller is of the range of 5v and the MOSFET IRf540N
would require a gate pulse with amplitude ranging upto 10V. Hence the driver IR2104 is
used with bootstrap capacitors of 22.1uF. The driver should be given a separate 12 V
supply and thus the gate pulses would be supplied at 10V.

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Chapter 6

SIMULATION AND HARDWARE MODEL

6.1 MATLAB Simulation

The simulation studies are performed in Simulink with the following specifications
Vd=5V, Vo=24V, Co = 147 μF, L1=L2 = 330μH, and R0 = 50 ohm (load resistance)
using the model given . In order to clarify the effectiveness of the designed PI controller
the converter was tested with and without controller when output load and input voltage
changes drastically. The simulink block diagram of the controlled boost converter was
given in Fig. 3. and the simulation waveforms are shown in Figures.

Figure 6.1.1 Simulink model for proposed system

The gain values determined by the PI tuning application of MATLAB are also used in the
simulation of the project.

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6.2 Proteus Simulation

Similar simulation studies were performed using the proteus design suite for the same
specifications.

Figure 6.2.1 Proteus model for proposed system

The proteus design suite further specifies the different components, driver and the
microcontroller. The microcontroller is programmed for PI control with obtained tuning
parameter. Ki is set at 0.427 and the output Kp is set to 0.0001 and the output is given to
the driver circuit with the boostrap capacitors. The output of the driver is given to the gate
terminals of the MOSFET and the output is verified.

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Figure 6.2.2 Simulation output

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6.3 Hardware Model

The hardware components were selected based on the required current and voltage
ratings. The current rating up to 2A was anticipated and MOSFET IRF540 and schottky
diode with 10A rating was used for safe operation and minimum voltage drop. Further the
output power was assumed to be 10 watt for designing and the wire wound resistor with
20 watt were used as load. Separate 12V supply was given to the driver and the Arduino
boards. Further CROs and Multimeters were used to verify the results and a regulated
power supply was used to give a variable supply.

Figure 6.3.1 Hardware model of the project

1. Output Display
2. CRO
3. Two stage boost converter
4. Driver circuit
5. Microcontroller
6. Load
7. Variable power supply.

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Chapter 7
RESULTS

7.1 Experimental Results

The experimental results indicated that the output remained around 24V DC with a
variable input voltage from 5V DC to 18V DC . The results were observed for both the
simulation and practical implementation. The change in the duty cycle of the PWM
pulses was also observed using digital oscilloscopes and the functioning was ascertained.

Figure 7.1.1 Output of the system for 12V DC input

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Figure 7.1.2 PWM pulses from driver circuit

The output voltage for different input values from both simulation and practical results
was tabulated as follows
Table 7.1
SERIAL INPUT SIMULATION PRACTICAL PWM
NUMBERS VOLTAGE OUTPUT OUTPUT DUTY
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE CYCLE
01 5 24 23.8 0.793
02 8 24 23.4 0.667
03 10 24 23.5 0.583
04 12 24 23.5 0.511
05 16 24.1 23.8 0.334
06 20 24.2 24.1 0.167
07 23 24.2 24.5 0.043

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7.2 Applications

This method of controlling the output voltage with a compact and simple digital circuit
will help better use of solar energy harvesting for electricity supply to various devices
which require constant supply. Further this would also be helpful for hybrid vehicles
where fuel cells with interleaved boost converters are used. The development and
increase in efficiency of solar energy based vehicles can further be encouraged and better
efficiency would also attract consumers, thus helping reduce the pollution by
conventional vehicles.

7.3 Scope for Advancements

The switching mode converters are a never ending research area with huge scope for
future advancements and inventions. Various changes and advancements can also be
made to the proposed model.
The supply for the boost converters from PV modules can be employed instead of a
regulated power supply for a real time practical application on for controlling the output
voltage of solar cells and maintaining a steady value.
The number of stages in the boost converter of the project model has been chosen to be
two. This can be increased based on the required power gain and power rating. Highe
power rating would require more number of stages to further reduce the current stress on
the switching elements and for much lower ripple values.
Similar method of control can be used to control other type of converters like the Buck
converter and Buck-Boost converters.
Microcontrollers with higher frequency of operation can further increase the sampling
frequency of the integral controller implemented by microcontroller. This enables better
control mechanism.
Further the control mechanism can also be tested with inductive and capacitive loads also.
The same control mechanism and the proposed model can be verified to to control the
change in output voltage due to the change in the load.
Control methods other than PI control like the PID control method and sliding mode
control method can also be used by verifying their respective advantages.
The digital control of the ouput voltage can also be achieved by developing DSP based
controllers and FPGA or CMOS circuit based controllers.

7.4 Conclusion

The project aim was achieved and a constant output voltage was obtained for
variations in input voltages. This also provides a simple and economical
method to control boost converters with high gain and even can be extended
to high power converters. The PI control algorithm thus provides an easier
solution to complex problem of controlling the output voltage in solar
applications, Hybrid vehicles etc. The microcontrollers with internal PWM
features and ADC features make the control more easier and thus can be
extended to other applications involving PWM switching methods.

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REFERENCES
[1] H. M. Swamy, K. P. Guruswamy, and S. P. Singh, “Design, Modeling
and Analysis of Two Level Interleaved Boost Converter,” IEEE International
Conference on Machine Intelligence and Research Advancement (ICMIRA),
pp. 509-514, December, 2013
[2] A. Ghosh, S. Banerjee, M. K. Sarkar, and P. Dutta, “Design and
Implementation of Type-II and Type-III Controller for DC-DC Switched-
Mode Boost Converter by using K-Factor Approach and Optimization
Techniques,” IET Power Electronics, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 938-950, 2016. (doi:
10.1049/iet-pel.2015.0144)
[3] H. B. Shin, J. G. Park, S. K. Chung, H. W. Lee, T. A. Lipo ,
Generalised Steady-State Analysis of Multiphase Interleaved Boost
Converter With Coupled Inductors. IEE Proc. Electr. Power Appl, Vol.152,
No.3, Page 584–594,2005
[4] P. Li and B. Lehman, “A design method for paralleling current mode
controlled DC-DC converters,” IEEE Trans. on Power Electron., vol. 19,
no.3May,2004.
[5] I. Cadirci, A. Yafavi and M. Ermis, “Unity power factor boost converter
with phase shifted parallel IGBT operation for medium power applications.”
IEE. Proc.-Electr. Power Appl. Vol.149, No. 3, May 2002.
[6] D. Maksimovic, R. Zane, and R. Erickson, “Impact of Digital Control in
Power Electronics.” IEEE International Symposium on Power
Semiconductor Devices &Ics Kitakyushu, Japan, May 2004.

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