ACI 334.

3R-05

Construction of Concrete Shells

Using Inflated Forms
Reported by Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 334

David B. South
Chair

John F. Abel Frederick L. Crandall Luis F. Meyer William C. Schnobrich

David P. Billington Phillip L. Gould John C. Miller Barry South
Arthur J. Boyt, Jr. Takashi Hara Thomas E. Nelson, Jr. Jason P. South
James L. Byrne Michael D. Hunter John K. Parsons Arnold Wilson
John V. Christiansen Mark A. Ketchum Dale A. Pearcey L. Brent Wright
Matthew S. Church Samaan G. Ladkany Ryan E. Poole

This report provides information on the construction of structural concrete 2.3—Soil conditions
shells using an inflated form. Major facets of the construction process are 2.4—Reinforcement material
covered, including foundations, inflation, monitoring, and backup systems.
Other aspects, such as the geometric variations of inflated forms, thickness of
2.5—Placement of reinforcement
polyurethane foam, and mixture proportions for shotcrete, are also considered. 2.6—Placement of anchors
2.7—Concrete placement
Keywords: dome; fabric; inflation; polyurethane foam; reinforcement; 2.8—Foundation dowels
shotcrete; thin shell. 2.9—Uplift prevention

CONTENTS Chapter 3—Inflated forms, p. 334.3R-6

Chapter 1—General, p. 334.3R-2 3.1—General
1.1—Introduction 3.2—Inflated form material and manufacturing
1.2—Scope 3.3—Field layout
1.3—History 3.4—Form protection
1.4—Methods 3.5—Initial stretching
1.5—Definitions 3.6—Inflation
1.6—Preconstruction 3.7—Construction tolerances
1.7—Work schedule 3.8—Air pressure maintenance
3.9—Collapse prevention
Chapter 2—Foundations, p. 334.3R-4 3.10—Miscellaneous connections
2.1—General 3.11—Fabric form repair
2.2—Concrete 3.12—Polyurethane foam (when used)
3.13—Preparation
3.14—Foam application
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and 3.15—Construction hazards
Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning,
designing, executing, and inspecting construction. This Chapter 4—Shotcrete dome, p. 334.3R-9
document is intended for the use of individuals who are
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its 4.1—General
content and recommendations and who will accept 4.2—Reinforcement material and size
responsibility for the application of the material it contains. 4.3—Clear spacing between bars
The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all
responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not 4.4—Splices
be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ACI 334.3R-05 became effective September 16, 2005.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by the Copyright © 2005, American Concrete Institute.
Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction
the Architect/Engineer. or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing
is obtained from the copyright proprietors.

334.3R-1
334.3R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

4.5—Cover
4.6—Preliminary reinforcement mat (premat)
4.7—Shell reinforcement
4.8—Preconstruction shotcrete tests
4.9—Shotcrete compression tests
4.10—Proportions and materials
4.11—Field practice
4.12—Nozzle operator qualifications
4.13—Shotcrete operation
4.14—Discharge time
Fig. 1.1—Faith Chapel Christian Center, Birmingham, Ala.:
4.15—Joints 280 ft (85.35 m) diameter and 72 ft (22 m) tall that includes
4.16—Multi-pass technique a 3200-seat sanctuary, classrooms, and an administration
4.17—Curing building.
4.18—Shotcrete placement tolerance
4.19—Shotcrete damage
4.20—Completion

Chapter 5—References, p. 334.3R-13

5.1—Referenced standards and reports
5.2—Cited references

CHAPTER 1—GENERAL
1.1—Introduction (Fig. 1.1) Fig. 1.2—Price City Works Complex, Price, Utah. Four
For centuries, arched and dome-shaped structures have domes: 130 x 43 ft (40 x 13.1 m) fire station; 130 x 43 ft (40
efficiently enclosed large clear-span volumes. The strength of x 13.1 m) storage facility; 130 x 43 ft (40 x 13.1 m) mainte-
compound-curved surfaces allowed early builders to nance shop; and 90 x 40 ft (27 x 12.2 m) office and adminis-
construct self-supporting thin-shell buildings from a variety tration building.
of materials. Due to the tremendous amount of time and effort
needed to create the desired shapes, construction of these
thin-shelled structures sometimes spanned several decades.
Knowledge of the design and construction of thin-shell
concrete structures has greatly increased over the past 100
years, both from research and practical experience. In the
past 40 to 50 years, the use of inflated forms has allowed shells
to be constructed more economically (South 1990). This new
type of construction process presents new challenges and
concerns. Safety measures and construction tolerances are
addressed in this report for many types of systems using
inflatable forms.

1.2—Scope (Fig. 1.2)

This report contains the lessons learned in the construction
of thin-shell concrete dome structures using inflated forms. Fig. 1.3—U.S. Borax and Chemical Co., Boron, Calif.: two
As this method of construction continues to gain popularity, 20,000 ton (18,000 tonne) borax storage domes, 150 x 79 ft
(45.7 x 24.1 m).
additional research is needed to increase understanding of
the behavior of this type of shell so that inflated-form structures
continue to meet adequate levels of safety and serviceability. shotcrete applied to the form exterior, and foam and shot-
Included are construction procedures, tolerances, and design crete applied to the form interior.
checks to ensure that the finished structure meets adequate In 1942, Wallace Neff received a patent on a system where
safety and serviceability levels. This document focuses the form was inflated to the shape of the structure, and then
primarily on inflated form thin shells using polyurethane the reinforcing bar and shotcrete were placed on the exterior
foam as part of the construction process. Many structures are of the form (Neff 1942). Dante Bini later developed and
built using fabric forms where the concrete is applied received a patent on a system where the reinforcement and
directly to the form either from the outside or the inside. concrete were placed on the exterior of the form before it was
These general guidelines apply to all methods. inflated. It was then raised by air pressure to form the dome
(Fig. 1.4) (Bini 1986).
1.3—History (Fig. 1.3) In 1972, Lloyd Turner received a patent on a process in
Since the early 1940s, several methods of construction using which the inflated form was sprayed with foam on the inside
inflatable forms have been used. These methods include to a desired thickness creating a self-supporting foam dome
 CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SHELLS USING INFLATED FORMS 334.3R-3

Fig. 1.4—Construction of Bini shell. Fig. 1.5—Construction of Turner shell.

(Turner 1972). The patent was later reissued with concrete

applied to the interior of the foam (Fig. 1.5).
In 1979, David and Barry South were issued patents on a
method similar to that of Turner’s (South 1979). Their
method differed in that the structure was self supporting only
after the shotcrete was in place (Fig. 1.6) (South 1986).
All patents for the use of inflated forms in construction of
thin shells are now in the public domain with one exception:
the Crenosphere™, the technique patented by David South
for the construction of thin shell domes of diameters larger
than 300 ft (91 m) using a cable net restraint system and ribs.
Fig. 1.6—Construction of South shell.
When the concrete is placed on the outside of the form, the
cables will be buried in the concrete and function as rein-
forcement. When the concrete is placed on the inside of the
form, the cables are removed once the structure is solid.
Bridges and arch buildings have been built using inflated
forms where inflation forces are restrained by steel hoops
placed on the exterior of the inflated form. Some very large
dome-type structures have used steel tie-down systems to
allow higher inflation pressures.

1.4—Methods (Fig. 1.7)

Inflated-form, thin-wall shotcrete construction has
become one of the most common and widely used methods
in the construction of domes. The Monolithic Dome Institute
estimates over 2000 thin shells have been built over the last
30 years using the fabric form method, whereas those built Fig. 1.7—“Eye of the Storm,” Sullivan’s Island, S.C.: prolate
with conventional forming methods are few in number. ellipse residence—80 ft (24.4 m) long, 57 ft (17.4 m) wide,
Until recently, only a few contractors have possessed the skills and 34 ft (10.4 m) tall.
and the equipment necessary to undertake this type of construc-
tion. As architects and engineers are becoming aware of the • Foundation details—anchor system, uplift prevention,
advantages of this inflated form method and its use increases, layout, and form tension;
industry design and construction standards are needed. • Air pressure—backup system, monitoring, and collapse
Shotcrete can be placed on the inflated form from either prevention; and
the outside or inside. Some systems use higher air pressure • Applied loads—live loads and dead loads.
and the inflated fabric form to support all the loads, whereas
others support some construction loads with a reinforcement 1.5—Definitions
layer and initial layers of shotcrete. basket—the personnel aerial lift platform that raises
Although each method has unique construction chal- workers to work on the dome.
lenges, they all have many similar characteristics. This dead loads—the fixed weight of a structure plus any fixed
report does not distinguish between the different methods or loads such as attached equipment, bridges, supports, head
make judgments as to the validity of each. It discusses the houses, platforms, catwalks, ceilings, and conveyors resting
construction factors that are common to all of the inflated or hanging from the structures.
form methods: embeds—anchor bolts, inserts, pipe sleeves, pipes,
• Inflated form manufacturing—shape, size, fabric, and conduits, reinforcement, wiring, flashing, instruments, and
fabrication; other devices encased in the concrete.
334.3R-4 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

inflator—the fan or blower assembly.

manometer—the pressure gauge for measuring the air
pressure within the inflated form.
preliminary reinforcement mat (premat)—a grid of No. 3
or 4 (No. 10 or 13) bars at approximately 2 ft (0.6 mm) on
center, which gives the dome additional stiffness and strength
before the first layer of structural reinforcement is placed.
rebound—aggregate and cement paste that ricochets off
the surface during the application of shotcrete because of
collision with the hard surface, reinforcement, or other
aggregate particles.
shear key—a longitudinal notch in the footing that acts as
a mechanical shear connector between the dome shell and
the footing. Fig. 2.1—Dome edge constructions (Billington 1982).
shotcrete (for construction of thin shells using inflated
forms)—generally a mixture of cement, sand, pea gravel
with a maximum aggregate size of 3/8 in. (10 mm), and
water projected at high velocity onto a surface. See ACI
506R for more information on shotcrete.

1.6—Preconstruction
All-weather road access to the site should be provided for
the constructor’s personnel and vehicles during construction.
The contract documents should provide the general layout
of the dome, including a center point and orientation for
doorways. The preconstruction and construction testing
procedures should be agreed upon between the owner and
the constructor. (The owner usually provides for all testing
either in-house or by use of a testing agency.) Fig. 2.2—A typical anchoring system.

1.7—Work schedule inflated form, and the air seal to prevent the pressurized air
Most of the work done inside and outside the dome is from from escaping. The footing ring can also be used as a tension
baskets. Because only a few people can work out of any ring to resist the horizontal thrust of internal loading.
single basket, production can be increased by working
longer hours or, on larger structures, using more baskets. 2.2—Concrete
When spraying foam or shotcrete, schedules are greatly Certification that the concrete meets ASTM C 94 should
influenced by weather conditions or how much work that can accompany each concrete delivery.
be done at once, so flexibility is important in creating the Concrete properties and handling should conform to
work schedule. The constructor may work one, two, or three ACI 301 and the following:
shifts, arranging their work to best fit the project require- • Minimum 28-day compressive strength of 3000 psi
ments. Job site cooperation is important to assure a quality, (210 MPa);
safe, and productive project, as well as to minimize the risk • Maximum coarse aggregate size of 1 in. (25 mm);
associated with this method of construction (for example, • Air entrainment of 6.5 ± 1.5% (these are higher levels
relying on fans to hold up the dome). than in ACI 214R);
• No added calcium chloride;
CHAPTER 2—FOUNDATIONS • Water-cement ratio of 0.55 or less; and
2.1—General • Slump of 2 in. (50 mm) minimum to 8 in. (200 mm)
The dome foundation usually consists of a reinforced maximum at the point of discharge.
concrete ring-beam footing, circular in plan, rectangular in If placed on aggressive soils, greater strength or chemical
section, and designed for anticipated loadings and soil resistance can be achieved by adjusting the mixture propor-
bearing conditions. The footing usually acts as a tension ring tions. For instance, the use of sulfate-resistant cement may
to resist vertical and internal loads. Design considerations be required.
include the size of the dome, the occupancy, local building
codes, relevant national standards, and soil report (Fig. 2.1) 2.3—Soil conditions
(Billington 1982). When soil conditions allow, excavating a trench to the
The footing ring beam provides the foundation for the required dimensions and placing the concrete and reinforcing
finished structure, anchorage points for the inflated form bars in the trench is acceptable. If trenches are not practical,
(Fig. 2.2), the weight to resist the upward pressure of the then wood or metal forms can be used. The top of the footing
 CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SHELLS USING INFLATED FORMS 334.3R-5

should be formed and finished to final grade and geometry

for proper inflated form attachment.
Because the dome is light and the shell is monolithic, it is
generally tolerant of differential settlement. Spread footings
are normally used, but if the soils do not have adequate
bearing capacity, pilings can be used to support the dome.
The ring beam and the dome must always be integral. If piles
or columns are used, the ring beam can be set on top of the
piles. The conventional grade beam may not be needed, but
the ring beam is required. If the dome is built or resting upon
columns and walls, the dome will be able to withstand differ-
ential settlement, but the columns and walls may not.
The footing trench should be inspected for proper bearing Fig. 2.3—Ring beam footing.
voids or loose compaction. Because of the bridging ability of
the concrete dome, small areas of uncompacted material
(less than 15% of the footing), can be tolerated.
The footing and shell structures should, in all cases, be
separated from the floor system when bulk storage of material
is expected on the inside. This will prevent the floor settle-
ment from damaging the shell footing and foundations.
There are many cases, however, when the footing and floor
should be placed together then connected to the shell,
creating one continuous piece that moves together. These
options and needs should be discussed with the engineer.

2.4—Reinforcement material
Reinforcement properties should conform to ACI 301. File
copies of standard mill-run metal are used to confirm that the
quality and quantity of reinforcement delivered to the project
is in accordance with the contract documents. An inspection
should be made of each shipment, and the inspection report
should become part of the quality assurance record. The rein-
Fig. 2.4—Attachment of reinforcement.
forcement for the dome is usually placed on cribbing inside
the foundation area and then covered before spreading the
fabric form out and connecting the form to the foundation. foundation. The inflated form tie-down bolts should be accu-
rately positioned in the formwork before concrete placement.
2.5—Placement of reinforcement Some manufacturers of inflated forms insert a continuous
Foundation reinforcement should be placed in conformance rope in the bottom of the inflated form and anchor the form
with ACI 301 and to the position shown on the contract docu- by clamping a steel strap or bar above the rope to the foun-
ments. Reinforcement supports, such as chairs, should be used
dation. Along with transferring the loads to the foundation,
to attain proper vertical positioning (Fig. 2.3 and 2.4).
the anchoring system should provide an adequate seal to
Concrete domes usually require significant reinforcement
prevent excessive air leakage (Boyt 1986). Anchors should
at the sides of the doorways and matching dowels from the
not impart high local stresses to the inflated form.
foundation. To prevent field bending of bars larger than No. 7
(No. 22), pipe sleeves can be placed in the foundation.
Reinforcing bars can then later be inserted into the sleeves 2.7—Concrete placement
and grouted in place with nonshrink grout (Peterson 1998). The concrete should be placed in accordance with ACI 301.
Mechanical splice connectors can also be used to connect Concrete should be placed continuously, or to preplanned
short vertical dowels placed in the footing. The pipe sleeves construction joints, as described in ACI 304R. Construction
will generally not be longer than the lap length of the partic- joints, if used, should be located away from entranceways,
ular reinforcing bar that is going to be inserted. because the additional reinforcement usually placed there can
The reinforcement should be inspected for proper place- cause joint-forming problems. The concrete should be consol-
ment, including lap length and lap staggers. idated by vibration, as described in ACI 309R.
The top of the footing should have a scratched finish, in
2.6—Placement of anchors conformance with ACI 301. The top of the footing should
Several different anchor systems are available to secure also have a preformed or hand-formed shear key. Before
the inflated form to the foundation ring beam. Each system applying the shotcrete to the dome shell, the foundation
needs to ensure that the loads will be properly transferred to the should be cleaned of dirt and loose debris.
334.3R-6 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Fig. 3.1—Inflation of Natural Ovens Bakery, Valparaiso,

Ind.: 220 x 64 ft (67.1 x 19.5 m).

Fig. 2.5—Vertical dowels field-bent down.

2.8—Foundation dowels
If required, after the concrete is placed and sufficient
strength is attained in the footing, the vertical dowels should
be field-bent down (Fig. 2.5). This field bend should be in
accordance with ACI 301. Vertical dowels should be secured
and padded so they do not interfere with spreading of the Fig. 3.2—“Xanadu” residence, Sedona, Ariz., consisting of
10 shells including spherical, oblate ellipsoid, prolate
fabric form. After the fabric form is inflated and the foam is
ellipsoid, and cylindrical shapes ranging from 20 to 36 ft (7
placed, these bars will be bent back up to the vertical position to 11 m) in diameter.
to be lapped with the shotcrete reinforcement. If a dowel
breaks, it should be replaced by drilling into the footer,
embedding a new dowel in the hole, and applying an appro- fabric form should be within 3% of the total height of the
priate epoxy. design measured at the center of the building. For example, a
Foundation vertical dowels, when lapped with the dome 200 ft (61 m) diameter hemisphere may have a measured
reinforcement, should connect the dome to the footing. The height at the center that varies ±3%, which equals ±3 ft
dowels can be placed and tied before the concrete is cast or (±0.9 m) or between 97 and 103 ft (29.6 and 31.4 m).
inserted and consolidated into fresh concrete. Insertion into
fresh concrete requires that the foundation depth exceed the 3.2—Inflated form material and manufacturing
development length of the dowels to provide proper rein- The inflated form is an engineered fabric structure. The
forcement clearance to the ground. For more information form’s shape, size, fabric, and fabrication need to be consid-
about reinforcing bar bending, see ACI 318. ered before a thin-shell inflated-form structure is designed.
3.2.1 Shape—The spherical shape, or portion of a sphere,
2.9—Uplift prevention is the simplest inflated form to manufacture and is the most
The designer of the foundation should consider the possi- common. Ellipsoids, barrel, and cylindrical shapes can also
bility of uplift. The concrete foundation weight should have be used. Because improved technology has provided the
an adequate factor of safety against vertical displacement or ability to create different shapes, the designer should contact
ground anchors added to resist uplift caused by the form the form manufacturer for more detailed information about
inflation pressure. A factor of safety of 1.25 is the minimum the shape limitations for a particular inflated form (Fig. 3.2).
recommended. If the shape is asymmetrical, the foundation 3.2.2 Size—Dome sizes up to 260 ft (79 m) in diameter
should also be designed to prevent horizontal movement and 130 ft (40 m) high have been successfully built using
(Wilson 1986). inflated forms (Fig. 3.3). Larger sizes are possible by modi-
fying the methods. Larger domes require ribs to be sprayed
CHAPTER 3—INFLATED FORMS either inside or outside to prevent snap-through buckling.
3.1—General 3.2.3 Fabric—Fabrics for inflated forms should be selected
The fabric form consists of a single-ply membrane that to meet the requirements of strength, elongation, fabrication,
stretches when attached to the foundation (Fig. 3.1). Several ruggedness, durability, and desired surface characteristics
variables affect the actual shape of the inflated forms, (Boyt 1986). Commonly used are architectural fabrics,
including weather and tolerances in fabrication. Predicting constructed of a polyester scrim impregnated with PVC, with
the exact inflated dimensions of the fabric form is impos- weights ranging from 16 to 51 oz/yd2 (550 to 1730 g/m2).
sible. The material used in making inflated forms can differ The strength requirements are based on the radius of
in how much it stretches, producing slight variations in the curvature and inflation pressure. Ruggedness and durability
shape of the inflated form. These variations are usually should be sufficient to withstand handling during spreading
within the tolerances allowed for the dome. The height of the and fastening to the foundation. Inflated forms can weigh
 CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SHELLS USING INFLATED FORMS 334.3R-7

several tons. Although the fabric forms are designed to with-

stand loading, care should be taken to prevent accidental
puncture, tearing, or overinflation.
3.2.3.1 Fabric stress—Fabric stresses are proportional to
the air pressure and the radius of curvature. Structures 160 ft
(49 m) in diameter or larger require more precise air pressure
controls to provide a stable inflated-form surface and prevent
excessive fabric stress. Because a flexible fabric form cannot
tolerate a compressive stress, the design should ensure that
Fig. 3.3—Hovensa Oil Refinery, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands:
the desired size and shape is obtained when inflated.
petroleum coke carbon storage domes, each 254 x 127 ft
When large structures are contemplated, the low air pressure (77.4 x 38.7 m) with 44,000 ton (40,000 tonne) capacity.
dictated by the allowable fabric stress may not be sufficient to
support the shotcrete during construction. Cable nets used on
the outside of the inflated form as a secondary restraint of the extending above the top surface of the foundation should be
inflated form can allow increased inflation pressure required to bent down and padded during the layout and attachment.
support the shotcrete during construction without over Generally, inflated forms are manufactured with a small
stressing the inflated-form fabric (Jacobs 1996; South 1990). opening that attaches to an air lock to allow personnel move-
3.2.3.2 Allowable fabric stress—Most inflated forms are ment during construction. Large equipment that is needed
constructed by splicing specially patterned flat pieces that inside during construction will not fit through these open-
need to inflate to form a smooth compound curve. Whereas ings. This equipment is placed within the foundation perim-
the seams are usually as strong as the parent material under eter before the form attachment process is finished. This can
short-duration loads, for sustained loads, these seams can fail include the door frames, man lifts, scaffolding, and skylight
well below the tensile strength of the fabric. Therefore, frames. These items, equipment, and stockpiled reinforce-
inflated-form fabric stresses are limited to 20% of the ment within the perimeter of the structure should be padded
breaking strength of the fabric. before the form is rolled out.
Designers should be familiar with the maximum allowable
force of the specific inflated form used for their project and 3.5—Initial stretching
inform the manufacturer before building the fabric form. The inflatable form will have a very different shape before
inflation than after inflation. Less obvious is that the fabric
Breaking strength is measured by using either the cut strip
form continues to acquire its final shape as it remains under
test method or the grab test method as outlined in ASTM
consistent pressure for 24 hours. This is especially true for
D 751. Samples of a material are tested both in the warp and
larger, more highly stressed inflated forms. The inflatable
fill directions, and three to five samples are taken across the
form diameter is usually 1 to 2 in. (25 to 50 mm) smaller than
width of the material.
the foundation, and thus requires some stretching to fit the
3.2.4 Fabrication—An inflated form cannot be fabricated
attachment position. Applying tension on the bottom edge
to duplicate a specific design, shape, or size. Some inflated
stretches the inflatable form. This stretching helps to mini-
form fabrication variables that influence actual size and
mize folds, wrinkles, or bunching of the inflatable form that
shapes are: fabric stretch factors of raw materials, fabrication
remains visible on the finished structure. It is important to
tolerances, temperature variations after inflation, and slight
stretch the form evenly during attachment.
distortions from the weight of the initial thin layers of shot-
Discontinuity in curvature can alter the forces at the
crete. When an inflated form is attached to the footing and
bottom of the structure, where they are most critical, and
inflated, it stretches. The anticipated stretch factors are based
should be kept to a minimum. Therefore, it is important that
upon inflation to a predetermined pressure, and should be
the layout be as precise as possible, and that some uniform
taken into consideration in the design of the inflated form.
initial tension is applied to the inflated form during installa-
tion. After attaching the form to the foundation, the air
3.3—Field layout lock(s) and inflators are attached.
The inflatable form should be carefully unfolded and
fastened to the foundation at predetermined locations 3.6—Inflation
marked on both the foundation and the inflatable form. The Once the fabric form is tensioned in place, bolted down,
inflated form should be handled without using sharp instru- and thoroughly inspected, it can be inflated. It should be
ments. Lift operators should be cautioned against tearing the inflated as fast as is practical. The form should not be subject
fabric form accidentally. It should be placed and unrolled per to winds in excess of 15 mph (25 kph) during inflation. For
manufacturer’s directions. It should not be unrolled on wet domes 200 ft (60 m) in diameter or larger, the recommended
ground or over sharp objects. maximum wind speed is 10 mph (15 kph) (Fig. 3.1). The
fabric form is inflated with one or more sets of inflators, each
3.4—Form protection consisting of one or two blowers. High-volume, low-pressure
Before the form layout begins, all items that can damage inflators should be in proper running order, and can be
the form should be padded. For instance, the vertical dowels powered by electricity, gasoline, or diesel. The inflators
334.3R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

is any overinflation after the initial concrete is applied, the

inflated form can stretch and crack the concrete.
The air pressure should be maintained within the manufac-
turer’s recommended tolerance at all times (usually ±25% of
the target pressure). Some field conditions, however, may
dictate that the air pressure be set higher or lower. All air
pressure management should be done by personnel with a
thorough knowledge of the relationship between air pres-
sure, inflated-form stress, placement of reinforcement, and
placement of the initial layers of shotcrete. Major consider-
ations are: the shape of the inflated form; the size of the
inflated form; and the rate and placement of the polyurethane
foam, reinforcement, and shotcrete (Wilson 1986).
3.8.1 Backup air pressure systems—Most inflation
Fig. 3.4—Distortion due to ballooning.
systems consist of at least two different nonoverloading
centrifugal blowers (Boyt 1986). The extra blowers are for
should be equipped with check valves to prevent escape of backup only, and are an important safety measure. At least
air pressure if an inflator shuts down. one working backup is recommended. Maintaining more than
The general procedure for inflating the fabric form is: two systems during certain times of construction may be neces-
1. The inflators are attached and checked to verify they are sary, such as during the initial inflation period when the
operationally sound; inflated form is easily affected by external winds. If the
2. The manometer (air pressure gauge) is installed to primary inflation system is powered with electricity, backup
measure the inflation pressure; power supplies, such as generators, should be available on site.
3.8.2 Air pressure monitoring—All air pressure systems
3. Inflators are started and continue to operate throughout
should have a built-in air pressure control mechanism to
the construction process. They should be monitored regu-
ensure that the inflated form does not overinflate or under-
larly; and
inflate. This dome internal pressure range is usually 1.5 to 3 in.
4. As the fabric form inflates, the manometer is monitored
(40 to 75 mm) of water column, depending on the size of the
and the inflator regulators are adjusted to keep the form at
structure. Other methods, especially those using shotcrete on
proper pressure.
the outside of the inflated form, usually have an internal
The properly inflated form will maintain its shape (Fig. 3.4) pressure range of 6 to 8 in. (150 to 200 mm) of water column.
and support the anticipated construction loads without Overinflation can cause the uplift force to exceed the foun-
rupturing. The manufacturer provides the recommended dation weight or can cause the fabric tension to exceed the
inflation pressure range. maximum allowable by design, possibly resulting in a failure
After the form is inflated, work by other subcontractors of the inflated form. Weather conditions also influence the
within the dome is usually limited or suspended until the air pressure.
dome structure is solid enough for the inflators to be shut off The pressure gauge (manometer) can be as simple as a
and the dome opened. Until then, the only access is usually container half filled with colored water having a small (1/8 in.
through an air lock approximately 2.5 ft (0.75 m) wide by 6.5 ft [3 mm]) clear tube running from the water through a hole in
(2.0 m) high. After the fabric form is inflated, getting the the inflated form to the outside. The additional air pressure
dome structurally sound as quickly as is practical is impor- inside the inflated form will force water up the tube to a level
tant to maintain the construction schedule. higher than the water in the container. The difference in
vertical distance is the actual air pressure reading in inches
3.7—Construction tolerances of water column.
Dimensional tolerance of an inflated form will normally be
within ±3.0% of the design radius of curvature, except at the 3.9—Collapse prevention
foundation, which is normally ±0.2% of the building radius. Care should be exercised during construction to prevent
When tighter tolerances in the size and shape of the dome are local sags, which can lead to total collapse of the structure.
required, the contractor should explicitly agree to them before Shotcrete applied thicker than specified causes additional
construction begins. When the inflated form is out of toler- dead load, which can overcome the internal air pressure
ance, the shape should be reviewed for possible changes. resistance. Investigations of dome failures have concluded
that the majority were caused by either poor judgment or
3.8—Air pressure maintenance poor craftsmanship used during the shotcrete process.
The more constant the air pressure, the less chance there is
of deforming the shape of the dome during the application of 3.10—Miscellaneous connections
the foam and the concrete. If pressure is increased while Maintaining the design shape of the finished shell structure is
hanging the reinforcement, the reinforcement hangers may one of the most important issues during the construction
be pulled out of the foam (Wilson 1990). In addition, if there process. The designer should allow for some flexibility in the
 CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SHELLS USING INFLATED FORMS 334.3R-9

interior and exterior connections to later miscellaneous support. The base of the reinforcement hangers is usually
attachments, such as ceilings, stairs, and walkways, so these embedded within approximately 1.2 in. (30 mm) of foam. If
differences between the assumed final shape and the actual the hangers are not adequately embedded, they can pull out
final shape will not be critical construction problems. Final when the reinforcement is installed. Depending on the struc-
connection detailing for interior or exterior miscellaneous ture being built, additional thickness of foam can be
attachments to the dome should use the actual measurements required, but it is suggested that all reinforcement hangers
from the inflated concrete dome after the dome shell geometry should have a minimum of 1 in. (30 mm) of urethane foam
is stabilized. over the base plates of the hangers.
The miscellaneous connection design should take possible
deviations from design profiles at the point of attachment to 3.15—Construction hazards
the base structure into account. Deviations can occur when Some hazards for inflated forms during construction
the diameter of the foundation varies or when the inflated include wind, snow, and unanticipated construction dead
form’s assumed shape does not properly anticipate the tran- loads.
sition from the fixed fastening of the inflated form to the 3.15.1 Wind—Inflated forms are at greatest risk of wind
foundation. The transition location is usually the lower 4 to damage during initial inflation (Boyt 1986). Blowers should
6 ft (1.2 to 1.8 m) of the inflated form. be sized to inflate the form as quickly as possible to minimize
this risk. Once the inflated form is at design pressure, the
3.11—Fabric form repair inflated dome should withstand winds up to 40 mph (60 kph).
An inflated form can be cut or torn during construction. 3.15.2 Construction loads—The contractor should ensure
When this happens, the tear or cut can be field-repaired with that construction loads do not alter the geometry of the struc-
different combinations of heat welding, gluing, and riveting ture before the polyurethane foam is applied. After the foam
strips of fabric over the tears. The repair does not affect the has been applied and cured, the form has additional stiffness.
general shape or quality of the inflated form. All loads imposed on the inflated form during construction
should be given serious consideration. The construction
3.12—Polyurethane foam (when used) sequence and techniques should be carefully planned to
After the form is inflated, polyurethane foam is applied to avoid unanticipated loadings before completion of the shot-
the inside of the form. The finished minimum thickness is crete process.
usually 1.5 in. (40 mm), but each dome project should 3.15.3 Proper venting—If internal combustion engines are
specify a required thickness and tolerance. The polyurethane to be used inside the dome under construction, they should
serves the following purposes: have their exhaust piped to the outside.
1. To help insulate the completed dome;
2. To provide a means to anchor the reinforcement hangers CHAPTER 4—SHOTCRETE DOME
for tying reinforcing bars in place; and 4.1—General
3. To stiffen the fabric form before applying shotcrete. Shotcrete is mortar or concrete that is pneumatically
The polyurethane foam should be inspected for specifica- projected at high velocity onto a surface. General information
tion compliance upon arrival at the job site and placed in a about shotcreting is available in ACI 506R. Shotcrete applied
location protected from traffic, and, if necessary, from to an inflated form should satisfy the following criteria:
extreme heat or cold. 1. The shotcrete should be able to be pumped through the
length of hose required. Very stiff mixtures cannot be pumped
3.13—Preparation through long lengths of hoses; however, they may be suitable
Before polyurethane foam can be applied to an inflated when pumped through a limited length of hose. In some cases,
form, the surface should be dry, because polyurethane foam the mixture passes through a hose 200 to 300 ft (60 m to 90 m)
does not stick to wet surfaces. When the weather is cold, a in length;
significant amount of dry heat can be required within the 2. The reinforcement should be fully encased by the shot-
inflated form to remove condensed water. The inflated form crete. Proper nozzle operation, in concert with the appro-
is inspected before beginning the foaming operation to priate mixture proportioning, should ensure this result. The
ensure that it is dry. It is advisable to apply a primer if recom- shotcrete should be applied sufficiently wet so that proper
mended by the manufacturer. Openings and embeds should flow around reinforcing bars is achieved; and
be marked out before and after the foam is applied. 3. The shotcrete should meet the project-specified compres-
sive strength. The minimum recommended compressive
3.14—Foam application strength is 3000 psi (21 MPa). Most actual mixtures reach
When the foam is applied, the workers should wear appro- higher strengths, some as high as 6000 psi (42 MPa). The
priate safety gear as suggested by the manufacturer. The first recommended minimum amount of portland cement for the
layer should be approximately 3/8 to 5/8 in. (10 to 15 mm) shotcrete mixture is 705 lb/yd3 (418 kg/m3); however, 100 lb/yd3
thick. After the second layer is applied, approximately 5/8 in. (59 kg/m 3) of cement can be replaced with 120 lb/yd 3
(16 mm) thick, the shotcrete reinforcement hangers can be (71 kg/m3) of fly ash. The maximum recommended water-
placed. Placement of these hangers corresponds to the size cementitious material ratio is 0.55. For additional informa-
and future location of the reinforcement that they will tion about shotcrete and shotcrete additives, see ACI 506R.
334.3R-10 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

4.2—Reinforcement material and size Premat reinforcing bars are generally not considered in the
4.2.1 Material—Reinforcement for shotcrete should final design of the dome, and therefore are placed according
comply with ACI 506.2. to the contractor’s requirements.
4.2.2 Size—The maximum size of reinforcement should
be No. 11 (No. 36) bar; however, for bar sizes greater than 4.7—Shell reinforcement
No. 5 (No. 16), it should be shown by preconstruction tests The structural dome reinforcement should be placed
that adequate encasement of bars can be achieved. Many according to the contract documents. When the shell requires
larger insulated thin shells with interior shotcrete application more than one mat layer, the first mat is usually placed and
have reinforcing bar sizes between No. 5 and No. 11 (No. 16 embedded with shotcrete to at least the backside of the rein-
and No. 36). forcing bar before an additional structural mat is placed. An
exception to this can be around a doorway where more than
4.3—Clear spacing between bars one layer is placed. The shotcrete can be started from the
The minimum recommended clear distance between bottom and completely embed the reinforcing bars as it is
parallel reinforcing bars is 2.5 in. (60 mm). When two or built up vertically in a column.
more layers of reinforcing bars are used, the first layer should The hanging of the reinforcing bar begins directly above
be tied in place followed by shotcrete covering the first layer, the foundation, where the vertical footing dowels are bent to
then the next layer is tied in place followed by shotcrete; this an upright position. Any embeds, cutouts, sleeves, bearing
is continued until all layers are installed and covered by shot- plates, or other inserts are placed along with the reinforcing
crete. The recommended minimum clear spacing could be bars. Electricians place conduit at this time. Such action
reduced when the contractor can demonstrate proper encase- should not affect the structural integrity of the dome and
ment of the reinforcing bars by preconstruction tests. should not disrupt the overall dome construction effort. The
designer should approve the size of the conduit or wall
4.4—Splices piping. Embeds, openings, and reinforcement locations
The dome is a complex three-dimensional structure. The
should be inspected and approved before applying shotcrete.
reinforcement within insulated thin shells constructed with inte-
Fiber reinforcement is not an acceptable substitute for
rior shotcrete construction should be spliced with mechan-
reinforcing bars in a shotcrete dome structure.
ical splices or contact lap splices. Contact lap splices should
only be used when adequate encasement of the bars can be
achieved, and also when the splice is oriented so that a plane 4.8—Preconstruction shotcrete tests
Preconstruction testing should conform to ACI 506.2. As
through the center of the stacked spliced bars is perpendicular
an alternative to preconstruction testing, the dome
to the surface of the shotcrete. Lap splices, where used,
contractor, personnel, equipment, and procedures may be
should be firmly wired together to add stiffness to the reinforce-
prequalified using previously documented experience. A
ment grid during construction. Lap connections for reinforcing
contractor prequalification could include requirements such
bar sizes of No. 5 (No. 16) or larger should be stacked to
as five years of experience constructing domes of similar
ensure a minimum shadow. Where splicing reinforcing bars
size and design and certification of the nozzle operator.
using a noncontact lap splice method, a minimum clear
spacing of 2 in. (51 mm) between bars is recommended.
4.9—Shotcrete compression tests
Strength tests for shotcrete should be made by an approved
4.5—Cover
Spraying a layer of shotcrete against the foam before the agency on specimens that represent the work. Testing of
dome reinforcement is placed allows the reinforcing bars to shotcrete during construction should be made in accordance
be tied tight against a concrete surface, ensuring that the rein- with ACI 506.2, except that grading of cores is not recom-
forcing bars will have a measurable shotcrete cover between mended. Test cylinders or panels can be used as agreed to by
them and the foam, and will thus be encased with shotcrete. contractor and owner.
In general, there should be a minimum of 3/4 in. (20 mm) Test panels are usually shot for each day’s shotcreting.
shotcrete between the foam and the reinforcement. Test panels are approximately 18 x 18 x 3 in. (460 x 460 x
75 mm) and are shot in a position to the dome construction
4.6—Preliminary reinforcement mat (premat) (vertical, horizontal, or overhead). These panels should be
In larger domes (over 150 ft [46 m]), the contractor some- cured inside the dome. Cores or cubes cut from panels are
times places a premat of reinforcing bars. The premat is then tested.
normally No. 3 or 4 (No. 10 or 13) bars at 2 ft (0.6 m) on Cylinders can be taken as an indicator. Unless they are
center, tied tight against the polyurethane foam using sepa- special shotcrete cylinders, they will generally show slightly
rate bar hangers. The premat gives the dome additional stiff- weaker results.
ness and strength for construction purposes by allowing the 4.9.1 Sampling—Specimens should be taken from test
shotcrete nozzle operator to embed a layer of reinforcing production panels.
bars in the first pass. This first application of shotcrete is 4.9.2 Panel criteria—When the maximum size aggregate
reinforced, and has sufficient strength and stiffness to is larger than 3/8 in. (10 mm), the minimum dimensions of
support hanging the heavier mat(s) of reinforcing bars the test panels should be 18 x 18 in. (460 x 460 mm). When
without significant deformation of the dome shape. the maximum size aggregate is 3/8 in. (10 mm) or smaller,
 CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SHELLS USING INFLATED FORMS 334.3R-11

the minimum dimensions of the test panels should be 12 x 4.12—Nozzle operator qualifications
12 in. (305 x 305 mm). The nozzle operator who performs Nozzle operators directly control all shotcreting on the
the work should shoot the test panels in the same relative job. ACI CP-60 provides for testing and certification of
position as the actual work. The conditions under which the nozzle operators.
panels are cured should be the same as the work. A qualified nozzle operator should have an ACI shotcrete
4.9.3 Acceptance criteria—The acceptance criteria for certificate, which requires 500 hours of verified experience
strength test results should conform to ACI 506.2. and passing a written test. Different, project-specific qualifica-
tion requirements can be adopted when agreed to by all parties.
4.10—Proportions and materials If the constructor chooses to train a nozzle operator on a
Proposed shotcrete materials and proportions should be project, a qualified nozzle operator should be in the company
in accordance with ACI 506.2. The mixture proportions of the trainee at all times during training.
and shooting orientation should be tested in accordance
with ACI 506.2. 4.13—Shotcrete operation
4.10.1 Fine aggregate (sand)—Well-graded sand should The batching equipment should proportion the shotcrete
be used for shotcrete applications. Sand is recommended to mixture accurately. The nozzle should be held at approxi-
be generally consistent with ACI 506.2 mately a right angle to the surface and be kept at the proper
distance from the surface, as described in ACI 506R. Any
The fineness modulus should fall between 2.70 and 3.00.
nozzle operator who habitually fails to direct the nozzle at a
4.10.2 Coarse aggregate—Coarse aggregate may be left proper angle to the surface should be replaced.
out of the final finish coat for a smoother surface. When
When encasing a reinforcing bar, the procedure of
coarse aggregate is used in the mixture, pea gravel with a
shooting other than at a right angle can be modified to help
maximum aggregate size of 3/8 in. (10 mm) should make up direct the material around the bars. The nozzle operator
10 to 30% of the mixture proportion. should apply the material at a wet enough consistency that
4.10.3 Water—The water should be potable. only a small shotcrete buildup will take place on reinforcing
4.10.4 Admixtures—Admixtures should not impair the bars whenever shotcreting on, around, through, and behind
density or strength of the shotcrete and should not be corro- reinforcing bars is required. Shooting through two curtains
sive to the reinforcing bar and shotcrete. The designer should of reinforcing bars should not be permitted except in unusual
approve use of admixtures. areas, such as columns with ties. The reinforcement for the
4.10.5 Rebound—The rebound amount varies with the second curtain should be placed after the first curtain has
position of the work, air pressure, cement content, water been embedded in shotcrete.
content, maximum size and gradation of aggregate, amount The inflated form cannot support all of the shotcrete at
of reinforcement and thickness of the layer, and, more once; thus, the shotcrete is placed in layers, usually 0.25 to 2 in.
importantly, nozzle distance to work, nozzle angle, and (6 to 50 mm) thick. Sufficient time should be allowed for
nozzle movement. each layer of shotcrete to set so it can take the next layer
Initially, the percentage of rebound is large, but it becomes without sagging. In large domes, 24 hours or more may be
needed before applying the next layer of shotcrete. The
less after a concrete substrate has been built up. Rebound is
exposed, unfinished shotcrete surfaces should be left rough.
generally more lean and coarse than the original mixture.
The cement content of the in-place shotcrete tends to Several project-specific factors are considered when
increase because of rebound, which increases the in-place deciding the geometry and the rate of shotcrete application.
strength. The rebound can become excessive when the These factors include size and shape of the dome, density
and weight of the reinforcing bar, ultimate dome shell thick-
aggregate is 3/8 in. (10 mm) and larger, because the shotcrete
ness, and weather. If a construction premat of reinforcing
is applied in thin layers.
bars is used, it should be encased with a 0.25 to 0.5 in. (6 to
Rebound materials should not be used for shotcrete work 13 mm) layer of shotcrete. The total thickness of shotcrete
and should never be worked into the construction by the embedding the premat usually will be 1.5 to 2 in. (40 to 50 mm).
nozzle operator. If the rebound materials do not fall clear of Until the dome is self-supporting (when the inflators are
the work, they should be removed. It is strongly recom- turned off), shotcreting is generally started at the base of the
mended to remove rebound materials from the bottom areas dome and then worked up over the top. After the premat has
and corners of the wall before spraying additional layers. been encased and cured, shotcrete layers from 0.5 to 2 in. (13
Rebound material does not have adequate cement paste to to 50 mm) are usually applied in a single pass near the base
consolidate and provide good concrete. Rebound encapsu- of the dome, tapering to 0.5 to 0.75 in. (13 to 20 mm) in a
lated by shotcrete is virtually equal to a void. single pass over the top.
Gauges for monitoring the concrete thickness for various
4.11—Field practice sections of the shell should be placed on the inside surface of
See ACI 506R for general information on shotcrete field the foam. These gauges can be reinforcement hangers or pieces
practice, and ACI 304R for general information on field of reinforcement that have been cut to length. These gauges are
handling of concrete. usually placed perpendicular to the surface of the foam and in
334.3R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

a grid over the entire surface of the shell spaced approximately approved curing compound as discussed in ACI 506R.
10 ft (3 m) horizontally and 6 ft (2 m) vertically. However, most dome construction using the internal method
When the structural reinforcement is placed, the nozzle of spraying shotcrete inside an inflated form retains a humid
operators should concentrate on properly embedding and environment and does not require additional moisture for
covering the reinforcing bar. Next, they should focus on curing. Curing should continue for 7 days after shotcrete is
adding sufficient thickness to cover the depth gauges. If applied, or until the specified compressive strength is obtained.
smoothness is a project requirement, then the last layers of Where concrete is applied to the outside of an inflated
shotcrete should be sprayed with finer sand mixtures and no foam, proper curing methods must be maintained. These
coarse aggregate. methods may include soaking the concrete with water or
Judging the depth of the shotcrete being applied is some- applying curing compound. If curing compound is used, it
times difficult. The nozzle operator should check the depth should have the design professional's explicit agreement.
of spray during production. The constructor should verify
that a uniform spraying pattern is being followed. Lighting 4.18—Shotcrete placement tolerance
should be adequate to allow the nozzle operator to see the Shotcrete cannot be placed perfectly. A certain amount of
work clearly. voids or shadowing around the reinforcing bar is always
present. Small voids should not be considered a defect. The
4.14—Discharge time definition of a small void depends on the thickness of the
Normally, the nozzle operator sprays shotcrete that has a wall and size of the reinforcing bar. A 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 in. (13 x
slump of 4 to 8 in. (100 to 200 mm). Because it usually takes 13 x 13 mm) void in a 2 in. (50 mm) wall should be considered
25 to 45 minutes to unload a truck, the concrete gets stiffer as small. As the wall becomes thicker, slightly larger voids
as time goes on. By using high-range water-reducing admix- should be tolerated. Shadowing behind a reinforcing bar
tures and retarding admixtures, the time available to should not be considered excessive if the shotcrete embeds at
discharge a load can be greatly extended. Water can also be least 80% of the surface of the bar. Continuous voids indicate
added to maintain the same slump as long as the specified poor shotcrete practice and should not be accepted.
strength is maintained and the maximum specified water- Because of the dome shape, the shotcrete shell is largely in
cement ratio is not exceeded. compression, but the compressive forces are small. Usually,
The quality control technician taking samples should be the average compressive stress in a shotcrete dome is less
certified as a Concrete Field Technician or Concrete than 500 psi (3.4 MPa). When shotcrete is placed in tension
Inspector and have a working knowledge of the relationship areas of the dome, the proper embedment of bar splices is the
between the strength of the shotcrete and the time sitting in most important consideration. ACI 318, Chapter 19, requires
the truck. that the length of the overlap of a reinforcing bar at the splice
be 1.2 times greater than the lap length in conventional
4.15—Joints concrete but not less that 18 in. (460 mm). This is because,
Unfinished work should not be allowed to stand for more in a thin shell structure, the bar can be close to a surface.
than 30 minutes, unless edges slope to a thin edge. For struc- Also, in a shell placed by the shotcrete method, it allows for
tural elements that will be under compression and for a degree of shadowing or voids at a splice. Even where the
construction joints shown on the approved construction reinforcing bar is properly embedded and is at the specified
documents, square joints are recommended. Before placing thickness, the pattern of the reinforcing bar grid can be
additional material next to previously applied work, sloping visible on the inside surface, sometimes called “reinforcing
and square edges should be clean and damp. bar ghost lines.”
When a qualified nozzle operator places shotcrete, there
4.16—Multi-pass technique should be few defects. If defects are suspected, random cores
Close review of existing insulated thin shells constructed can be taken. If more than 15% of the cores taken have
by the interior shotcrete method shows that the shells are not excessive defects, then additional cores should be taken to
stratified but monolithic, and contain almost no cold joints. decide an actual amount of defective work in the dome.
Thin shells with interior shotcrete application cannot be To ensure that the finished dome will behave as anticipated,
constructed by applying all of the shotcrete in one layer the shotcrete thickness should not be less than the specified
because the level of air pressure that would be required to thickness by more than 10%, nor exceed the specified thick-
hold the full-depth weight of the wet shotcrete far exceeds ness by more than 25%, so as not to increase the dead load at
how much air pressure the inflated fabric form can hold. any specific location.
Research (Bingham 1997) and experience show that the
layering of shotcrete does not cause cold joints in insulated 4.19—Shotcrete damage
thin shells with interior shotcrete construction. When poor workmanship is discovered or placement
tolerances are exceeded, the designer should be informed.
4.17—Curing Shotcrete that exhibits sags, sloughs, segregation, honey-
During the curing period, shotcrete should be maintained combing, sand pockets, or other obvious defects should be
above 40 °F (4 °C) and in a moist condition. Shotcrete should removed and replaced while still plastic. Hardened shotcrete
be kept continuously moist or should be sealed with an defects should be reviewed by the designer to determine
 CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SHELLS USING INFLATED FORMS 334.3R-13

whether the structural integrity of the dome is in question. The preceding publications may be obtained from the
The designer should present the findings to the contractor. following organizations:
The constructor and designer should agree on the method
and extent of the repairs. American Concrete Institute
P.O. Box 9094
4.20—Completion Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094
After the final shotcrete is applied, the air pressure should
remain constant until the designer determines that the struc- ASTM International
ture is self supporting. In domes with thicker wall sections, 100 Barr Harbor Dr.
the inflators can be turned off after the designer determines West Conshohocken, PA 19428
enough shotcrete has been placed and sufficient strength
gained for the dome to be self supporting, and able to take the 5.2—Cited references
load of successive layers of shotcrete. This is generally after Billington, D. P., 1982, Thin Shell Concrete Structures,
the first mat of structural reinforcement is placed and fully McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 373 pp.
embedded with shotcrete. Bingham, J. L., 1997, “Bond Strength Between Layers of
When the blowers are turned off and the shotcrete opera- Shotcrete,” MS thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo,
tion is completed, finish work, such as plumbing, painting, Utah, 33 pp.
and interior framing, can begin. Bini, D., 1986, “Thin Shell Concrete Domes,” Concrete
International, V. 8, No. 1, Jan., pp. 49-53.
Boyt, J., 1986, “Up, Up and Away,” Concrete Interna-
CHAPTER 5—REFERENCES
tional, V. 8, No. 1, Jan., pp. 37-40.
5.1—Referenced standards and reports
The standards and reports listed below were the latest Jacobs, S. E., 1996, “Large Diameter Low Profile Air
editions at the time this document was prepared. Because Forms Using Cable Net Support Systems For Concrete
these documents are revised frequently, the reader is advised Domes,” MS thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah,
to contact the proper sponsoring group if it is desired to refer 117 pp.
to the latest version. Neff, W., 1942, United States Patent No. 2,270,229.
Peterson, G. P., 1998, “Pull-Out Testing of Cast in Place
Epoxy Grouted Reinforcement Sleeves,” MS project,
American Concrete Institute
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, 20 pp.
214R Evaluation of Strength Test Results of Concrete South, D. B., 1979, “Building Structure and Method of
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete Making Same,” United States Patent No. 4,155,967 5.
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and South, D. B., 1986, “The Past Leads to the Present,”
Placing Concrete Concrete International, V. 8, No. 1 Jan., pp. 54-47.
309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete South, D. B., 1990, “Economics and the Thin Shell Dome,”
318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete International, V. 12, No. 8, Aug., pp. 18-20.
Concrete and Commentary South, J. P., 1996, “Preliminary Analysis and Design of
506R Guide to Shotcrete Large Span Air Formed Concrete Domes,” MS thesis,
506.2 Specification for Shotcrete Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, 118 pp.
Turner, L. S., 1972, “Method of Molding a Building,”
CP-60 Workbook to ACI Certification of Shotcrete Nozzlemen
United States Patent No. 3,277,219.11.
Wilson, A., 1986, “Controlling Construction Mishaps,”
ASTM International Concrete International, V. 8, No. 1, Jan., pp. 33-36.
C 94 Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete Wilson, A., 1990, “Very Large Air-Formed Concrete
D 751 Standard Test Methods for Coated Fabrics Shells,” Concrete International, V. 12, No. 8, Aug., pp. 21-23.