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UNIT 1: ORAL PRESENTATION

OBJECTIVES

 Understand the essential points in preparing an oral presentation

 Develop and deliver an effective oral presentation

INTRODUCTION

Oral presentation is a common business tool; and the ability to give a good oral
presentation is regarded as an integral part of your career. You may be asked to present
your ideas to your subordinates in a meeting, give a briefing to a group of visitors in
your company, or make a sales presentation to potential clients. In fact, many
companies nowadays require candidates to give an oral presentation as part of the job
interview process. Whatever the context of your presentation is, you have to make sure
that your message is delivered effectively.

Oral presentation may take several forms; some are formal, informal, prepared or
impromptu. Whatever type of presentation you are expected to make, you would want
it to be a good one. There are a number of points that you need to consider when
preparing the presentation.

PLANNING AN ORAL PRESENTATION

Usually a good presentation results from careful planning and preparation. When you
plan to deliver a presentation, you should first consider several factors such as the
purpose, type, topic and audience of the presentation. These factors will be described
in the following sub-topics.

Purpose

First, focus on what you want to achieve from the presentation and why it is needed.
You may ask several questions such as:

 What is the presentation for?

 Why am I asked to deliver the presentation?
 What is expected from the presentation?
 Does this presentation aim to inform, to persuade, to explain or to entertain?

These questions will help determine the purpose or objective of your presentation.
Once the objective is clear, you will be able to select an appropriate type for your
presentation.

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Type
The two most common types of presentation are informative and persuasive; and both
types are interdependent. If the presentation is informative, you should determine the
kind of information to include. Some examples of a short informative presentation are
announcements of new regulations, introductions of new procedures and reports of field
trips. A long informative presentation usually resembles a research report that includes
several sections such as introduction, methodology, findings and conclusions.

A good persuasive presentation is basically informative; and to ensure that your

presentation is informative, the facts should be complete and presented logically.
The aim of delivering a persuasive presentation is to convince your audience to take
actions or to make decisions. You are thus required to provide your audience with
sufficient data. Some examples of a persuasive presentation are sales and proposal
presentations.

Topic
With any type of presentation, the content needs to be determined so that you can plan
your presentation. Once you know that you have to deliver a presentation, you need to
select the topic as soon as possible. You may first have the area of the topic. Next you
have to narrow down the area so that you can come up with an appropriate topic. By
focusing on the chosen topic, you will be able to limit yourself to the right information
rather than to include everything that you know about the topic.

Audience
Oral presentation is not a one-way process where the presenter delivers only and does
not know the response he is getting. It is a two-way interaction in which the information
needs to be received and understood by the receiver; in this case the audience.
Therefore, knowing the audience will help a presenter to prepare and deliver an
effective presentation. As a presenter, you should know about your audience and their
expectations. The information about audience that needs to be considered include their
academic level, experience, interests, economic status, age and social background.
Although this task is very crucial, many presenters tend to overlook this matter and
consequently cause frustration or confusion for either or both parties.

Preparing Notes and Visual Aids

Note Cards
A good presenter should plan and be well prepared in order to deliver an effective
presentation. To do this you should prepare the materials by writing down the contents
partially or in full before presenting the information. However, you should not just read
from the prepared speech, as very rarely, the audience likes to listen to what is read to
them. In other words, you must deliver a well-prepared speech in order to gain the
audience’s attention. To obtain a natural speaking tone during a presentation, it is
helpful if you use prepared note cards or a simple outline, rather than the script, as a
guide in your presentation. The following are some pointers about the use of note cards.

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 Note cards help to prevent a presenter from digressing from the topic of the
presentation. When a presenter deviates from a topic, these notes and outlines will
guide him or her to return to the original plans of the presentation. Showing an
outline of the presentation prior to the delivery of the speech can give the audience
an overall idea or flow of the presentation.

 For effective delivery, note cards should only contain key words and phrases that
will act as a memory aid. Complete sentences are not always recommended, as they
will later encourage a presenter to read.

 If quotations are needed in the presentation, they should appear as they are – usually
in complete sentences – in the note cards.

Visual aids
For an oral presentation to be effective, it is crucial that you incorporate visual aids in
your presentation. With properly prepared visual aids, you will be aware of the flow of
your speech while the audience gets clearer and better understanding of what is being
presented by referring to the visuals shown or distributed. In other words, a good
selection of visuals is important to increase the audience’s attention and understanding.
Some helpful hints to consider when preparing visual aids are as follows:

 Determine the important points in the presentation which require a visual. These
visuals must be relevant so that they help clarify the message that you want to
communicate with the audience.

 There are several types of visual aids which include handouts, flip charts,
transparencies, and slides. Each type has its own strength and weaknesses.
Therefore, choose the one most suitable for your presentation.

 The choice of visual aids depends on factors like the topic, purpose, type and
audience of the presentation. In addition, the venue in which the presentation takes
place is also another important factor to consider. A flip chart may not be suitable
to be used in a large convention hall.

 Visuals should not contain unnecessary details or excessive content that may
distract the audience from the presenter. The texts on the visuals must be clear and
comprehensible to the audience.

 Do not try to impress the audience by writing jargons or technical terminologies on

the visuals. If a specialist terminology is needed, you should provide a succinct
definition.

 Visuals aids are meant to help in a presentation, not to take the place of the
presenter. What is spoken by the presenter, not the visual aids, should be the prime
source of attention from the audience.

 Sophistication via current technologies should not overshadow the presenter. Thus,
when preparing visual aids, you should not be overwhelmed with the sophistication

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provided by the technology by including too much glitz, colour and sound in the
visuals. Unless they add meaning and clarity to the content of the presentation, very
sophisticated visuals function just as a show off of the presenter's ability with
graphics.

 Check your visuals rigorously for typographical errors. Check your spelling,
grammar, indentation, line spacing, font style and etc. These errors, though they
might be minor, can make a presentation look sloppy.

MANNER OF DELIVERY

Reading vs. Presenting

A presenter should deliver a presentation extemporaneously from notes, rather than
reading through the pages of materials. The extemporaneous presentation is one that is
carefully prepared, but not memorized. You organize the speech but do not write it out
word for word. Reading from a prepared text will reflect many negative aspects of
yourself to the audience. First, you may show the audience your unfamiliarity with the
subject matter. In addition, you may also demonstrate lack of confidence and
enthusiasm. In most cases, you may be judged as unprepared or unfit for the
presentation.

Apart from that, reading will cause you to deliver the material very fast. In short,
reading should be avoided if you would like your presentation to be successful and
effective.

Voice
A presentation should be delivered in a clear voice, audible from the back of the room
and relatively free from vocal faults. If you read from a prepared script, your loud voice
will potentially sound like a muttering to the audience. This is because the voice will
not be projected to the whole room but instead will fall flat onto the paper that you are
referring to.

Besides having a clear and loud voice, the tone of the voice must also be varied. You
should try to vary the intonation of the speech, rather than just having monotones that
can easily bore the audience. You should pay attention to the rate of speech; for
example, you may want to have a lower volume and a rapid rate of speech for
information that is insignificant or trivial. However, when it comes to the important
points, you may want to say the words at a slower rate but with an emphasis by stressing
on the key words. Some presenters even repeat important points in several ways to
ensure that these points will get across the audience more effectively.
Eye Contact
Maintaining eye-to-eye contact with some audience and shifting that contact regularly
throughout the presentation is necessary for a successful delivery. By reading from
notes or visuals, the presenter definitely cannot make eye contact with the audience.
Without eye contact the presenter will not be able to gauge the audience’s reaction to
the presentation and thus cannot adjust the presentation accordingly. In addition, as

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soon as a presenter starts to read from the script, the audience will become bored and
the rapport between the presenter and the audience is not established.

A presenter needs to look up and maintain eye contact with the audience so that he or
she will be able to identify if, or when, a point is misunderstood or missed. Looking up
to the audience also gives the audience the feeling that they are involved. Therefore,
even if the presenter is a very shy person, he or she has to find a way to develop eye
contact so that the appearance of confidence can be projected to the audience. A shy
presenter may probably try to look slightly above the eye level of the audience.
Normally the audience will not notice the difference.

Rehearsal
An effective presentation requires organization and thoughts ahead of time. However,
when all efforts have been put, there is another most important factor that can contribute
to a good presentation i.e. adequate practice. Practice is a factor that helps a presenter
to develop the self-confidence needed for the presentation. Some helpful hints about
practice and rehearsing are listed below.

 Practice with visuals so that you can check your timing and flow of the presentation.
By rehearsing, you can identify the weak areas of the presentation so that they can
be improved.

 Rehearse in front of others such as friends, who can provide feedback on the
positive and negative aspects of your presentation. Conversely, by observing other
people’s presentations, you can improve your own presentation based on the
strengths and weaknesses of those presentations.

 Many presenters like to practice from the beginning and stop when they face
difficulties. If this is done constantly, the beginning of the presentation will
probably become more effective compared to the later parts of the presentation.
Thus, it is advisable to start at different parts of the presentation, such as in the
middle or at the end, so that every section receives the right practice.

PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION

Now that you have some ideas on an effective presentation, you are ready to prepare
the content of your presentation. First of all, divide the speech into three major parts:
(1) introduction; (2) body; and (3) conclusion. Just like when you are writing an essay,
you need to introduce your topic to the audience. You need to put extra effort in order
to attract audience to you and to what you have to say. Therefore, you need to provide
an interesting opener. There are three reasons why you need to have an opener:

 to introduce the subject of your presentation.

 to establish your credibility with the audience.
 to capture your audience’s attention and keep it throughout the presentation.

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Types of Openers
Many introductions begin with an opener. An opener serves as a hook to catch the
audience’s attention. Therefore, you need to spend some time to create a good and
interesting opener. The following are some modes for openers that you can use.

a. Quotations
You can introduce the subject of your presentation by quoting what other people
say regarding the subject matter. It is recommended that, the person you are quoting
should be someone of great importance and significance, – either a specialist in the
area you are discussing, or a famous person. This person should be someone that
other people can relate to.

b. Provocative Questions
This is one good approach in getting the audience’s attention. You can make the
audience listen to what you are saying by provoking them. Ask them questions
regarding the issue. Make them think hard.

c. Statement of Facts
To support your opening, you can provide factual information regarding the subject.
Your statement must be taken from authentic sources. Mention your sources so that
your credibility is not questioned.

d. Scenarios
This technique can be an effective way of attracting your audience. Create a
situation and describe it in detail by using correct adjectives and adverbs. However,
a scenario is not a story i.e. you are only describing a situation, not telling a story.

e. Anecdotes
An anecdote is a short story that is amusing in nature. You can share with the
audience an interesting experience that you or someone you know might have gone
through. However, your anecdote should be related to the topic of your presentation.

f. Stories
People love to listen to stories. If you have any story that you find interesting and
relevant to the topic of your presentation, share it with the audience. You will never
fail to attract their attention. However, you must be careful not to bore your
audience by being too detailed. Most importantly, avoid rambling.

The following are some examples of openers using the techniques listed above.

Quotation “To quote Aristotle, ‘anyone can become angry – that

on ‘Managing Anger’ is easy. But to be angry with the right person, to the
right degree, at the right time, for the right purpose,
and in the right way – that is not easy”

Provocative Statement Today many parents urge their children to do a part-

on ‘Child Labour’ time job while they are in school. It is common to see

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young children delivering newspapers before going to

school in the afternoon. Business leaders too believe it
is extremely useful for a child to get a part-time job,
such as working in a local shop on weekends or
during school break to prepare them for work
experience before they leave school. Now the
question is: Does that mean that we, the society
condone child labour? How different is child labor
and children working on part-time basis? Are we not
depriving children of their childhood when we ask
them to work? Don’t children have the right to play
and have fun?

Statement of Fact “Interestingly, studies show that tea drinking is a

on ‘Drinking to Better healthy habit after all. A person who drinks a cup of
Health’ tea each day is less likely to have heart attacks – by
44% - than a person who doesn’t drink tea. Tea is
found to be rich in flavonoid – a substance considered
important in preventing blood from clotting in the
artery.”

Scenario “The great Asian tigers are now no more. Reduced to

on ‘Globalisation and the whimpering and begging, they are but a shadow of
Borderless World’ their former shelves. Their people are starving, rioting
and looting.”

(Tun Mahathir’s speech at IX Summit of the G-15)

Anecdote “I remembered the time when I and a few of my

on ‘Intercultural friends arrived in the UK for the first time; that was
Communication’ about 10 years ago. We went to a local bank to
withdraw some money.

The teller asked “How’d you like your money?”

(Meaning: In what denomination do you want your
money to be?) And me; without hesitating replied’ “I
like it very much, thank you!”. The teller replied
“No…. How many (showing me the notes) £5, £10 or
£50 do you want?

Story “When Shasha got married at the tender age of 17, she
on ‘Domestic Violence’ did not really know what is in store for her. Johan, the
charming lover, turned out to be an abusive husband.
For every little mistake that she made, she got yelled
at, even in front of the neighbours. After their first son
was born, Johan became more aggressive. Shakila got
beaten almost everyday. But the vain Shakila never
reported this to anyone, not even to her parents

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because she was afraid that the husband may hurt her
even more. Until one day ….”

After you have prepared the opener, you should include some general information for
a more formal introduction to the topic. This introduction will cover items like the
purpose of the presentation, some relevant background or general information that the
audience need to know in order to understand the topic more. Explain also the outline
of your presentation that may help the listeners organise all the information they will
hear later.

Things to avoid when opening a presentation

There are several things that you should avoid when opening your presentation.

 Do not start your presentation with an apology such as apologising for being late,
or being unprepared for the topic. You do not want to reveal your weaknesses or
inadequacies to your audience.

 Do not tell stories that are not related to the topic. You will digress from the topic
and give the impression that you do not have much to present about in the first place.

 Do not make trite statements or remarks. Statements that are used or said too often
will make you sound unoriginal and insincere.

 Do not make remarks on gender, race or religion. You need to be aware of the
sensitivity of the audience. However, you can talk about it if it is quoted or
publicized.

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Useful Language Expressions for the Introduction

Function Expressions
Greeting Good morning / afternoon ladies and gentlemen.
Greetings everyone, I hope you have a pleasant day
today.
Introduce yourself I am ______ / My name is _________.
Let me introduce myself. My name is ___________.
My name is ____ from (company) where I am
Mention your responsible for…
affiliation (if any) I am a representative of (company).
I am here to represent my company; (name of
company)…
Introducing your topic The purpose of my presentation today is to ….
and purpose The purpose of today’s presentation is to …
Today I would like to talk about …
For my presentation today, I’d like to show you … /
explain to you how …
In today’s presentation I hope to give you an update
on… / give you an overview of …
In today’s presentation I’m planning to … look at … /
explain ….
Giving the outline of I would like to discuss three main issues pertaining to
your presentation …; Firstly, … Next … And lastly …

Before I begin my presentation, let me tell you what I am

going to cover; first, I will start with …; then I will
discuss … and finally I will end with …

My presentation will cover three main points; which are

… for each point, I will show you/ demonstrate …
Telling your audience My presentation should last for 15 minutes.
the duration of your I will take about 15 minutes of your time.
talk

Telling your audience If you have any questions you would like to ask, please
about the question & leave them until the end, and I will be happy to answer
answer session them.

If there are any questions you would like to ask, please

wait until I end my presentation, when I will do my best
to answer them.

If you have any questions in the middle of my

presentation, feel free to interrupt.
Starting your Now, let me begin with my first point.
presentation I would like to start with …
To begin with, …

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Activity
Think about what you need to cover in the opening of your presentation. Write the
key points and prepare an introduction using any of the opening techniques discussed
previously.

DEVELOPING THE BODY

Organising Information

The “body” is the main area of your presentation and the most crucial part because you
are going to spend most of your presentation time from this section. It actually is a
compilation of main points and supporting ideas.

 Before you start exploring the content of your presentation, check your central idea
again and make sure that it is clearly expressed.

 Next, break the subject matter into several manageable points that will function as
your main ideas. Organise your main ideas in a logical and easy-to-follow manner.

 Write your main ideas in a statement or point form. However, try to limit the number
of main ideas according to the duration of your presentation. The ideal number of
main idea ranges from three to five.

 Look for relevant information to support your points. You can expand your
supporting points by providing examples, statistics, quotations, research findings,
factual information, etc. At this stage, you may find seeking for the right
information a difficult task. Your information may either be too broad or too
insufficient. If your information is too broad, you need to be selective.

 Choose only information that is applicable and related to your topic in order to
prevent digression and vagueness. The best way to guide you in collecting relevant
facts is by making an outline. This outline serves as a frame or a skeleton for your
presentation.

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The following table gives you a guide on how you can prepare the body of your
presentation.

I. State the central idea clearly Example:

To determine the factors that contribute
towards the abandonment of housing
projects.

II. State the main ideas i.e. the Factors (main points):
points that you want to 1. financial problem
present 2. material shortage
3. labour shortage

III. Develop supporting points 1. Financial problem

i.e., detailed evidence for a. difficult to secure loans from the
each main point listed in II. respective party
There are many supporting (explain, provide examples or cases
materials that you can use. etc.)
You can support by giving b. difficult to get credit from suppliers
examples, quotations, (explain, provide examples or cases
comparison and contrast, etc.)
visuals, etc.
2. Material shortage
a. demand versus supply
(explain, provide examples or cases
etc.)
b. local quality versus imported quality
(explain, provide examples or cases
etc.)

3. Labour shortage
a. demand versus supply
(explain, provide examples or cases
etc.)
b. local quality versus imported quality
(explain, provide examples or cases
etc.)

Writing the Speech Text

The need to prepare the text of your speech will depend on you. If you lack the
experience of speaking in front of an audience, and feel more comfortable having a text
to rely on, then write it down. However, if you are confident of your ability to speak
without a text, then an outline will be just fine. When writing an outline, work on the
major and minor divisions and place key phrases and information you want to say under
each division. Alternatively, you may also need to prepare the text for your introduction

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and conclusion. The use of note cards would be one good way of getting you more
organised.
The following is an example of the body of a speech text delivered by the former Prime
Minister of Malaysia, Tun Mahathir Mohamed at the opening ceremony of the
International Wireless and Telecommunications Symposium. Study the organization of
the speech text.

Introduction Opening address

Introduction to the central idea: the advancements
and challenges in telecommunications industry

Main idea #1 Let me begin by being politically current and correct

Telecommunications regarding wireless telecommunications. When the
in the past International Telecommunication Union (ITU) was
founded in 1865, the telegraph was the cutting edge of
technology. In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell made the
first telephone call when he uttered and transmitted
words to his assistant, “Mr. Watson come here, I want
you”. The birth of wireless through the first
microwave radio link was around 1950 and satellite
communication began in 1962. The first cellular phone
made its appearance in 1983. The internet made its
presence felt at the beginning of this decade.

Main idea #2 And today, the cutting edge of technology has

dramatically changed. One hundred and thirty-four
Telecommunications years after the telegraph, global telecommunications
today have become a complex web of intelligent networks
linked by fibre optic cables, traditional copper wires,
microwave, satellite systems, cellular mobile systems
and high-speed computers. Interestingly, the basic
mission of ITU remains unchanged. It was founded
upon the principle that telecommunications should be
available anytime and anywhere regardless of national
boundaries. That principle is still true today.

Main idea #3 Telecommunications in the coming century will be

digital, mobile and personal. For we are now
Telecommunications in witnessing a technological progress forging ahead
the future faster than ever before in human history. It is
sweeping forward in an unpredictable fashion on a
wave of powerful global communication networks of
ever-increasing performance and capacity. The
demand for faster information, anywhere, anytime is
also stimulating an unprecedented growth in
telecommunications industry. As societies become
increasingly more information-based, consumers
everywhere hunger for more, faster and better
information. And this trend will continue. As for the
telecommunications industry, the challenge is to adapt

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to these changes in demand, to provide the new form

of services that the customers want – efficiently and
effectively.
Malaysia has the prospects and the opportunity to
Main idea #4 become a major global hub for telecommunications
and multimedia services. In fact, the prospects for
Challenges to Malaysian economic growth and progress are tied to our ability to
telecommunications master the new telecommunications technologies and
industry thus dramatically improve our capacities in every field
of business, industry and life in general.

The government has introduced several policy

adjustments in our effort to shape the future of our
telecommunications industry. These include further
liberalisation of the industry through the introduction
of competition in 1990. This will eventually lead to a
full-fledged competition through the Equal Access
Policy which became effective early this year. Thus
Malaysia has become one of the most liberalised and
open telecommunications services market in this
region.

Malaysia has also introduced the new

Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 which was
passed by the Parliament last year. The Act addresses
issues arising from the convergence of the
telecommunications, broadcasting and computing
industries.

Let me reiterate that Malaysia’s telecommunications

industry will continue to exert enormous and dynamic
influence of new and more advanced technologies, as
well as the realities of a global infrastructure, makes it
necessary for us to become active participants in the
world marketplace. The telecommunications industry,
will play a proactive role in leading and transforming
the Malaysian economy into an information-based
economy of the 21st century.

Source: Prime Minister’s Office

Linking Words to Deliver the Content

When you present, you need to provide verbal transitions which serve as a guide to your
audience so that they can follow through your presentation easily. As you go from one
point to another, use transition. Restate what you have said, and announce what you are
going to say next.

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Useful Language Expressions for the Body of Your Presentation

Function Expressions
To move from one point / Now that I have discussed (this) … let’s look at …
section to another Before going on to the next point, let me briefly
restate…
To sum up, I have examined … Now, I would like to
move on to the next point which is …
Now, let’s turn our attention to …
To continue with similar Furthermore
idea(s) Moreover
In addition
Besides
To signal a change in However
direction Nevertheless
Although
Despite / In spite of
To have completely In contrast / Contrastingly
opposite idea(s) On the other hand
While
Whereas
To give example For example, / For instance,
To illustrate
To list or give sequence First / Firstly, Second / Secondly, Third / Thirdly
Next
Then
Subsequently
After this / After that

Activity
Prepare the body of your presentation. Write the main points of your speech and
develop supporting statements for each main point.

PREPARING THE CONCLUSION

Some presenters often end their speeches abruptly. After completing the last main point,
they suddenly say “Well, that’s it. Thank you for listening.” The audience has no idea
that they have finished presenting. If you were to end your presentation that way, then
your points, regardless how good they are, would not be taken seriously by the
audience. Therefore, in order to ensure that your presentation is strong and memorable,
you need to plan a good and solid conclusion.

Although the conclusion section is very brief, it should the strongest part of your
presentation. When you have finished discussing the main points and want to end your
presentation, verbally signal your move to the conclusion section. In the conclusion,
you should provide a summary of the main ideas and objectives discussed earlier in

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your presentation. Besides, you should also review the purpose of the entire
presentation. If you want the audience to take action, appeal directly to them.

Useful Expressions to End a Presentation

Function Expressions
Recapitulating the main I'd like to summarise / sum up / recap ...
points. At this stage I would like to run through/over the
main points ...
So, as we have seen today ...
As I have tried to explain this morning …
To sum up …
Giving recommendations As a result, we suggest that …
In the light of what we have seen today I suggest that
...
My first proposal is ...
Drawing conclusions In conclusion I would like to say that ...
My final comments concern ...
I would like to finish by reminding everyone that ...
Ending the presentation I'd be happy to answer any questions ...
by inviting questions If there are any questions, please feel free to ask.
Thank you very much for your attention and if there
are any suggestions or comments …

Ending the presentation Thank you for your attention/time ...

Thank you.

Activity
Using the material that you have prepared for your introduction and the body, prepare
a memorable conclusion.

HANDLING QUESTIONS FROM AUDIENCE

It is common for the audience to ask questions and seek clarification during, and/or
after the presentation. When a question is asked, it is good if you repeat the question
for the entire audience. You may look at the questioner when you answer the question.
If you are asked a question that you do not have the answer do not be afraid and panic.
The best way to handle this situation is to be honest and admit that you do not have the
answer. If there would be an opportunity for you to see the audience again, you may
promise that you will find the answer for them. However, some presenters opt to turn
the question back to the audience to get them involved in looking for the answer.

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Useful Expressions to use when Handling Questions

Function Expressions
Making general I'm glad you asked that question.
remarks That's a good question / point / remark.
Thank you for asking that.
Dealing with difficult Can I answer your question later?
question How can I put it?

Admitting that you do I'm not the person to ask about that.
not know the answer I’m afraid I may not be able to answer that
That is a question for an expert. Perhaps YY (the
expert) could help me with the question?
Asking for clarification I don’t quite understand what you were saying. Could
you please repeat your question?
I’m sorry. Could you please go over that question
again?

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UNIT 2: PRONUNCIATION

OBJECTIVES

 Be aware of the sounds of English consonants and vowels

 Pronounce English words with the correct pronunciation

INTRODUCTION

Pronunciation refers to the way a word in a language is pronounced. Spelling does not
determine the pronunciation of the word. We may have difficulty in pronouncing
English words. This may be due to several reasons. There may be sounds or
combination of sounds in your mother tongue or first language which does not occur in
English; there may be sounds or combination of sounds that are used in English but
does not occur in your first language or you are not familiar with the stress and
intonation patterns that are used in English.

SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION IN ENGLISH

Many English sounds are different from the spelling of the word. For example, the letter
‘a’ in the words below has several sounds.

audition answer able annum air marriage

The letters ‘ch’ in the following words also have different sounds:

cheese anchor chateau

What is the sound of the letter ‘s’ in the following words?:

enclose revision decrease pleasure

In other cases, the same sound can have different letters to represent it. A good example
is the sound / i: / in English which can be represented by different letters such as in the
following words:

achieve perceive subpoena sea cheese

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Other words have different meanings and spelled differently but they sound identical,
such as the following words

cereal serial sun son

paws pause write right
steal steel bare bear

Yet others have the same spelling but have different meanings. These words may or
may not have the same pronunciation, for example

sow sow does does

Some letters appear in the spelling but they are not actually pronounced or are silent,
for example, in ‘knife’ – the letter ‘k’ is not pronounced; in ‘subtle’ – the ‘b’ sound is
silent. Other words with silent letters are

handkerchief leopard island climb cupboard

Activity 1

A. Find the words that have different meanings and spelling but sound the same:

i. lynx: ___________________ vi. two: ___________________

ii. aisle: ___________________ vii. place: ___________________
iii. bear: ___________________ viii. paws: ___________________
iv. ate: ___________________ ix. their: ___________________
v. air: ___________________ x. by: ___________________

B. Give the meanings of the following words (these words may or may not have the
same sound):

i. refuse a. ____________________ b. ____________________

ii. minute: a. ____________________ b. ____________________
iii. row: a. ____________________ b. ____________________
iv. tear: a. ____________________ b. ____________________
v wind: a. ____________________ b. ____________________
vi. present: a. ____________________ b. ____________________
vii. mine: a. ____________________ b. ____________________
viii. wound: a. ____________________ b. ____________________

C. Give other words that have ‘silent’ letters:

i. ____________________ vi. ____________________

ii. ____________________ vii. ____________________
iii. ____________________ vii. ____________________
iv. ____________________ ix. ____________________
v. ____________________ x. ____________________

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ENGLISH CONSONANTS AND VOWELS

There are 24 consonant and 20 vowel sounds in English. The sounds of the consonants
and vowels are represented by special symbols called phonetic symbols. The table
below shows the symbols for the different consonant sounds in English.

Consonant sounds

Sound symbol Word Sound symbol Word

/b/ bin, box, tab /p/ pen, pin,
/d/ do, day, poured /t/ two, too,
/g/ goat, good, bog /k/ kite, coat, coach,
/z/ zoo, zebra, freeze /s/ sue, soap, mouse
/m/ mine, man, storm /n/ nose, knife, man
/l/ light, lake, hall /r/ right, wrong, sorrow
/ʧ/ choke, cherry, beach /ʤ/ joke, judge, age
/f/ fun, leaf, photo /v/ van, move, travel
/h/ hat, horse, hammock /j/ you, yacht, cute
/w/ wet, wool, when /ʃ/ ship, cash, nation
/ʒ/ pleasure, closure, vision /ŋ/ sing, anger, finger
/ð/ this, mother, booth /Ɵ/ thumb, author, bath

The table below lists the vowel sounds in English.

Vowel sounds

Sound symbol Word Sound symbol Word

(short vowels) (long vowels)
/ɪ/ sit /i:/ key
/e/ egg /u:/ food
/æ/ bat /з:/ shirt
/ɒ/ cough /ɔ:/ horse
/ʌ/ run /α:/ far
/ʊ/ foot
/ǝ/ paper
Sound symbol Word Sound symbol Word
(diphthong) (diphthong)
/ɪə/ fear /ɔɪ/ toy
/ʊə/ tour /aɪ/ buy
/eə/ stare /əʊ/ toast
/eɪ/ say /aʊ/ down

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Activity 2

A. Based on the symbols for consonant and vowel sounds given, do you know the
following words? Write your answer in the space provided.
i. /ˈteɪ.bl̩ /: ___________ vi. /kənˈdʌkt/ ___________
ii. /kəmˈpjuː.tər/: ___________ vii. /ˈmiː.tɪŋ/ ___________
iii /ˈsuː.pə.vaɪ.zə/ ___________ viii. /dɪˈbeɪt/ ___________
iv. /ɪkˈsper.ɪ.mənt/ ___________ ix. /ˈɔː.rəl/ ___________
v. /ˈprɒdʒ.ekt/ ___________ x. /rɪˈspɒns/ ___________

COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION

There are sounds that may pose certain challenges to some speakers, for example, the
sound /ð/ in /they/ which may be pronounced as /day/ with the /d/ sound or the sound
/Ɵ/ in /thin/ which may be pronounced as /tin/ with the /t/ sound. The /r/ sound as in
/road/ may also be problematic to some speakers where the word will be pronounced
with the /l/ sound as in /load/, which is a different word in English.

Some vowels may also be problematic, for example, the /ɪ/ sound as in /sit/ and the /i:/
in /key/. The sound /i:/ is long and stressed while the sound /ɪ/ is short and relaxed.
Other words with the /ɪ/ and /i:/ vowels are as follows

/ɪ/ /i:/
sit key
ship sheep
live leave
fit feet
slip sleep

Pronunciation of Other Words in English

The pronunciation of certain word endings can also pose some challenges, for example,
the pronunciation of the final –s and –ed.

1. Pronunciation of the final –s

The final ‘s’ sound in English are pronounced in three different ways:

/s/ /ɪz/ /z/

governments changes computers

This ‘s’ sound is found in the present tense verbs in the third-person singular, plural
nouns and possessives.

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You can follow these general rules for the different pronunciation of the final –s in
English:

a. if a noun ends with the /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, or /Ɵ/ sound, the final –s is pronounced
as /s/; e.g.

gets books months

b. if a noun ends with the /s/, /z/, /ʧ/, or /ʤ/ sound, the final –s is pronounced as
/ɪz/; e.g.

watches courses purses

c. if a noun ends with the /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /l/, /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/ sound, the final –s
sound is pronounced as /z/; e.g.

jobs beds computers

2. Pronunciation of words ending in –ed

The past tense of all regular English verbs is formed by adding the suffix –ed (or –
d) ending to the verb. While the spelling of these past tense forms is regular the
pronunciation varies. The past tense forms of regular verbs are pronounced in three
different ways: /d/, /t/ or /ɪd/.

The general rules for the different pronunciation of –ed endings are as follows:

a. if the verb ends in /b/, /g/, /v/, /z/, /ð/, /Ʒ/, /ʤ/, /l/,/m/, /n/, /ŋ/ sound or a vowel,
we pronounce the –ed ending as /d/; e.g.

called agreed refused

b. if the verb ends in /p/, /k/, /f/, /s/ /t/, /ʤ/, or /ʧ/ sound, we pronounce the –ed
ending as /t/; e.g.

stopped introduced mixed

c. if the verb ends in /t/ or /d/, we pronounce the –ed ending as /ɪd/; e.g.

invited celebrated decided

Activity 3

A. How are the –s endings of these words pronounced: e.g. /s/ as in books, /z/ as in
beds or /ɪz/ as in courses?:

watches laughs writes walks

shows cars explains goes
days houses wears runs

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B. How are the –ed endings of these words pronounced: /d/ as in called, /t/ as in
stopped or /ɪd/ as in invited?:

answered laughed mended walked

showed watched carried cried
explained started saved played
wished wanted filled mailed

SYLLABLES IN ENGLISH WORDS

A syllable is a unit of pronunciation which can consist of a group of words (vowels and
consonants) which are pronounced together. Words in English can have more than one
syllable. For example, cat is a word with one syllable word. Some multi syllable words
are as follows

Word Number of syllables

hotel two
attention three
obligation four
accommodation five
incomprehensible six

When counting the syllables, remember that the letters in the word are not the same as
the sounds. For example, in writing we can divide the word ‘evening’ into three parts:
e-ve-ning. However, when we say the word, we only pronounce two syllables: /ˈiːv.nɪŋ/.
Another example is the word ‘interesting’. The words can be divided into four parts:
in-te-res-ting but we pronounce only three syllables: /ˈɪn.trəs.tɪŋ/. The dots (.) indicate
where the syllables are divided.

Word Stress

Word stress refers to the syllable which is pronounced louder or longer than the other
syllables in the word. In words with more than one syllable, for example, ‘hotel’,
‘evening’, ‘interesting’, one or two of the syllables will receive more stress than the
others.

Words with two syllables usually have primary stress (ˈ) while words with three or
more syllables may have a primary stress syllable and a secondary stress syllable (ˌ).
For example, the word ‘communicate’ has one primary stress (indicated by ˈ):
/kəˈmjuː.nɪ.keɪt/ while ‘communication’ has both a primary stress and a secondary
stress (indicated by ˌ): /kəˌmjuː.nɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/. It is important to stress the correct syllable
of words when speaking in English so that your message will be clear. Only vowels are
stressed not the consonants.
In words with more than one syllable, stress can fall on the first, middle or last syllables
of words. Most two syllable words have the stress on the first syllable, for example,

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Two syllable words Stress on first syllable

cannon /ˈkæn.ən/
ancient /ˈeɪn.ʃənt/
building /ˈbɪl.dɪŋ/

There are also multiple syllable words that have the stress on the first syllable such as:

Multi syllable words Stress on first syllable

yesterday /ˈjes.tə.deɪ/
telephone /ˈtel.ɪ.fəʊn/
alligator /ˈæl.ɪ.ɡeɪ.tər/
broccoli /ˈbrɒk.əl.i/

Other multi syllable words can have the stress in the middle syllable, for example:

Multi syllable words Stress on middle syllable

potato /pəˈteɪ.təʊ/
fanatic /fəˈnæt.ɪk/

Others have the stress in the last syllable, like the following words:

Multi syllable words Stress on last syllable

afternoon /ˌɑːf.təˈnuːn/
understand /ˌʌn.dəˈstænd/

Stressed syllables are usually marked in the dictionary.

There are general rules that we can follow to know the position of stress in English
words. Many nouns and adjectives of two syllables that we use are stressed on the first
syllable, such as the following.

Two syllable Nouns Two syllable adjectives

ˈmother ˈbrother ˈwater ˈsilly ˈsleepy ˈcautious
ˈtable ˈcoffee ˈsugar ˈsolid ˈproper ˈuseful

Words that are formed from a combination of two words (e.g. compound nouns) tend
to be stressed on the first syllable, for example:

Compound nouns
ˈpostcard ˈfootball ˈnewspaper ˈcaveman.

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Words that can be used either as noun or verbs (words that have a dual role), such as
export, increase, present are stressed on the first syllable if it used as a noun and on the
last syllable if it is a verb:
Words with dual roles
Use as noun – stress on first syllable Use as verb – stress on second syllable
ˈexport ˈincrease exˈport inˈcrease
ˈpresent ˈproject preˈsent proˈject

Stress for most verbs with two syllables is on the second syllable but there are two-
syllable verbs which have stress on the first syllable such
Two syllable verbs – stress on first syllable
ˈenter ˈanswer ˈexit
ˈdiffer ˈissue ˈwhisper

Examples of two-syllable verbs with stress on the second syllable are

Two syllable verbs – stress on second syllable
apˈply preˈdict disˈcuss
arˈrive aˈgree forˈbid

In multi syllable verbs, the second syllable of the verb is stressed if the last syllable
does not end with more than one consonant and the vowel sound is short, for example
Multi syllable verbs – stress on second syllable
reˈstructure emˈpower eˈvaluate reˈmember

The final syllable of the verb is stressed if it has a long vowel sound or ends with more
than one consonant, such as
Multi syllable verbs – stress on final syllable
compreˈhend underˈstand decomˈpose

In nouns with two syllables, the stress in on the first syllable if the second syllable
contains a short vowel such as ˈrunner, ˈmother. If the second syllable has a long vowel,
the stress is on the second syllable for example, reˈceipt diˈsease, maˈchine. In other
nouns where the word ends with more than one consonant or the middle syllable has a
long vowel or diphthong, the middle syllable is stressed: reˈcruitment, ad diction,
comˈposer.

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Activity 4

A. Give the number of syllables these words have:

Word Number of Word Number of

syllables syllables
negotiation: ____________ suggestion: ____________
presentation: ____________ vegetable: ____________
recommend: ____________ different: ____________
conference: ____________ medicine: ____________
comfortable: ____________ television: ____________
temperature: ____________ favourite: ____________

B. Place the stress marker for each of these words:

pencil award excuse distract

flower resemble attract defeat
affection contest record object

C. Give other words that have a dual role, e.g. import (n) and import (v):

a. ____________________ e. ____________________
b. ____________________ f. ____________________
c. ____________________ g. ____________________
d. ____________________ h. ____________________

STRESS AND INTONATION

Intonation refers to the way the voice goes up/rise () and down/fall () in pitch when
we are speaking. Intonation helps to determine the meaning of the utterance and gives
hints to the attitude of the speaker or how the speaker feels about what he/she is saying.
The latter means that we can get a good idea as to whether the speaker is interested,
kind, being honest, bored, rude, polite and so on from the intonation. Correct use of
intonation can help you convey your message more effectively.

There are some general guidelines on correct intonation to help you achieve effective
communication. If you ask information questions beginning with ‘What / Where / Who
/ and so on, the intonation normally goes down () at the end:

 
What is your name? How did you find the key?

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In Yes / No questions, or in statements that are made into questions, the intonation
normally goes up () at the end:

Yes / No question Statement made into question

 
Do you speak English? You killed a ten-foot snake?

If we repeat a question (for example, because we have forgotten the answer or were
surprised by the answer) the intonation usually goes up () at the end.

Intonation should go down/fall () at the end of statements:

 
They went to school by bus. I recommend that we change our strategy.

Most commands are also expressed with the intonation falling at the end.

When we ask someone to do something, the words and the intonation we use are very
important. In order to sound polite, we should start high and go higher on the main
stressed word (e.g. the word ‘door’ in the example below). Your voice should fall a bit
and then rise again at the end of the sentence, as shown in the example below:

Could you close the door, please?

Your intonation also goes up when we make suggestions in order to sound polite and
friendly.

When we agree to a request, your intonation should sound polite. You should start high
at the beginning and fall at the end, for example:

Yes, certainly.

Questions tags (questions at the end of the statement) can have a rising or falling
intonation depending on the speaker’s intention. For example, if the speaker is using
the question tag to check or to confirm information that the speaker already knows, the
intonation goes down (). Here, the speaker is not really asking a question but is asking
the listener to agree with what the speaker has said. If the question tags are ‘real’
questions (i.e. the speaker is not sure of the answer) then the intonation rises at the end
().

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Read the following poem called The Chaos by Gerard Nolst Trenité. This poem
highlights some of the irregularities in English spelling and pronunciation. Part of the
poem is presented here. The poem starts with

Dearest creature in creation,

Study English pronunciation.
I will teach you in my verse
Sounds like corpse, corps, horse, and worse.
I will keep you, Suzy, busy,
Make your head with heat grow dizzy.
Tear in eye, your dress will tear.
So shall I! Oh hear my prayer.

Other verses that highlight the challenges in pronouncing English words are:
Just compare heart, beard, and heard,
Dies and diet, lord and word,
Sword and sward, retain and Britain.
(Mind the latter, how it's written.)
Now I surely will not plague you
With such words as plaque and ague.
But be careful how you speak:
Say break and steak, but bleak and streak;
Cloven, oven, how and low,
Script, receipt, show, poem, and toe.

Billet does not rhyme with ballet,

Bouquet, wallet, mallet, chalet.
Blood and flood are not like food,
Nor is mould like should and would.
Viscous, viscount, load and broad,
Toward, to forward, to reward.
And your pronunciation's OK
When you correctly say croquet,
Rounded, wounded, grieve and sieve,
Friend and fiend, alive and live.

The poem ends with

Finally, which rhymes with enough –
Though, through, plough, or dough, or cough?
Hiccough has the sound of cup.
My advice is to give up!!!

Importance of Pronunciation in Communication

A very important part of communication is to be heard and understood. One way to
enhance communication is by having good diction or pronunciation of words. This is
an important skill for good speakers. You can enhance your pronunciation if you know
the sound (phonetic) symbols, understand the syllable and stress, know how to join
words in speech, and understand the different intonations in connected speech.

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UNIT 3: PERSONAL WRITE-UP

OBJECTIVES

 Provide a brief explanation of oneself

 Demonstrates your ability to convince your prospective employers

Many job application forms include a large space for candidates to write something
about themselves that will convince the employers to take them on. These written
statements are often called "letters of intent", "personal narratives", “personal write-
ups”, "personal statements", or "statements of purpose". This can be quite daunting:
what should you include in your personal write-up or statement and what should you
not include?

WHAT IS A PERSONAL WRITE-UP?

It is a writing sample describing you at your best, your reasons for choosing the job
you have chosen, your professional interests, your objectives, and the unique ways
you can contribute to the organization to which you are applying. Employers often
ask for your write-up because they want more insight into who you are and why they
should hire you. The job application is standard and asks for objective facts and
details that allows them to evaluate candidates against job requirements. A personal
write-up, though, gives applicants a chance to express themselves through essays and
highlight anything in their background that is helpful for the employer to know but
not obvious on applications.

EFFECTIVE PERSONAL WRITE-UP

An effective write up shows your employer who you are, how you think, how you
decide to act (or not to act) upon something and how you approach a problem and
how you interact with your environment. It is NOT a resume or a letter of
application. It may be read by a committee which makes a recommendation in the
organization and thus do take your time to put your best foot forward.

The write-up is designed to communicate the following:

1. Writing abilities – grammar, punctuation, organization, creativity, expression, etc.

2. Connections between your past education / experiences and future goals.
3. Your philosophy of the profession and why you are pursuing an opportunity in that
area.
4. What makes you unique and different from the other applicants.
5. How you can be an asset to the company now and in the future.

Note: A personal write-up (or a personal statement) refers to a particular type of

information needed on an application form. This is required on the application
English for Professional Purposes
form for teacher training positions and on many undergraduate and postgraduate
(university) application forms. The write-up may also be requested for certain
type of positions with non-profit organizations, or for internship applications.
 29

WHAT TO INCLUDE

It is important not to make a personal write-up into a dense, unreadable block of text.
You need to write good prose in full sentences and break it up into small paragraphs.
Use headings to help guide the reader’s eye to the most important information.

Try to write in a style that makes your statement fresh and slightly different to the
formal prose of most of your application materials. You are trying to sell yourself as
an attractive personality as well as a professional employee.

Include such things as:

i. Events from your education/career to date that make you especially suited to the
job (including volunteer work/work experience): it is important to be able to
write about these events enthusiastically

ii. What it is about the job that especially attracts you to it.

iii. The skills/knowledge base you have that is relevant to the job.

iv. What is the unique contribution you can make to the university/company?
Check online for their mission statement and refer to that when describing how
you can contribute

v. Refer directly to the job description using the same language and then relate that
to your own experiences

vi. What are your career aims? You might have to be creative here! Tailor your
answer to the job you’re applying for and make it seem as though you are
desperate to pursue a career in that area! However, try to make your write-up as
honest as possible; you want to come across as a real person and not simply
parroting what you think the employers want to hear. It is a difficult balance to
achieve.

WHAT NOT TO INCLUDE

It is very important that you tailor each personal write-up for the specific job you are
applying for. Do not simply copy and paste an old personal write-up into your new
application.

Also, do not be lazy and simply write ‘see my attached CV/cover letter’. While you
may find yourself repeating much of the information contained within those
documents, it is important to make an effort to craft something new here.

Although it is often called a ‘personal write-up’ this section of an application form

does not require you to give ‘personal’ information about things such as your hobbies.
While your interests might make you sound like a rounded individual (whether you
enjoy the theatre, scuba diving or whatever), employers in a competitive job market
do not actually care about such things. They want to know why you are the best

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person for the job. So unless the form specifically requests you to do so, don’t reveal
details of your life outside the world of work.

Note: Personal write-ups written by those hoping to get on an undergraduate or

postgraduate course are slightly different, so do not be misled by the large numbers
of websites advertising help with writing personal write-ups. These are aimed at
high school and college students and are less relevant to you as a jobseeker.

REVISING AND EDITING

As with all parts of your application, make sure as many people as possible proofread
your personal write-up. Nothing says ‘unprofessional’ like a personal write-up full of
typos or grammar mistakes. Also, while you may think you have expressed yourself
very clearly, other readers may be able to highlight sentences or words that are
incorrect, irrelevant or could be more clearly expressed. A good personal write-up
passes through many drafts, so make sure you give enough time to the writing and re-
drafting process.

Source:
Jobs.ac.ukwww.jobs.ac.uk/careers…/jobseeking

Language

Verbs
Using active, positive words (these are normally verbs) in a CV or in an application
form can give it additional impact and make a stronger impression on potential
employers. Use action words to put over what you have achieved in vacation jobs or
posts of responsibility - not just the tasks you have carried out.

Resist the passive voice, as well as the various forms of “to be” verbs (is, am, are,
was, were; e.g., I am a diligent worker; Responsibility is one of my best attributes.)

For example, rather than writing:

For my final-year project, I had to carry out a survey of patients' attitudes to

health care services for the elderly. This involved interviewing patients in
hospital and in their homes. A database was used to keep track of data
collected. This project was finished on time and was awarded a 2.1 grade.

You should instead write:

Devised and prepared a survey of patients' attitudes to health care services for
the elderly as my final-year project. Interviewed 70 elderly patients and
obtained a substantial amount of data. Created a database to analyse and
interpret this material. Completed this project three weeks ahead of schedule
and achieved a 2.1 grade.

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Nouns
Nouns are also important - good, concrete nouns - one of the most important being
the personal pronoun: I. Consider the difference between the following statements:

Example 1
My involvement with Mazuba Corporation helped me come to an understanding
about how one properly manages a team of motivated but disparate young
professionals.

Example 2
While working at Mazuba Corporation, I managed a team of ten employees,
organizing and leading weekly team planning meetings, conducting frequent
individual conferences with team members, and negotiating the disagreements that
inevitably arise among a group of motivated but disparate young professionals.

In the first example, the noun performing the action becomes “involvement,” thus
deflecting the emphasis from your own accomplishment. And notice how the use of
such a noun forces the verb to become weaker as well (helped me come to), which in
turn leaves you no other choice but to use the word “understanding”, another
ambiguous noun.

In the second example, the focus (and also the credit) is on you and the specific work
you accomplished. Accordingly, also beware of: My education, My experience, My
background, My involvement, etc. Such phrases will inevitably be useful, but try to
limit yourself.

Adjectives
There are many powerful adjectives that can help you in describing your skills
and talents.

For example:
meaningful, important, challenging, invaluable, rewarding, organized,
diplomatic, creative, flexible, influential, experienced, etc.

However, do NOT simply give empty, vague, clichéd adjectives. A good

concrete example is worth a bucket of such adjectives.

Example:

An innovative thinker - do not simply say this, provide or explain an idea

which you have suggested that was successful.

A good problem solver - if you state this, provide an example of a problem you
have solved and how.

 Be concise. Employers often read hundreds of applications. The more watered

down your prose, the more watered down and boring a candidate you become.
 When editing, be on the particular lookout for strings of qualifying phrases, often
beginning with a preposition. Most of these phrases can be cut, the sentence
rewritten in a more direct fashion. State your meaning as clearly and as directly
as possible.

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The following are some useful phrases or expressions that could help enhance
your personal statement or personal write-up.

LANGUAGE EXPRESSION EXAMPLE

While.... I gained not only ….. While preparing to these Olympiads I gained not only
but also… much new knowledge and experience but also
confidence that devoting myself to physics was the
right decision.
When I was…… I was When I was taking special laboratory courses on
struck by….. advanced optics, I was struck by...
Of great interest to me was Of great interest to me was the 2-photon spectroscopy.
…. 2-photon spectroscopy is of great interest to me.
I found….. to be of the I found modeling of cellular development to be of the
greatest interest to me. greatest interest to me.
I especially enjoyed working I especially enjoyed working on the new model.
on…
To help you understand my To help you understand my current goals better, I
…… better, I would like would like to explain my educational experience up to
to……… this point.
My extensive knowledge My extensive knowledge of physics and mathematical
of….. proved to be very modeling proved to be very useful in understanding
useful in…… the principles that underlie biological phenomena in
cells.
My interest in….. deepened My interest in optical phenomena deepened when in
when….. 1998 I joined the MIPT optical laboratory of Prof. X.
I carried out my…..under the I carried out my first research project in biophysics at
guidance of… ... Institute in the biokinetics research group under the
guidance of Prof. X.
These activities gave me…. These activities gave me valuable experience as well
as well as…. as satisfaction of hard work.
Along with….I also…. Along with my studies and research work I also held a
I enjoyed …… and I believe part-time position as a Physics teacher at Phystech
that …… College, which is an extracurricular high school. I
enjoyed this job greatly and I believe that this
experience will significantly help me both in my TA
assignments and in my future academic career.

Other useful expressions are:

The ultimate goal of our research is/was to check...
The laboratory I work in primarily deals with...
In this lab I have gained experience of working with the equipment for...
From the beginning I was actively involved in the research in this laboratory.
Currently I am working on a second research project.../ on the part of this research
project that deals with...
This research is/was especially interesting because...

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All these significantly improved my understanding of the subject and further

enhanced my interest in it.
After graduation I plan to continue my scientific career in the field of...

SAMPLES OF PERSONAL WRITE-UPS:

Applicants with job experience

1. A highly driven merchandiser with over 8 years’ experience at leading fashion

chain retailers. Helped deliver increased team sales in excess of 10% per year over
the last 3 years, despite challenging market. Particular expertise in new product
development, contributing to packaging design of 3 new lines in current role.
Valuable experience in developing ecommerce business alongside high street
retail.

2. A professional charity fundraiser with senior level experience spanning direct

marketing and capital fundraising campaigns. In last 2 years have initiated and
launched a campaign that raised £6 million within 9 months, for a top 50 charity.
Adept at using social media, TV, telemarketing and face to face fundraising
methods. Now seeking to use my skills in a part time role at a smaller charity, to
have more hands-on input.

3. A dedicated and compassionate medical professional who specialises in the field

of spinal neurosurgery. Able to demonstrate strong clinical expertise with the
proven ability to assess and investigate patient symptoms and make appropriate
decisions on the most appropriate treatment accordingly. Committed to the field of
research and development with the aim of improving standards of medical
practice through the use of technological advances. A valuable member and leader
of a successful multi-disciplinary team who thrives in highly pressurised and
challenging working environments.
(Taken from the CV Book, available on Amazon)

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Applicants who are new graduates

1. An adaptable and responsible graduate seeking an entry-level position in public

relations which will utilise the organisational and communication skills developed
through my involvement with Kent Rag and promotional work during vacations.
During my degree I successfully combined my studies with work and other
commitments showing myself to be self-motivated, organised and capable of
working under pressure. I have a clear, logical mind with a practical approach to
problem solving and a drive to see things through to completion. I enjoy working
on my own initiative or in a team. In short, I am reliable, trustworthy,
hardworking and eager to learn and have a genuine interest in PR.
(source: University of Kent)

2. A recent business economics graduate with a 2:1 honours degree from the
University of X, looking to secure a Graduate Commercial Analyst position to use
and further develop my analytical skills and knowledge in a practical and fast-
paced environment. My career goal is to assume a role which allows me to take
responsibility for the analysis and interpretation of commercial data for a well-
respected and market-leading leading company.

3. As recent graduate from Durham University, with a 2:1 honours degree in media
communications, I have undertaken several internships within leading
organisations such as Bertelsmann and Times Warner. These placements have
enabled me to develop not only specific media industry experience, but also a
valuable and transferable skill set in this fast-paced sector.

4. I have recently graduated from ABC University where I gained a 2:1 in Media
Studies. I have since worked for XXX which has enhanced both my creativity and
knowledge of the industry. I am a passionate individual looking for a new
challenge. In my last role I worked on YYY campaign and achieved xxx which is
why I am now looking to develop my career even further.

5. A recent engineering graduate in Bachelor of Chemical Engineering with 1st class

degree from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, seeking to secure a Project Engineer
position in Valmech Engineering Sdn. Bhd. to gain valuable working experience
in the engineering field and as a platform to kick start my career as an engineer.
Previous working experience includes 7 month-experience working as a
Document Controller in an oil and gas company called VME Process. Possessed 5
months of experience in research internship in Japan related to steam reformation
of methanol to produce alternative sustainable energy called hydrogen fuel cell. In
addition, gained experience as safety and health auditor in UTM Phyto Factory
Institute of Bioproduct Development. Thus, I look forward to working in Valmech
Engineering.

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Poor example of a personal write-up – because it is too vague and does not give
specific examples.

1. I am hard working, a good communicator and well-organised. I am a Project

Manager, able to work well in a team and individually. My experience working
under pressure means I can meet deadlines every time. Also, I am a good
problem-solver, have a creative mind and think laterally.

2. I am an energetic and enthusiastic person who enjoys a challenge and achieving

personal goals. My present career aim is to work within IT because I enjoy
working with computers, I enjoy the environment and I find the work interesting
and satisfying. The opportunity to learn new skills and work with new
technologies is particularly attractive to me.

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UNIT 4: NEGOTIATIONS

OBJECTIVES

 Participate in a discussion to reach an agreement

 Practice and apply negotiation skills

INTRODUCTION

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which

compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute. In any
disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve the best possible outcome for
their position or the organisation they represent. However, the principles of fairness,
seeking mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are the key to a successful
outcome.

A negotiation is a meeting or a series of meetings in which the parties need each other’s
agreement to reach a specific objective which is to their mutual advantage. There are
several types and the three main types of negotiation are:

1. Win–Win where both parties find a mutually beneficial agreement and establish the
basis for a lasting relationship.
2. Both teams look for the independent advantage with less emphasis on a long-term
relationship.
3. Win-lose where the two parties see their counterparts as opponents

THE PROCESS OF NEGOTIATION

The process of negotiation includes the following stages:

1. Preparation
2. During
3. Ending

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PREPARATION FOR THE NEGOTIATION

Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where
a meeting will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited
time-scale can also be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing.

This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order
to clarify your own position. You should start with reading and gathering pre-
negotiation documentation.

When you read and gather pre-negotiation documentation, you should be keeping in
mind the following:

 Clarify important questions prior to the negotiation

You should be clear about what the disagreement or argument is about and who is
to be involved.

 Know the other party: business and culture

You should know who you are negotiating with. Do some research on the other
party’s business or culture. You should prepare yourself to negotiate well and not
to step on their toes or insult them. You should try to find out their names and
positions. Find out where they are from. Have they been involved in other
negotiations? What approaches or tactics did they use in other negotiations? Do
they have the authority to carry out the agreement or would they have to refer to a
higher authority?

 Decide objectives, strategy and agenda

Your preparation must include what the objective of the discussion is. You will
have to present your arguments clearly. You should decide before you start how
much you are willing to give in and how far you are willing to pursue the
negotiation. With every good negotiation, there should be a fair give and take.

 Specify roles and responsibilities within the team

The negotiating team should reflect good team work. Each person in the team must
be aware of his or her role in the discussion. You might have one person be focused
on the details of the cost or the law.

 Inform people about the date, time and venue

If the other party doesn’t know the time or venue, there would not be a discussion.
Give them enough time to prepare. Do not call for a last minute discussion. The
other party might not even consider negotiating if they feel they are being forced to
negotiate. Fairness is the key to a successful negotiation.

 Prepare and rehearse your opening statement

Never take anything for granted. Rehearse with your team the arguments or
proposals that you will be presenting to the other party. If possible, ask someone
who is not in your team to be the listener. You should know from an uninvolved
person how your arguments or proposals sound.

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DURING THE NEGOTIATION

The next phase of the discussion is the discussion itself. This is where both parties will
negotiate. Both would want a favourable outcome on their part. There are several things
to remember. Among them are as follows:

 Create a positive atmosphere quickly

It is good to start with a good rapport. Introduce everyone in the team. Begin
discussion with mundane topics. Last night’s football or the weather would be good
general topics to set up everyone’s mood.

 Respect cultural expectations of behaviour

In some cultures, the exchanging of business cards is very important. Usually it is
to attest to the person’s title or position in the company. If you have done your
homework you would have prepared to reciprocate. Ensure that everyone in your
team has his or her business card. When given the card by the other party, take time
to read and respond to the card. It shows that they are important. There is nothing
more insulting than being dismissed as if they are not worth knowing.

 Establish a framework: agenda, procedure, roles

For any good discussion to take place, everyone must know what the discussion is
going to be about hence the agenda. How long do you estimate the discussion to
be?

 Agree on a timetable
State whether you expect results at the end of the discussion or are you expecting
there to be another discussion arranged? Will you or the other party have to “think
about it” or “refer to my Managing Director” before a decision can be made? This
is to ensure that no one feels like it is going to be a waste of time sitting down for
four hours with no concrete decision.

 State your position

Each party must state its points, arguments, or proposals clearly. As a participant
you should employ your listening skills. You should listen well and be able to ask
questions should you need clarification. Do not make the mistake of listening too
little and talking too much.

 Stress common interest

Everyone who is at the discussion table would wish the discussion to come to an
amicable end. In the interest of fairness, if you intend the relationship between both
parties to survive long then the discussion should not have one party to feel superior
or the winner. Both parties should leave the discussion table feeling satisfied that
they have managed to solve a problem together. Stress the common interest of the
parties. A group of employees seeking higher wages should be aware of how much
the company is willing to give without the company going bankrupt.

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ENDING THE NEGOTIATION

At the end of the discussion, a few actions have to be taken. They are:

 Summarize and agree to the deal

At the end of the discussion a summary and notes on the agreed decisions should
be available. Both parties should be taking down the same information so that a
course of action to be carried out by both parties are recorded accurately.

 Clarify future responsibilities

Both parties must be clear about each other’s responsibility to ensure that further
discussion are not needed. Further discussions would only delay actions and this
would lead to a failure of the present discussion.

 End positively
If each party has considered the other, an agreement where both party compromised
or acted fairly to each other would result in a mutually satisfying outcome for both.
A “Win-Win” outcome where both sides feel that they have gained something
positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel that their viewpoint
has been taken into consideration is the best outcome to have. It should be the
ultimate goal of any negotiation.

The Negotiating Process

Greetings and positive opening Reviewing and agreeing the agenda

Making proposals Clarifying priorities Establishing positions

Bargaining Handling conflict Settling

Closing Summarising

However, it should be noted that not all negotiations end well. There are cases where
the discussion breaks down. The negotiation might not be successful and an agreement
cannot be reached. To avoid conflict, heated discussion or arguments, a re-scheduling
of the discussion has to be called. Responding to heated arguments create tension and
would only jeopardise future relationship.

At the subsequent meeting, any new ideas or interest should be introduced so that the
situation is given a fresh insight. Bringing in an objective mediator to mediate might
be a good option. However, if both parties are not able to agree then the next course
of action is Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA).

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BEST ALTERNATIVE TO A NEGOTIATED AGREEMENT (BATNA)

BATNA is the alternative to what a negotiated agreement would be otherwise. It

permits far greater flexibility and allows much more room for innovation than a
predetermined bottom line.

When creating a BATNA, a negotiator should:

 Brainstorm a list of all available alternatives that might be considered should the
negotiation fail to give a desirable agreement.
 Choose the most promising alternatives and expand them into practical and
attainable alternatives
 Identify the best of the alternatives and keep it in reserve as a fall-back during the
negotiation.

A well-conceived and clearly defined BATNA gives the negotiator the advantage to
break off the negotiation if it becomes clear that a beneficial outcome is not possible.
The negotiator can adopt a more firm and forceful stance when proposing ideas and
interest as the basis for an agreement.

The negotiator can decide whether a BATNA should be revealed to the other party
depending on the strength of the BATNA. If the negotiator has a strong BATNA, it may
be beneficial to disclose it, as this would prevent the other party from acting as if a
viable alternative did not exist. However, if the negotiator has a weak BATNA, it is
better not to disclose the BATNA.

Language Expressions

The following are some examples of the ways to make statements and to ask questions
during a discussion to negotiate.

Function Expressions
To show  I agree with you on that point.
understanding /  You have a strong point there.
agreement on a point  I think we can both agree that ...
 I don’t see any problems with that.
To show objection  I understand your reasons but ...
 I’m prepared to compromise, however ...
 That is not how I see it.
 I’m afraid I have to disagree with you on that.
To ask questions  Could you tell us why you feel like that?
 How can we reach a compromise?
 What do you think is a fair way to resolve …?
 Your position is very interesting. Can you tell me
more?

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Function Expressions
To describe current  We are very satisfied / dissatisfied with ...
situations  Unfortunately, we haven’t been able to ...
To express agreement  We can agree with you there.
 We are willing to work with that.
 By mutual agreement we have decided to ...
To convey  We are looking forward to a successful business
commitment relation.
 We are committed to finding a solution
To discuss follow-up  Shall we put this into a written proposal?
documentation  I think we will need a detailed summary of this.

Negotiation Vocabulary

Word
Meaning Examples of Sentence
Part of Speech
alternatives other options We can’t offer you the raise you
noun requested, but let’s discuss some
other alternatives.
arbitration conflict that is addressed We should settle this ourselves
noun by using a neutral third because a formal arbitration will
party cost both of us money.
bargain try to change a person’s We bargained on the last issue for
verb mind by using various over an hour.
tactics
bottom-line the lowest offer acceptable I’m willing to accept RM15 per
noun hour but that is my bottom-line.
collective together This is a collective concern, so we
adjective have to have the representative from
the other two departments.
compensate make up for a lost If you are willing to work extra
verb hours, we will compensate you by
paying overtime.
comply agree I’m willing to comply if you assign
verb me my own office.

compromise changing one’s mind I’m willing to compromise on the

verb /terms in order to find a third issue as it involves everyone’s
resolution welfare.
concession a thing that is granted or We can agree to some concessions
noun accepted but not all.

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Word
Meaning Examples of Sentence
Part of Speech
confront present an issue to someone The workers’ representative
verb directly confronted the management about
the new regulations.
counter the offer/proposal that is The management presented a
proposal presented in response to counter proposal that would allow
noun other party’s offer/proposal the workers who were to be laid off
to still remain employed.
deadlock a point where neither party The negotiation came to a deadlock
noun will give in when the issue of salary increase
was discussed.
dispute argument / conflict The dispute between the
noun management and staff is about the
retrenchment exercise.
indecisive difficulty in making a The employees’ representatives
adjective decision were indecisive in accepting the
counter proposal that they requested
for another meeting next week
where they will give their decision.
leverage something that gives one The company has the leverage as it
noun party a greater chance at is the only factory within a 50
succeeding over another kilometre radius.
mutual agreed by both parties It was a mutual decision to postpone
adjective the meeting to next week.
proposal argument As each party presented its proposal
noun the other team listened attentively.
trade-off terms that are offered in Allowing the employees to work on
noun return for something else flexible hours is a fair trade-off for
not accepting their resignation.
ultimatum a final term that has serious The employees’ representative gave
noun consequences if not met the ultimatum that they were going
on strike if their demand for
improved safety at the workplace is
not addressed.
unrealistic very unlikely to happen The employees have an unrealistic
adjective expectation that all their demands
will be met.
yield To give in to another’s The management will only yield to
verb request/demand allow the employees to stop work at
6 every week day provided they are
willing to work on Saturdays.

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UNIT 5: EMAIL AND EMAIL ETIQUETTE

OBJECTIVES

 Develop great style of writing clear and concise email

 Understand the proper email language and etiquette to convey a
professional image.

INTRODUCTION

Some of the effects of email communication at work have been positive, while
others have detracted from the benefits of face-to-face communication. Choosing
the best method in any given workplace situation is key to effective
communication.
Email serves as an effective way to send one-way messages or engage in two-way
interaction that doesn't have time urgency.

STEPS TO WRITING A FORMAL EMAIL

i. Use a neutral email address

Your e-mail address should be a variation of your real name, not a
username or nickname. Use periods, hyphens, or underscores to secure an
e-mail address that is just your name, without extra numbers or letters, if
you can. Never use an unprofessional email address. No one will take you
seriously if your reply-to is [email protected].

ii. Use a short and accurate subject header

Avoid saying too much in the subject header, but make sure it reflects the
content of your email to a person unfamiliar with you. If possible, include
a keyword that will make the email content easier to remember and/or
search for in a crowded inbox. For example, “Meeting on March 12th” is
specific enough that the email topic won’t be mistaken for anything else
but not so specific as to be distracting (ex. “Schedule, Guest List, Lunch
Requests, and Meeting Overview for March 12th").

iii. Use a proper salutation

Addressing the recipient by name is preferred. Use the person's title (Mr.
Mrs. Ms. or Dr.) with their last name, followed by a comma or a colon.
Optionally, you can precede the salutation with "Dear..." (but "Hello..." is

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acceptable as well). Using a last name is more formal and should be used
unless you are on first-name terms with the recipient. If you do not know
the name of the person you are writing to (but you really should try and
find one) use "Dear Sir/Madam" or "Dear Sir or Madam" followed by a
colon.

iv. Introduce yourself in the first paragraph (if necessary)

Also include why you are writing, and how you found that person's e-mail
address, or the opportunity you are writing about.
Example:
 My name is Earl Rivers. I'm contacting you to apply for the
administrative assistant position listed on CareerXYZ.com.
 My name is Arlene Thornton. I am writing about the traffic citation I
received on 31 August 2015. I obtained your e-mail address from the
Westchester County Clerk website.

v. Write the actual message

Be sure to get your point across without rambling; if it is fluffed up, the
reader may glance over the important details. Try to break up the message
into paragraphs by topic to make your message more logical and
digestible.
 The email should be no more than 5 paragraphs long and each paragraph
should be no more than 5 sentences long.
 Insert a line break between each paragraph; indenting is not necessary and
will likely be lost during the email transfer anyway.
 Be sure to avoid informal writing.

vi. Use the correct form of leave-taking

This will depend on your level of intimacy with the recipient. Examples
include:
 Yours sincerely,

 Yours cordially,
 Respectfully,
 Best,

vii. Sign with your full name

If you have a job title, include that in the line after your name, and write
the company name or website in the line after that. If you do not have a job
title but you have your own blog or website related to the content of the e-

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mail, include a link to that below your name. If the e-mail is about a job,
only include a career-related website or blog, not hobbies or interests.

viii. Proofread your message for content

Make sure you have not omitted any important details (or repeated
yourself). Reading your email aloud or asking someone to proofread it is a
great way to get a different perspective on what you’ve written.

ix. Proof read your message for grammar and spelling

If your email provider does not already provide spelling and grammar
options for you, copy and paste your email into a word processor, revise it
if necessary, and copy and paste it back into your email.

Sample Emails
Sample 1: Sample Letter about Resolved Issue
Dear Ms. McDonald,
I am writing to follow up on our discussion last Wednesday. As you requested, I filed
a work order with the facilities department regarding the damage to the ascending
escalator you reported.
An examination of the escalator found that there was a shoelace caught in the gears.
Said shoelace has since been removed, and the escalator was tested extensively to
ensure this would not happen again. I am pleased to report that the tests were passed
with flying colors, and the escalator has been reopened.
Thank you for bringing this issue to our attention. Please continue to inform us should
you have any other problems in our facilities.

Sincerely,
Marilyn M. Novak
Property Manager
Novak Skyscraper Construction

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Sample 2: Formal Letter of Apology

To whom it may concern:

My name is Edward Miller. I stayed at your hotel with my family March 8-12, 2013.
We had a lovely stay, but I recently learned that my six-year-old son took the alarm
clock from our hotel room with him when we left.
I apologize for my son's actions. He is quite chagrined. I would like to know what
address I should mail the alarm clock back to. Please let me know the preferred
address, and I will send the clock (and my son's letter of apology) as soon as possible.
Sincerely,
Edward Miller

Sample 3: Formal Email to Boss

To: [email protected]
From: [email protected]
Subject: Meeting about New Internet Service Provider 1/8/2013

Mr. Jones,
I have been researching our choices for internet providers over the past week, and I
would like to update you on my progress. We have two options: H.C. Cable and Toll
South. Both offer business plans, and I will go over the pricing of each plan at the
meeting on Tuesday. Both of the options I listed have comparable speed and data
usage offerings as well. I called your personal provider, GoGo Satellite, but they do
not have any business offerings. They primarily do residential internet service.

I will talk with Joe and Susan in IT about these options and get their suggestions. I
will also send out meeting requests to everyone, including Mr. Morris in operations. If
you have any questions prior to the meeting, please let me know.

Respectfully,
Tina McAden
Administrative Assistant
Jones Office Solutions
http://www.jonesofficesolutions.com
07-555 28 28

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Sample 4: Outlining New Policy

To: [email protected]
From: [email protected]
Subject: New Etiquette Policy

Dear WidgetCo Staff,

In an attempt to make our office a more enjoyable place for everyone to be, we are
implementing a few new policies to try to improve workplace morale:
1. Please refrain from wearing perfume or other strong fragrances in the
office.
2. Whenever possible, personal hygiene should be taken care of in the
bathroom or another private area.
3. While employees are definitely allowed to listen to music, please make
sure that your volume is low and you are wearing headphones so that
others are not distracted.
4. Please remember to keep all conversations and emails work-appropriate.
Over-sharing and discussing potentially controversial topics are not good
choices for office communication.
We are proud of the welcoming and comfortable environment at WidgetCo and feel
that these policies will help to ensure a continued positive working atmosphere. If you
have any questions regarding these or other office policies, please be sure to ask your
supervisor for clarification.

Best regards,
Howard Parson
CEO, WidgetCo, Inc.
Office: (228) 555-0198 Ext. 125

How to Write a Formal Email - https://cypherstpatricks.wordpress.com/tag/formal-

email/

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2.0 Improving Your Email Etiquette

Opening your email inbox can be like opening a Pandora’s box of inadequate
grammar, poor spelling, and bad taste. Consider what impressions your emails
make on others; it is always the right time to set your emails apart from the
pack. Follow these steps and improve your email etiquette.

a. Keep your email concise, conversational, and focused

It is harder to read letters on a computer screen than on a sheet of paper, so
keep emails short and to the point. While there is no ideal email length,
keep sentences short, about 8-12 words and leave a space between
paragraphs.

 In a work email, get straight to the point: "I'm hoping you will..." "I
think we should...." etc right up front, making the case in the following
lines. Many people only read the first few lines before deciding to
respond or to save for later. Those lines should give enough of the
"meat" to allow an informed decision. For personal emails, it's often a
nice idea to open with a brief personal note before getting into the
main point of your email.

b. Avoid fancy formatting

Changing fonts and colors, inserting bullet lists, or using HTML can make
an email look bizarre or render it unreadable for the recipient, even if the
formatting looks fine on your computer. Keep it simple.

c. Limit attachments
 Do not add an attachment unless really necessary. Keep attachments as
small as possible. Most email applications can send and receive
attachments up to 1 MB, but anything over that can be a hassle for you
or the recipient, and even smaller files can take a long time to open if
the recipient's email connection is slow. If you need to send a larger
file, compress or zip it or use online services that will help you send
large files such as YouSendIt.com. If you need to send multiple pages,
such as meeting plans or large text corrections, send a fax or a typed
set of pages in a letter.

 Do not zip email attachments unless necessary. Unless an attachment is

too large to send otherwise, you risk wasting your recipient's time and
possibly hinder them from accessing your attachments. Many mobile

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devices are unable to uncompress zip files. Additionally it is redundant

since many common files like .xlsx, .docx, .pptx (MS Excel, Word and
PowerPoint) are already in a compressed format.

 Keep in mind that many people or businesses will not open

attachments from someone they do not know, and some email accounts
are set up to automatically send emails with attachments to the spam
folder, so if you're applying for a job, for example, make sure you
follow the recipient's instructions regarding attachments. If no
instructions are given, send another email to let the recipient know you
will be sending an email with an attachment.

d. Think before you send

 Do not send e-mails when you are emotional. Feel free to write the
subject and text of the email, then save it. Only add the recipients and
send it after you have had time to think about what you are sending;
you might change your mind and be better off for it.

 Email has also become a tool to ask or tell people things that you
would normally never say face-to-face (ever wonder why you become
a different person instinctively online?). If you are sending someone
anything, reread it and ask yourself if you would say this to them if
they were right next to you, or face-to-face. If it's on a touchy subject,
read it twice.

e. Be careful using abbreviations and emoticons

 This may be acceptable in an informal e-mail such as with a friend.
However, in a formal letter you would not have to tell someone that
you are "laughing out loud," people may find it inappropriate, and
could feel you are being frivolous.

 Some abbreviations, such as "BTW" for "By the Way," are commonly
used in emails and are generally acceptable except in formal,
professional emails.

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2.1 Writing New E-mails

a. Use the recipient fields correctly. Addressees in the "to" field are
expected to take action, and those on "CC" are for keeping colleagues or
bosses informed.
 Be careful about requesting ACTION from more than one person in the

"To:" field. This can lead to multiple efforts for the same task, or no
effort because it's assumed someone else is handling the request.

 If sending an e-mail to a list of people whose addresses you want to

keep private, put them all in the BCC field and put your own address in
the "to" field.

 If you want to phase someone out of the thread (for example, if they
have introduced you to someone else, and now you and that person are
working out some details and you don't want to bog down the inbox of
the introducer) move the person's address from the "to" or CC field
over to the BCC field.

b. Make the subject line useful. A good subject line provides a useful
summary of the email's content, preparing the reader quickly. Email
inboxes are frequently swamped, so a good subject line helps the recipient
determine the priority of your email. It also helps to prevent your email
from being deleted before it has even been read. Since the subject is the
first thing your recipient sees, keep it error free, concise, and avoid generic
lines such as "Hi," "What's up," or the recipient's name (the latter may be
blocked by anti-spam filters).

 Avoid prioritizing your messages for the recipient. Get out of the habit
of marking every email as "Urgent!” or "High Priority" or your emails
will end up being treated like the boy who cried wolf and they'll all get
ignored. It is irritating and presumptuous to assume your e-mail
request is higher in the queue than anybody else's, especially in a work
context. Be gracious enough to give the receiver credit for working out
for themselves how to prioritize your message.

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2.2 Replying to E-mails

a. Be careful of who you copy on replies. If you reply to a message and

then CC: a third-party that the original sender did not include, be certain in
your mind that the original sender will not be upset about it. This
information may have been "for your eyes only". This is especially
important if the original sender is your work supervisor. Be cautious about
using BCC:. This can backfire if the person being BCC:'d replies back, not
having seen that their copy was a blind one.

b. Determine to whom you should reply. Emails sent to you solely

generally require that you reply only to the sender, but for emails sent to
several people, you may need to choose the "Reply to All" option to send
your response to everyone. Be judicious; using "Reply All" all the time
creates returns in abundance and leaves messages languishing in the in-
boxes of many people. Consider the consequences of receiving an email,
hitting reply all and it goes out to twenty people and then those twenty
people hit reply to all; it can compound very quickly into hundreds of
thousands of emails and everyone feels compelled to hit "reply all" as a
means of keeping everyone in the loop because nobody knows who is
meant to read it and who is not.

c. Think twice before replying to just say thank you. Some people don't
want an email that says "Thanks." This takes additional time to open the
email and read it just to read what you already know. Some people include
a line that says “NTN” – “No Thanks Needed.”

d. Summarize long discussions. Scrolling through pages of replies to

understand a discussion is annoying. Instead of continuing to forward a
message string, take a minute to summarize it for your reader(s).

e. Be sure to include info that you are responding to. Many people, and
companies, write and respond to hundreds of emails every day. Avoid
sending an indistinct email that says only 'Yes'. Include the question that
the recipient asked so they know what you are responding to. Avoid
making the recipient scroll down more than a single message in the
history.

f. Reply promptly. If you need to do some research or some thinking before

you respond to an email, or if you're too busy to write a full response
promptly, send a short response letting the sender know that you got the
email and advising when you will respond.

g. Be proactive. When replying to an email, you can save everybody some

time by anticipating any questions or concerns your reply may elicit.

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Address these in your reply before somebody has to send a new email to
ask about them.

2.3 Some Basic Don'ts

a. Don't forward emails that are private. For example, avoid forwarding
an email containing a secret, especially if the person you're e-mailing
doesn't want you to. Doing so can possibly cause the recipient to lose trust
in you, and you could possibly have your relationship messed up. You
certainly do not want that to happen.

b. Don't spread rumors about people. If you feel tempted to do so, put
yourself in the other person's shoes, and think about how you would feel if
that person spread rumors about you. For example, if your friend has a
reputation for being mean and bossy, think about how you would feel if
your friend told your other friends about one of your quirks. You wouldn't
be very happy, right?

c. Avoid discussing people's private business. For example, avoid letting

your friend know that her friend broke up with an ex-boyfriend. Email isn't
completely private, so it's possible that the person whose business you're
discussing could see the emails and become mad at you and/or
embarrassed, and this could mess up your relationship with the person.

d. Avoid flaming. Flames are basically insults sent online to offend you, so
it's important not to send flames to other people or start flame wars. This
could make the other person mad, and you could also have your account
suspended for this.

e. Avoid sharing the personal information of others without permission.

This can be anything, from a person's age to the name of the school that he
or she goes to. Put yourself in the other person's shoes -- how would you
feel if someone gave your friend the address of your house? You would
not be very happy, so be sure to obtain permission before sharing
someone's personal information with others over email, or don't do so at
all.

f. Don't send an email when you're angry. It will show you are angry and
you can upset the person. For example, if you're angry at someone at work,
and you email that person a large rant in all caps, this could cause the
person that you emailed to become irritated. This is the same thing with
replying to emails; if you're angry at someone for sending you a particular
message, hold off replying until you have calmed down.

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Useful Language Expressions for writing an effective email

Function Expressions

Greeting  Dear Sir/Madam, (very formal)

 Dear [Name],

 Hello [Name],

 Hi [Name],

 Hi Team, (if you're writing to the whole team)

 Good morning [Name],

 Good afternoon [Name],

Starting the email  I recently read/heard about . . . and would like to

know . . .

 I would be interested in (obtaining/receiving) ...

 I received your address from ... and would like

to ...

 Thank you for taking the time to [write to us/give

us some feedback etc — something the customer
has done for us]

Explaining why  I wanted to tell you that…

you’re writing  I am writing to tell you about ...

 I’m writing to tell you that…

 This email is to confirm that... (e.g. This email is

to confirm that we've received your payment.)

 We’re sending you this email because…

 In this email we wanted to [tell you about/give

you…]

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 We are writing to [why you're writing]

 We wish to inform you of [news] (e.g. We wish

to inform you of a change in our rates.)

 I'm writing concerning/with regard to/about

Referring to  Thank you for your letter of March 15 ...

previous contact  Thank you for contacting us.

 In reply to your request ...

 Thank you for your letter regarding ...

 With reference to our telephone conversation

yesterday ...

 Further to our meeting last week ...

 I would just like to confirm the main points we

discussed on Tuesday.

 Further to your email on [date], ...

 I'm writing in reply to your email on [date] about

[topic].

 In reply to your email ...

Making a Request  We would appreciate it if you would ...

 I would be grateful if you could...

 Could you possibly tell us/let us have...

 In addition, I would like to receive ...

 It would be helpful if you could send us ...

 I am interested in (obtaining/receiving...)

 I would appreciate your attention to this matter.

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 Please let me know what action you propose to

take.

 I would be grateful if you could send me further

information about...

 Shall I [verb]? (e.g. Shall I meet you at the

airport?)

 Would it be possible to...? (e.g. Would it be

possible to have a quick chat on Monday?)

 Would you mind if [+ past simple]? (e.g. Would

you mind if I took the day off on Tuesday?)

 I was hoping you could [do something].

Email Body  Here are the details on…

 Furthermore...

 In addition, I would like to...

 In spite of/Despite [something] (e.g. We're glad

the issues got sorted out in spite of the delay.)

 For example/For instance, ...

 In other words, ...

 In order to [do something], we would need to [do

something else]. (e.g. In order to fix this bug, we
would need to research it a bit further.)

Call to action  Are you considering [action]? (e.g. Are you

considering upgrading to the new version?)

 Just book time on my calendar and I can answer

all your questions on the product and pricing.

 Or if you’d rather [alternative option], you can…

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Thanking  Thank you for your consideration.

 I appreciate that you [did something] (e.g. I

appreciate that you took the time to give me these
details.)

 Thank you for taking the time to [do something]

(e.g. Thanks for taking the time to give us your
feedback.)

Closing remarks  I look forward to seeing you next week.

 Looking forward to hearing from you.

 I would appreciate your reply.

 I look forward to doing business with you in the

future.

 I enjoyed working with you and look forward

to...

 Thank you once more for your help in this

matter.

 If you require any further information, please let

me know.

 Looking forward to hearing from you

Ending email  Sincerely,

 Yours sincerely,

 Sincerely yours,

 Yours faithfully,

 Kind regards,

 Yours truly,

 Many thanks,

How to Improve Your Email Etiquette - https://www.wikihow.com/Improve-Your-Email-EtiquetteTaylor, Shirley.

Success Strategies to Supercharge your Email and Business Writing Skills.www.ShirleyTaylorVT.com

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UNIT 6: PERSUASIVE SPEECH

OBJECTIVES

 Collect and organize evidence for a persuasive speech

 Give a speech to persuade according to the situation given

INTRODUCTION

A persuasive speech can be described as a speech in which the speaker has a specific
goal of convincing the listeners or the audience to accept or do something. It is a speech
in which a speaker asks other people ‘to change their ideas or actions in a manner that
accommodates the speaker’s wishes’ (Gronbeck, McKerrow, Ehninger & Monroe,
1997, p. 357) or a speech which involves ‘the art of convincing others to give favorable
attention to our point of view’ (Osborn and Osborn, 1997, p. 415). In general, speaking
persuasively can be said as the process of convincing the audience of something. This
can include persuading the audience to accept the speaker’s point of view, to change
the listeners’ thoughts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes or values or to bring about certain
actions.

Whatever the purpose of the persuasive speech, the speaker needs to present a well-
organised argument that are supported by facts, figures, examples, opinion of experts
and other supporting details.

TYPES OF PERSUASIVE SPEECH

In general, persuasive speeches can be regarded as speeches to reinforce, speeches to

modify or speeches to actuate (Gronbeck, McKerrow, Ehninger & Monroe, 1997, p.
3370-374) or speeches to convince, stimulate or actuate.

If we give a reinforcement speech, our purpose is usually used to reinforce attitudes,

beliefs, values and ideals that the audience have. In a speech to modify, our aim is to
modify or change the audience in terms of their beliefs, attitudes or basic values. This
kind of persuasive speech requires good communicative competence on the part of the
speaker. The last type is the speech to actuate. The goal of this type of persuasive speech
is to seek certain actions from the listeners.

There are generally three types of persuasive speeches which respond to three types of
questions: facts, value and policy. The different types of speeches will determine the
form of arguments and reasoning you require to support a specific proposition.

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Speech on Proposition of Facts

If your speech is a speech on proposition of facts, you talk about the truth and falsity of
a particular proposition or assertion. In this speech you argue whether something ‘can
potentially be verified as either true or false’ (Henrick, 2011, p. 20). The arguments in
this type of speech question the existence of something, the causes of something or
make predictions of what will happen in the future.

Speech on Proposition of Values

If you are giving a speech on proposition of values your speech will address issues of
the worth or value of the proposition or assertion. In this case, you will evaluate a claim
or assertion or compare options to decide on which is best. In order for the speech to be
effective, you should provide clear criteria for evaluation and give evidence that you
have applied the evaluation criteria in order to convince the audience (Henrick, 2011).

Speech on Proposition of Policy

In this type of persuasive speech, you will present arguments on whether or not a certain
course of action should or should not be taken. Your objective is to persuade the
audience to stop a particular behaviour or to start a new one. In this type of speech, you
will have to describe the current situation or status quo, identify the problems and justify
that the problem needs immediate attention from the audience or needs to be resolved.

STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE PERSUASIVE SPEECH

More than 2000 years ago, Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and scientist, explained that
there are three primary strategies that can be used in speeches to persuade. These
speaking strategies are commonly used in public speaking and could be adopted to
assist you to prepare a good persuasive speech. The three strategies are ETHOS,
PATHOS and LOGOS.

Ethos
Ethos refers to a speaker’s ability to appeal or convince the audience based on the
speaker’s personal reputation. This helps to build the speaker’s credibility and
believability as a speaker. Ethos was originally defined by Aristotle as being
trustworthy. Currently, many public speaking experts have also included authority and
expertise of the speaker in the definition for ethos.

Based on this, there are questions that you may want to consider when building your
credibility as a speaker. These questions, among others, are whether or not your
audience respect you; believe that you have the authority to speak on the subject; and
accept you as being trustworthy. In order to achieve ethos, you need to show confidence
and enthusiasm as a speaker and to give attention to the listeners.

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Pathos
Pathos refers to the ability of the speaker to appeal or persuade the audience based on
their emotions, sympathies and prejudices of the audience. As the speaker, your main
aim is ‘create a shared emotional experience with your audience’. Some of the emotions
that you can evoke from the audience are positive emotions such as feelings of love,
sympathy, friendship, joy, trust, optimism, kindness, surprise and negative emotions
such as pity, fear, envy, sadness, shame, anger, disappointment and other similar
emotions.

Logos
Logos is the third strategy and this is an appeal to the audience based on logic, reasons
and facts. You could ask these questions when you prepare your speech: does your
message make sense, are your arguments based on facts, statistics and evidences, and
will the call-to-action lead to the desired outcome that you promise or desire? In
speaking to persuade, arguments will be based on the reasons for audience to support
your proposition. Your arguments need to be understandable, described in clear or
simple language, arranged in a logical order and supported by examples, statistics,
testimony and other relevant details.

By adopting these three strategies competently and effectively, you can enhance your
persuasive power.

PREPARING A PERSUASIVE SPEECH

Persuasive speeches are usually composed of arguments that are logical and those that
appeal to emotions. Arguments that provide a set of information and presents why a
conclusion must be rationally true are logical appeals. While emotional appeals are
those that seek to make your audience feel a certain way so that they will accept a given
conclusion.

Steps to Prepare a Persuasive Speech

You can follow these basic steps in preparing your persuasive speech. The steps are as
follows:

Step Determine the specific purpose of your speech (e.g. to reinforce, to

1 modify or to actuate)
 decide what you want the audience to change – their belief, their
opinion or their behaviour
Step Choose your topic
2  a topic that is interesting, controversial but not too wide / too general

Step Analyse the audience

3  audience may agree completely, be indifferent or disagree completely
Step Gather the necessary information / evidence
4  research relevant information for evidence, examples, testimony,
statistics, quotes, to support your propositions and include source of
information (to ensure credibility)

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Step Prepare visual aids (if this is required)

5  these make your speech more interesting and powerful
Step Organize your speech
6  include the following components for a good persuasive speech:
 Opener –statements/areas of agreement, problem or status quo
 Purpose
 Body
 Summary
 Concluding remarks

Organising Your Speech

You can include the following components in your speech:

Opener These are statements that show areas of agreement (with the
audience’s views / opinions, etc.), problem or status quo
 The introduction / opener should capture audience’s attention and
identify the problem.
 You can start by stating the problem, giving amazing facts or
telling stories
Purpose Once you have clarified the need for the audience to listen, you
should state the purpose of the speech.
 You should establish the need / clarify the goal of your speech.
Here you should state what you want to persuade your audience
to understand / believe / change / act on, and so on
Body Show evidence or supporting details that will convince the audience
to agree with you
 If audience is indifferent (not interested) about your topic, you
have to convince them that your topic is interesting, important
and relevant to them.
Summary Summary of evidence presented
 To remind the audience of why they should agree with what you
have proposed / presented
Concluding To remind the audience why they should change a belief, opinion or
remarks how to act.
 Make the audience think about the future
 Remind them that the best way to adjust the future is to take some
kind of action / change a belief / opinion

WAYS TO MAKE YOUR SPEECH PERSUASIVE

There are ways to make your speech interesting and persuasive. For example, you can
use descriptive words like adjectives and adverbs to create a more vivid description of
the ideas you are presenting. Appropriate action verbs can also make your speech more
interesting. Besides these, you can also use similes, clichés and rhetorical questions to

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persuade your audience to think in a particular way. Alliterations and repetition of

words can also be incorporated into your speech to make it more lively, dynamic and
easy to remember. The words you use are also an important element in a good speech.
So word choice is something you have to consider in preparing your speech.

Adjectives
Adjectives can help you to make the audience feel a certain way about what you are
presenting. So, instead of saying ‘bad’ you can use stronger adjectives like ‘terrible’ or
‘horrible’ instead; ‘excellent’, ‘superb’, ‘great’ for ‘good’; ‘huge’ or ‘enormous’ instead
of ‘big’. So, you can say ‘This is an excellent idea’ instead of ‘This is a really good
idea’, or ‘Waste disposal is a huge problem for the country’ in place of ‘Waste disposal
is a big problem for the country.’

Adverbs
Adverbs are words that are used to modify adjectives or verbs. Like adjectives, you can
also use adverbs to guide the audience to think or feel about your ideas in a certain way.
Examples of adverbs are ‘very’, ‘extremely’, ‘clearly’, ‘undoubtedly’, ‘obviously’ and
so on. For example, you can say,

We need to solve the waste disposal problem effectively,

Therefore, I strongly suggest that we…
Clearly/Obviously, we need to resolve the issue now.

The words underlined (adverbs) help to reinforce your ideas.

Verbs
Certain action verbs can help create a more vivid, dynamic and persuasive speech. In
general, using a strong verb is more effective than using a weak verb modified by
adverbs. For example,

She was responsible for organising the trip. (weak verb: verb-to-be: was)
She organised the trip. (strong verb: organised)

Use of these verbs can arouse interest and attract the attention of your audience. Action
verbs can inject drama and generate emotion in your audience (appeal to pathos).
Examples of some of these verbs are shown below.

Examples of Action Verbs

accentuate abide harmonize adapt
emit dramatize trigger abolish
impose sanction bombard contaminate
exemplify evolve forbid force
empower promote demonstrate prohibit

Similes
One creative way to make your speech interesting is by using similes. A simile is when
we make a comparison between two different things by showing their similarities.
Similes show the resemblance with words ‘as’ or ‘like’. Similes can make your

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description clearer and more vivid. Examples of common similes and the meaning are
given in the table below.
Examples of Common Similes
Simile Meaning Simile Meaning
as brave as a lion very brave to sleep like a baby sleeping soundly
as free as a bird very free to go to have eyes like a someone who sees
anywhere hawk every small detail
as plain as day very clear to work like a something works
dream smoothly/perfectly
as sure as death absolutely certain to run like the wind run quickly
and taxes to happen
as different as very different to have a memory someone forgetful
chalk from cheese like a sieve
as easy as A.B.C. very easy like finding a almost impossible
needle in a to find
haystack
as quick as very quick to know something know something
lightning like the back of very well
one’s hand

One famous simile was used by Forrest Gump, a character in a movie of the same name:
‘Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you're going to get.’ This simile
compares the uncertainty of life to the uncertainty of choosing a chocolate from a box.

Cliché
Another way to enrich your speech is by using cliché. A cliché is an expression that has
been overused to the extent that it has lost its effect and original meaning. Due to this,
clichés should generally be avoided. Nevertheless, if they are used for a certain effect,
clichés can help a speaker express an idea to the audience quickly. ‘Actions speak
louder than words’, ‘The grass is always greener on the other side’, and ‘There’s no
time like the present’ are examples of commonly heard clichés. Examples of some
common clichés and their meaning are given in the table below.

Examples of Common Clichés

Cliché Meaning
Actions speak louder than What people do gives you a better idea of what they
words are thinking as opposed to what they say
Achilles heels Weakness or Weak point
There is more than one way There are several ways to accomplish the same task
to skin a cat
What goes round comes You got what you deserved or Justice was served
round
There’s no time like the You should do it now or Don’t procrastinate
present
We’ll cross the bridge when We will deal with that problem or issue when we
we come to it need to and not before
That’s water under the bridge That is done or passed and should not be considered
again

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Back to square one To start over again from the beginning

Better safe than sorry It is better not to take chances
Don’t count your chickens Do not count on something before it happens
before they are hatched
Can’t judge a book by its Appearances can mislead you or Don’t make a
cover judgment based only on what you can see

However, using too many clichés can suggest to the audience that you lack originality
and may lead you to lose your credibility (ethos) in your speech. So, do choose your
clichés carefully and only use them if they can create a certain effect for your audience.

Rhetorical Questions
You can also incorporate rhetorical questions into your speech to make it more
persuasive. Rhetorical questions are not actual questions and no answer is expected
from the listener. They are asked to arouse curiosity in what the speaker is saying, to
motivate the audience to answer the question posed and lead the audience to a particular
conclusion. As a result of this, the audience will pay closer attention and give more
focus to your ideas. Rhetorical questions often have this structure with a Wh-word and
a question mark at the end:

…where do we go from here?

…how sure am I that we can do this?
…what are we waiting for?

You can use rhetorical questions to introduce the issue and then provide the answer.

Alliterations
Alliteration is a literary devise in which identical or similar sounds (not letters or
spelling) at the beginning are repeated close together or in a series. Examples of
alliterations are ‘the more the merrier’ or ‘few and far between’ where the /m/ and the
/f/ sounds are repeated. Other common alliterations that we usually hear are in names
like Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck and in names of companies such as Dunkin’
Donuts and Coca-Cola. Employing this technique in your speech can make it more
catchy, lively and memorable. Alliterations are usually found in tongue twisters such
as:

She sells seashells by the seashore.

A good cook could cook as much cookies as a good cook who could cook
cookies.
Can you can a can as a canner can can a can?
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. If Peter Piper picked a peck of
pickled peppers, where's the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?

Tongue twisters are also a good and fun way to practise your pronunciation.

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Repetition
Repetition is one good technique to make your speech powerful and effective. You
repeat words, phrases or key points to reinforce your argument and convince your
audience. For example, selected words are repeated in the following statements to
create a good effect:

As the situation gets tougher and tougher, we should get better and better.
Nowadays, more and more graduates are fighting over fewer and fewer jobs.
Cleary, the time for us to act is now…the time to act is now…while the economy
is strong.

WORD CHOICE

People say that a picture is worth or speaks a thousand words. However, if you choose
a good, relevant and correct word, and adopt correct pronunciation and stress, this word
can describe a thousand pictures. Using the right word is one way to ensure that your
speech is effective.

Many words are often wrongly used because the words are confused with other words
or their meanings are misunderstood. So, you should make the right choice of words
and get the right meaning so that your ideas can be presented in a logical manner (logos)
and be easily understood by the audience. Some commonly confused words and their
meaning are given below. Some of these words have the same pronunciation for
example /accept/ and /except/.

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Examples of Commonly Confused Words

Word Meaning Word Meaning

accept to receive discrete separate and distinct
except not including discreet tactful
access entry differ different
excess more than permitted defer put off until later
ascent movement upwards device a mechanism
assent agreement devise to plan
biannual twice a year stationary not moving
biennial once every two years stationery paper
biennale a large exhibition
berry a small fruit complement something that completes
bury cover something with compliment flattery remark
earth
beside at the side of / weather state of the atmosphere
besides alongside whether to introduce possible
apart from / in addition alternatives
to
bring movement towards the verbal relating to words
speaker oral refers to speech
take movement away from aural refers to ears and hearing
the speaker
refuse not willing to do thousand a number
refute something thousands inexact number
disprove something
notable deserve attention eminent distinguished
noticeable clear and definite imminent about to happen
few not many among about things / people in a
a few some or small number group
between refers to two
people/things

LANGUAGE EXPRESSIONS
You can use some of these language expressions when giving a speech to persuade.

Function Expressions
Introducing Fairly formal Opener
self / Opener  Good morning / afternoon / Amazing facts:
evening ladies and  Did you know that…
gentlemen. I am / I’m / my  Statistics show that…
name is…  According to a recent study…
 Ladies and gentlemen. It’s  The figures clearly show
an honour to have the that…
opportunity to…
 Let me start by saying a Problem:
few words…

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 Have you wondered why…

 What would happen if…
Function Expressions
More Friendly Stories
 Hello everyone / Hi  Have you ever been…
everybody, I am/I’m…  I remember when…
 Morning / afternoon  When I think about…
everyone. Thanks for  I’m sure we’ve all
coming… experienced…
 So, let’s get started…
Stating your  I believe…  I firmly believe that…
purpose  In my opinion…  It is clear to me that…
 I believe that…should  It is in my honest opinion
change that…
 I really feel that…
Presenting  As you are well aware, …  The next / Another / One
your points  Many may argue that… reason is / was…
 Some may say that…  Clearly, then…
 No doubt…  Following / pursuing this
 Generally speaking… further…
 Nobody denies…  In the same way…
 The first / second / third  Besides that…
reason…  Let me explain why…
 Another plus is…  The great(est) advantage of
this is…
 Furthermore…
Emphasizing  For this reason…  In particular…
points  In fact…  Especially…
 With this in mind…  Indeed…
 The fact is…  In actual fact…
 In reality…
Providing  I’m sure you now realise  Thus, we can clearly see
summary that… that…
 As you can now see…  Let me run over the key
 So now you can see / points again…
understand…  I hope I have convinced
 Here are the main points you…
again…  Let me reassure you that…
Giving details  For example…  Additionally / In addition…
or examples  For instance…  Besides…
 Also…  Such as...
 As an example…
Concluding  Therefore,…  As you can see…
remarks /  In short…  I’d like to leave you with…
conclusion  In conclusion…  In a nutshell…
 We can conclude…

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Function Expressions
Giving  Consequently…
reasons,  Therefore…
results, cause  As a result…
& effect  That’s why…
 This will cause…
Comparing &  Similarly…
Contrasting  In the same way…
 …but…
 However…
 On the other hand…
Focusing  …in particular…
 …especially…
 What I would like us to
think about is…
 What we have to consider
is…
 What we want to aim at
is..
 What I’d like to do is…
 What…is…
Restating  In other words…
 Specifically…
 What this means is…
Recommendin  So, I would suggest that
g we…
 Thus, I’d like to propose
 In my opinion, the only
way forward is…

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UNIT 7: DEBATE

OBJECTIVES

 Collect, organize and evaluate information

 Speak convincingly and persuasively with clear and organized arguments
 Listen to, question and evaluate evidence / information

INTRODUCTION

Debate is a formal contest of argumentation between two teams or individuals. More

broadly, and more importantly, debate is an essential tool for developing and
maintaining democracy and open societies. More than a mere verbal or performance
skill, debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, tolerance for divergent points
of view and rigorous self-examination. Debate is, above all, a way for those who hold
opposing views to discuss issues without descending to insult, emotional appeals or
personal bias. A key trademark of debate is that it rarely ends in agreement, but rather
allows for a robust analysis of the question at hand. A good debate requires thorough
planning and research.

A typical debate consists of a situation, speakers and their chosen stance. Below is one
example of how a debate can be carried out.

EXAMPLE: Debate

Situation The Sports Science Department at the Faculty of Education is holding

an event called “Step Up for Better Health Week” whereby the
participant with the most step count in a week wins. In order to do this,
they need an app that can track the steps of the up to 1000 people at
once and compile the data into table that lists the highest and the lowest
counts every hour. They look to a group of local app developers to
invest in their app.
Speaker Each speaker will have to make a speech or argue why his or her app is
the best app to be used in the event. You need to convince the jury that
YOUR APP is the MOST suitable and effective app. Your significant
or distinct contributions are the main points in your speech.
Roles For this debate there will be participants playing the role of app
developers who shall try to convince the jury on why their app is the
best.

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PREPARATION FOR THE DEBATE

1. Each person in the class will be assigned a role/product by the teacher.

Alternatively, you may want to choose your own role/product. You are expected to
play the character of the person you have chosen.

2. Once you have chosen a role/a product, you will be given time to research on how
your contributions/products benefit others/impact the society and why you are so
important. You will also find out about the other characters, their
contributions/products and their weaknesses/faults.

3. Based on information you have gathered prepare your speech/case to

persuade/convince the jury or audience why you should not be eliminated/why you
should be allowed to stay in the debate session. Depending on the class size and
allocated time, there may be two or three rounds of speeches and voting.

THE PROCEDURE OF THE DEBATE

The debate will consist of speeches by the speakers and voting by the jury/audience.
Depending on the number of participants and time allocated, there may be two or more
rounds of speeches and voting.

Round One – THREE (3) Speeches - CONSTRUCTION, REFUTATION &

REBUTTAL

In ROUND ONE (1) of the debate, you will give a minimum of three (3) speeches:

 Speech 1 – CONSTRUCT your case

 Speech 2 – REFUTE other speakers
 Speech 3 – REBUTT

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Speech 1 – CONSTRUCTION of case / arguments (about 3-4 minutes)

Your first speech is called a CONSTRUCTIVE speech. In this speech, you will
introduce your character/product and CONSTRUCT/present your case/arguments why
you are the most important/have the best product to offer and have the greatest impact
on the society in the short and the long term, or has an impact on many areas of life
such as economics, politics, religion, environment, and so on. You will give at least
three (3) reasons to support your arguments. The reasons/facts/evidences must be based
on the respective roles / products you have chosen.

Some language expressions you can use are as follows:

Functions Expressions
Introducing self  Hello everyone / Hi everybody, I am /I’m / my name
is…
 Good morning / afternoon / evening. I am / I’m / my
name is…
Constructing your  As you are well aware, I’m…
case  I have contributed to the world/community / society
You can start by saying, /…
“I have/My product has  My (many) contributions include…
the greatest impact on  I have made a great contribution in…
society and therefore I  I have had the greatest impact on society in…
should be chosen…”  Examples of my great contribution are…
 I have done…
 I’m sure you are aware of how much I have
contributed to…

Speech 2 – REFUTATION of other speakers (about 2-4 minutes)

Your second speech is called REFUTATION. The act of refutation is to criticize an

argument made by the other speakers, to show how the argument is problematic, weak,
incomplete or false. Refutation can also be used to weaken the other speakers’ argument
and to defend a position that another speaker has refuted.

In this REFUTATION speech, you will argue against each of the other speakers or
opponents. You will present at least three (3) reasons why the other speakers’
arguments are weak. Your reasons should be logical and based on the speakers’
strengths / ability or weaknesses / inability.

You can follow these steps to refute against other speakers:

Step 1 : Identify what you want to refute.

e.g. “You said that…”
Step 2 : Give your response to the other speaker’s argument.
e.g. “But I say that…”
Step 3 : Explain the details of your refutation.
e.g. I say that because…”
Step 4 : Explain the significance of your refutation.

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Some useful expressions to refute:

Function Expressions
Refuting other’s  You could be right but the evidence I have suggests
points that / otherwise…
 I’m afraid I can’t agree with that point because…
 As you mentioned just now… I disagree for this
reason…
 May I suggest in response to that…
 You may have a point there, but I think …
 This is not true for… / This is not true because …
 That may be true; however …
 On the contrary …

Speech 3 – REBUTTAL of your case (about 1-2 minutes)

Your third speech is called a REBUTTAL. In this third speech, you will have to
REBUILD your case after it has been attacked by other speakers. You need to clarify
any flaws or weaknesses mentioned by the other speakers. You need to explain why the
other speakers’ arguments are not valid. You have to convince the jury that you are the
best person to win.

In rebutting, you need to decide what you wish to attack. A few ways that you can use
to refute are as follows:
1. attack the relevance of the other speakers’ arguments.
2. attack the particular way in which the other speakers have described an
argument.
3. attack the lack of logical link between the arguments and the impact on a
situation.
4. attack examples given by the other speakers.

For an effective rebuttal, you must first rebut the other speakers’ arguments before you
take a defensive stance on your own arguments.

Some language expressions that you can use when you are rebutting:

Function Expressions
Rebutting  The first point I would like to raise is this…
 The first speaker has said that…but in fact…
 I would like to deal with two points here…
 With due respect, I feel that my point is stronger
because…
 I do accept your point of view but I believe…
 I beg to differ, but I strongly believe that…
 I simply cannot agree when you said…because…
 My point of view contrasts with yours in that…
 I couldn’t disagree with you more…
 Let me restate my point…

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 Just to be clear, this is what I mean…

 I certainly do not think…
 I simply cannot accept…
 I deny/oppose…
 I reject the idea that…
 I insist that…

You can also incorporate the various techniques you know about how to give a
persuasive speech to help you Construct, Refute and Rebut your case. You should also
remember to pronounce your words clearly with the correct stress and intonation.

Round One – Voting

After these three speeches, there will be the first round of voting by the jury/audience.
In this session, the jury/audience will vote for the product(s) whom they believe has
made the least contribution to the society. The vote will be based on the least
convincing/persuasive speech given by the individual or who has failed to demonstrate
that his/her character/product has the greatest impact on society. This character will not
proceed to the next round. The remaining characters/persons will continue to
debate/argue their case.

Round Two – ONE (1) Speech

In ROUND TWO (2) of the debate, if you are one of the remaining contenders, you
will be given one (1) minute to further convince the jury why YOUR product is the
most important person and have the greatest impact on the society/product and are
worthy to remain in the debate.

In this round, you may choose to explain the great impact you have on society or argue
against the other speakers/give reasons why the others should be eliminated from the
debate session.

Round Two – Voting

After these speeches, there will be the second round of voting by the jury/audience in
which more characters will be eliminated from the debate session.

Depending on the size of the class and the number of remaining participants, there may
be subsequent rounds of speeches and voting. If you are among the winners after the
Round Two speech, you will have to plead your case and convince the jury why you
should be the SOLE survivor/winner. You will have to ensure that you maintain your
ethos (your reputation or credibility) and appeal to the pathos (emotions) of the jury by
presenting your arguments in a logical manner (logos) (refer to Unit 6 on Persuasive
speech).

If you are the final person/character who remains, then you are the winner or the SOLE
survivor. As the SOLE winner/survivor you should be the person who has given the
most persuasive and convincing speech, strongly justified that your character/product
had the greatest impact on society compared to the other characters and had obeyed all
the requirement and procedure of the debate.

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