PART 2

Lecture 7

The first ten minutes lecturer has discussed about brief idea of previous class.

Linear variable differential transducer.

The basic principle of LVDT I mutual induction and the displacement is a non electrical energy
which is converted into an electrical energy.

It is a passive transducer which measures force in term of displacement of ferromagnetic core of

a transformer. It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Open circuit condition

dLp
i p R p+ L p −e ex =0
dt
dLp
e s 1=M 1
dt
dLp
e s 2=M 2
dt

Here M 1and M 2are mutual inductance.

e ex
I p=
R p+ Lp D

d ip
e s=e s 1−e s 2=( M 1 −M 2 )
dt
M 1−M 2=kx
 ( M 1−M 2)is the quantity that varies linearly with core motion.
For a fixed core position e 0=es =( M 1−M 2 ) D i p

e ex
It can be written as (M ¿ ¿ 1−M 2)¿D
R p+ Lp D

In terms of frequency response,

w( M 1−M 2 )
e0 Rp ¿∅
=
e x √−(w τ p)2 +1

∅=90−tan−1 ( τ p ω ¿ )¿

It is the phase shift between e 0∧e ex .

If a voltage measuring device of input resistance Rm is attached to the
output terminals, current will flow.

Which lead to,

Frequency response

+1 -1

-2

90

-90

-180
Capacitance pickup

Capacitance Pickup is a transducer that converts angular displacement into electrical signal. It
consists of ganged capacitance and is based on the principle of variation of effective area of
conductors, when other parameters such as separation, distance and dielectric strength being kept
constant. Capacitance type pickups require electronics somewhat more complex than for the
more common types of transducers.
The most common form of variable capacitor used in motion transducers is the parallel plate
capacitor with a variable air gap.

Variable capacitor

Plate area=A
0.225 A
x

C=

Where C= capacitance, pF
A=plate area, ¿2
x = plate separation, in

The sensitivity of capacitance to changes in plate separation may be calculated as below

Sensitivity increase as x decreases. The percentage changes in C is equal to the percentage

change in x for small changes about any neutral position
When the capacitor plates are stationary with a separation x 0 ,no current flows and e 0=¿ 0. If
there is a relative displacement x i ,from the x 0position, a voltage e 0is produced and is related to x i
by

Where
 Lecture 8

Piezoelectric Transducer

A transducer can be anything which converts one form of energy to another. Piezoelectric
material is one kind of transducers. Apply a force or pressure on this material it converts it into
electric voltage and this voltage is function of the force or pressure applied to it. The material
which behaves in such a way is also known as piezoelectric sensor.
The electric voltage produced by piezoelectric transducer can be easily measured by voltage
measuring instruments, which can be used to measure stresses or forces. The physical quantity
like mechanical stress or force cannot be measured directly. Therefore, piezoelectric transducer
can be used.

Two main families of constant, the g constant and the d constant are considered.

ρ0
field produced∈direction t
gij = =
stress applied ∈direction fi
(wl)

c h ange∈c hh arge generated ∈i direction Qi

d ij = ¿
force applied∈ j junction Fj

The dielectric constant ϵof the material is known

 ϵwl
C=
t

field e 0 wl e 0 C d ij
gij = = = =
stress t f i fiϵ ϵ

d ij
gij=
ϵ ij

Consider the below fig

The charge generated by the crystal can be written as

 Qq=K p x i

Where K q =C cm

x i=deflection , cm

Convert the charge generator to more familiar current generator according to

dq dx
i cr = =K p ( i )
dt dt

Rewrite

i cr =i c + i R

Kq V
… … … … … … … ….
C Cm

e0 Kτ (iw)
( iw ) =
xi τ (iw)+1

Initial Condition t=0

de 0 dx
τ +e 0=Kτ
dt dt

de0 (−tτ )
x i= A t ≤ T =¿ τ +e 0=0=¿ e 0=C1 e
dt
−t
KqA ( τ )
∴ e0 = e … … … … … ..0<t ≤ T
C
 Final Condition:
d e0 ( −tτ )
x i=w t >T =¿ τ +e 0=0=¿ e 0=C 2 e
dt

−T
KqA ( τ )
∴ e0 = e For t=T
C

−T

∴ e0 =
Kq A (
e ( τ )−1 ) e (−tTt )
C

Pulse response of piezoelectric transducer.

Displacement Measurement:
Flapper Nozzle:

The nozzle and flapper mechanism is a displacement type detector which converts mechanical
movement into a pressure signal, by covering the orifice of a nozzle with a flat plate called the
flapper. This restricts the nozzle fluid flow and generates a pressure signal.
Absolute displacement (scismic transducer)

The general motion of a rigid body involves three dimensional translation and rotation; the total
vector quantities usually are not amenable to direct measurements. So we employ an array of
uniaxial transducers oriented along selected axes to measure orthogonal components of the
vectors magnitudes and directions.

X 0=X i− X m

We have Newton’s Second Law,

∑ F=Ma
∴ ∑ F= K ( X i−X m ) +B ( Ẋ i− X˙ m )
∴ ∑ F= M X¨m
∴ K X 0+ B Ẋ 0=M ( Ẍ i− Ẍ o )

∴ [ M D2 +BD + K ] X 0 =M D2 X i
X0 M D2
∴ =
X i M D 2+ BD + K
 Absolute displacement pickup frequency
response

Relative Velocity Transducers

d (displacement )
Velocity =
dt

1. Mathematical differentiation
2. Electrical differentiation

e0 τD
=
e i τD +1

e0
=τD , ω is very small
ei

Mechanical fly ball velocity pickup

F c =Fc ∗W c 2

∴ M X¨ 0 + B X 0 + K X 0 =Fc

F
∴ X 0= 2
M D + BD + K

Here F=¿> K W 2

Magnetic and Piezoelectric Pulse – Counter :

Example : Stroboscopic Method

r r ( N −1 )
∴ n= 1 N … … … … … … … … … … . Better Accuracy
r1 rN
e 0=B∗l∗V i∗10−8

DC-Tachometer :

r p nc dN −8
e 0= ∗10
∅∗Npp

e 0=voltage

Npp=no of∥paths between+ ve∧−ve .

force
∅= .
pole

Absolute Velocity
 X0 MD
=
V i MD2 + MD+ K

Absolute Acceleration

Xo M
= 2
a M D + BD+ K

Xo 1
=
a BD K
D 2+ +
M M
Xo 1
= 2
a D + 2ζ wn D+ w n2
B
∴ 2ζ wn=
M
K
∴ w n 2=
M

eo KτD
= 2
a w 2ζ D
( )(
wn
+
wn )
+ 1 ∗( τ D+1 )

Range for 5%,

 eo τ ( iw )
∴ =
Ka w 2 w
(( ) (
wn
+ 2 ζ +1 ∗( τ iw +1 )
wn ) )
e0
∴ | |
Ka
=
2 2
τw
5%

√( 1−

τw
w
( )) (
wn
+ 2ζ
w
wn )
∗√1+ ( τ w )2

∴ 0.05= solve for τw

2
√ (1+( τw ) )
1
∴ 0.05=
2
w 2 2

√(( wn) )(
+1 + 2 ζ
w
wn )

useful area

ωn

-180

Suggestions and Improvements

1. As a student I feel so to gain hands-on experiments with measuring devices for example
different kind of transducers etc
2. To understand more in depth a industrial visit is preferred, where real time measuring
analysis do happen.

References
1. Measurement systems Application and Design, Ernest O. Doebelin
2. http://instrumentationandcontrollers.blogspot.co.nz/2010/05/linear-variable-displacement-transducer.html