1

Number Theory and Graph Theory

Chapter 2

Prime numbers and congruences.

By

A. Satyanarayana Reddy

Department of Mathematics
Shiv Nadar University
Uttar Pradesh, India

E-mail: [email protected]
 2

Module-4: Introduction to Congruences

Objectives

• Introduction to Congruence and its properties.

• System of residues.

• Applications of congruences in divisibility.

• Fermat Little Theorem.

Definition 1. Let n be a positive integer and a, b ∈ Z. Then a and b are said to be congruent modulo
n or a is said to be congruent to b modulo n, denoted a ≡ b (mod n), if n divides a − b. That is,
there exists k ∈ Z such that a − b = kn.

• Since 1 divides every integer. So any two integers are congruent modulo 1.

• Two integers are congruent modulo 2 if and only if either both are even or both are odd.

• Let a ∈ Z, n ∈ N. Then, by division algorithm we have a = nq + r, where 0 ≤ r < n. In other

words, a ≡ r (mod n). Since r ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1}, every integer is congruent to exactly
one of the element from the set {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1}. This set is called the set of least residues
modulo n.

• Fix a positive integer m and let b1 , b2 , . . . , bm be any collection of m integers that are congruent
to 0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1 is some order. Then, the set {b1 , b2 , . . . , bm } is called a complete system
of residues modulo m. It is easy to see that set of least residues is also a complete system of
residues. And the set of complete system of residues is not unique. In fact, it is easy to see
that any set of m integers is complete system of residues if and only if no two of them are
congruent modulo m.
 3

Theorem 2. Let m > 1 be a fixed positive integer and let a, b, c ∈ Z. Then, the following hold:

1. a ≡ a (mod m).

2. If a ≡ b (mod m), then b ≡ a (mod m).

3. If a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m), then a ≡ c (mod m).

4. If a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m), then a ± c ≡ b ± d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m).

5. If a ≡ b (mod m), then a + c ≡ b + c (mod m) and ac ≡ bc (mod m) for any c ∈ Z.

6. If a ≡ b (mod m), then an ≡ bn (mod m) for any positive integer n.

m
7. If ac ≡ bc (mod m), then a ≡ b (mod d ), where d = gcd(c, m).

8. If a ≡ b (mod m), and k|m then a ≡ b (mod k).

9. If a ≡ b (mod m) and c ∈ N, then ca ≡ cb (mod cm).

a b m
10. If a ≡ b (mod m) and the integers a, b, m are all divisible by d > 0, then d ≡ d (mod d ).

Proof. Proof of Part 1: Since m|0 = a − a, a ≡ a (mod m).

Proof of Part 2: Since a ≡ b (mod m), so m | a−b. Hence, a−b = mq. Thus, m | m(−q) = b−a.
Hence, b ≡ a (mod m).
Proof of Part 3: If a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m) then m | a − b and m | b − c. Hence, by
the linearity property m | a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) and thus a ≡ c (mod m).
Proof of Part 4: Since a − c = a + (−c), it suffices to prove only the “+ case.” By assumption,
m | a − b and m | c − d. Therefore, by linearity, m | (a + c) − (b + d) = (a − b) + (c − d) and
m|c(a − b) + b(c − d) = ac − bd. Hence

a+c ≡ b+d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m).

Proof of Part 5: Since a ≡ b (mod m), m | a−b. Thus, m | c(a−b) and m | (a+c−c−b) = a−b.
Hence, a + c ≡ b + c (mod m) and ac ≡ bc (mod m).
 4

Proof of Part 6: We prove an ≡ bn (mod m) by induction on n.

If n = 1, the result is true by the assumption that a ≡ b (mod m).
Assume that the result holds for n = k. That is, ak ≡ bk (mod m). We also have a ≡ b (mod m).
Thus, aak ≡ bbk (mod m) or equivalently, ak+1 ≡ bk+1 (mod m). Hence, by the Principle of
Mathematical Induction (PMI), the result holds for all n ∈ N.
Proof of Part 7: As ac ≡ bc (mod m), we get m | ac − bd = c(a − b). Thus, c(a − b) = mk, for
some k ∈ Z. Since, (c, m) = d, c = dk1 and m = dk2 , for some k1 , k2 ∈ Z. Thus, dk1 (a − b) = dk2
or k2 |a − b as gcd(k1 , k2 ) = 1.
Thus, a ≡ b (mod k2 = md ).
Proof of Part 8, 9 and 10 are left for the readers.

Definition 3. Let m ∈ N be a given. For each a ∈ Z, the residue class (or the congruence class or
equivalence class) of a modulo m, denoted [a] or [a]m , is defined as

[a] = {x ∈ Z|x ≡ a (mod m)}.

Thus, the set {[0], [1], [2], . . . , [m − 1]}, denoted Zm , has some nice properties.
m
Theorem 4. Let p(x) = ∑ ck xk be a polynomial function of x with integral coefficients ck . If a ≡ b
k=0
(mod n), then p(a) ≡ p(b) (mod n).

Proof. Since, a ≡ b (mod n), we have seen that ak ≡ bk (mod n) and hence, ck ak ≡ ck bk (mod n),
for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , m. Adding these m + 1 congruences, we get
m m
p(a) = ∑ ck ak ≡ ∑ ck bk = p(b) (mod n).
k=0 k=0

If p(x) is a polynomial with integral coefficients, we say that a is a solution of the congruence
p(x) ≡ 0 (mod n) if p(a) ≡ 0 (mod n).

Corollary 5. If a is a solution of p(x) ≡ 0 (mod n) and a ≡ b (mod n), then b is also a solution
of p(x) ≡ 0 (mod n).
 5

Theorem 6. Let M = am 10m +am−1 10m−1 +· · ·+10a1 +a0 be the decimal expansion of the positive
integer M, 0 ≤ ak < 10, and let S = a0 + a1 + · · · + am . Then, 9|M if and only if 9|S.
m
Proof. Let p(x) = ∑ ak xk . Then p(10) = M and p(1) = S. But, 10 ≡ 1 (mod 9) and hence
k=0
p(10) ≡ p(1) (mod 9). Thus, we have M ≡ S (mod 9).

Theorem 7. Let M = am 10m +am−1 10m−1 +· · ·+10a1 +a0 be the decimal expansion of the positive
integer M, 0 ≤ ak < 10, and let T = a0 − a1 + · · · + (−1)m am . Then, 11|M if and only if 11|T .
m
Proof. Let p(x) = ∑ ak xk . Then p(10) = M and p(−1) = T . As 10 ≡ −1 (mod 11), we get
k=0
p(10) ≡ p(−1) (mod 11) and hence, M ≡ T (mod 11).

Fermat’s Little Theorem

It is easy to see that

14 ≡ 1 (mod 5); 24 ≡ 1 (mod 5); 34 ≡ 1 (mod 5); 44 ≡ 1 (mod 5)

54 ≡ 0 (mod 5)

64 ≡ 1 (mod 5); 74 ≡ 1 (mod 5); 84 ≡ 1 (mod 5); 94 ≡ 1 (mod 5)

104 ≡ 0 (mod 5)

Theorem 8. [Fermat’s Little Theorem] Let p be a prime and suppose that p - a. Then a p−1 ≡ 1
(mod p).

Proof. We begin by considering the first p − 1 positive multiples of a. That is, consider the integers

a, 2a, 3a, . . . , (p − 1)a.

• None of these numbers is congruent to another modulo p.

Let ra ≡ sa (mod p) for 1 ≤ r < s ≤ p − 1. As p - a, a can be canceled to give r ≡ s (mod p),
which is impossible as 0 < s − r < p.
 6

• Similarly, it is easy to check that none of these numbers is congruent to zero modulo p.

Hence, {a (mod p), 2a (mod p), . . . , (p − 1)a (mod p)} = {1, 2, . . . , p − 1}. Therefore,

a · 2a · · · (p − 1)a ≡ 1 · 2 · · · (p − 1) (mod p).

Or equivalently,
a p−1 (p − 1)! ≡ (p − 1)! (mod p).

Since, gcd(p, (p − 1)!) = 1, using Theorem 2.thm:procon:7, we have a p−1 ≡ 1 (mod p).

Corollary 9. If p is prime, then a p ≡ a (mod p) for any integer a.

Proof. If p|a, then p|a p − a and hence the result is true.

If p - a, then using theorem 8, a p−1 ≡ 1 (mod p). Now, multiplying both sides by a, we get a p ≡ a
(mod p).

Alternate proof: The result is clearly true for p = 2 as both a and a2 have the same parity. Let
p be an odd prime, then a p and a have same sign. Thus, it is sufficient to prove the result for positive
integers. So, let us fix a prime p and prove the result using induction on a. If a = 1, then clearly
a p ≡ a (mod p) holds.
Assume the result holds for a, i.e., a p ≡ a (mod p). We need to prove that (a + 1) p ≡ (a + 1)
(mod p).
p
p!
We first observe that since p is a prime p | k = for k = 1, 2, . . . , p − 1. Hence,
k!(p − k)!
(a + 1) p ≡ a p + 1 (mod p). But, by induction hypothesis, a p ≡ a (mod p). Hence, we get
(a + 1) p ≡ a p + 1 ≡ (a + 1) (mod p).