What is Constructivism?

Entrenched in learning theories advanced by Dewey (1916), Piaget (1972), Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner
(1990), constructivism learning theory is defined as active construction of new knowledge based on a
learner’s prior experience. Woolfolk (1993, p. 485) states the following: … The key idea is that students
actively construct their own knowledge: the mind of the student mediates input from the outside world
to determine what the student will learn. Learning is active mental work, not passive reception of
teaching.

Honebein (1996) advanced a set of goals that aid the design of constructivism in learning settings. These
goals are to:

• “Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;

• Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;

• Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;

• Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;

• Embed learning in social experience;

• Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation; and

• Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process.” (

Honebein , 1996 p. 11) Murphy (1997) presented an excellent summary of characteristics of

constructivism learning theory based on a comprehensive review of literature. These characteristics are
as follows:

1. “Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and encouraged.

2. Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or system.

3. Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators.

4. Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage metacognition, self-
analysis -regulation, -reflection & -awareness.

5. The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning.

6. Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic, authentic and
represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'.

7. Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity and real-world complexity.

8. Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasized.

9. This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation, collaboration and
experience.

10. The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in the
knowledge construction process.

11. Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasized.

12. Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students’ previous knowledge constructions.

13. Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge independently
and to manage the pursuit of their goals.

14. Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is an
increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition.

15. Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and

interdisciplinary learning.

16. Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to expose the learner to alternative
viewpoints.

17. Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.

18. Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching.” (Murphy 1997)

The Model

Koohang (2009) advanced a model based on constructivism learning theory in e-learning

environments. The model includes three categories for elements of Constructivism:

1. The Design of Learning Activities

2. Learning Assessment

3. Instructor’s Roles

The design of learning activities included collaboration, cooperation, multiple perspectives, real world
examples, scaffolding, self-reflection, multiple representations of ideas, and social negotiation. The
learning assessment elements consisted of instructor assessment, collaborative assessment, and self-
assessment. The instructor’s roles were coaching, guiding, mentoring, acknowledging, providing
feedback, and assessing student learning.

The present study adapted the model by Koohang (2009) to include all essential elements of
constructivism and better categorizes the elements of constructivism for designing learning
assignments/activities in e-learning environments.
Figure 1 depicts the new model. The model is comprised of two categories: the learning design
elements and learning assessment elements. The learning design elements include fundamental
design elements and collaborative design elements. The fundamental design elements are essential
for designing learning activities. They include the following nine elements:

1. Conceptual interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning

2. Exploration

3. Higher-order thinking skills

4. Learner’s driven goals and objectives

5. Learner’s own previous experiences

6. Learner’s self-mediating and control of learning

7. Learner’s self-reflection

8. Real world and relevant examples

9. Scaffolding that can be used to make learners think above and beyond what they normally know.

The collaborative design elements for learning activities include the following five elements:
1. Learners’ collaboration 2. Learners’ cooperation 3. Learners’ multiple perspectives 4. Learners’
multiple representations of content/idea/concept 5. Social negotiation among learners.

Explanation: Constructivism

The constructivist approach to teaching and learning is based on a

combination of a subset of research within cognitive psychology and a
subset of research within social psychology. Piaget's theory provides part of
the foundation for constructivist learning: Piaget and Bruner are considered
the chief theorists among the cognitive constructivists, while Vygotsky is the
major theorist among the social constructivists.

Constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on the

premise that cognition (learning) is the result of mental construction.
Knowledge is not received from outside, but by reflecting on our
experiences, by fitting new information together with what we already know
we construct knowledge in our head. Thus, we construct our own
understanding of the world we live in. Learning is the process of adjusting
our mental models to accommodate new experiences. Constructivist
theorists believe that people learn best when they actively construct their
own understanding.

In the constructivist theory emphasis is placed on the learner rather than the
teacher. It is the learner who interacts with objects and events and thereby
gains an understanding of the features held by such objects or events.

In constructivist thinking learning is also affected by the context and the

beliefs and attitudes of the learner. As a set of instructional practices,
constructivism favours processes over end products; guided discovery over
expository learning; authentic, embedded learning situations over
abstracted, artificial ones and portfolio assessments over multiple-choice
exams.

Characteristics of a Classroom Where Communal Constructivist Pedagogy is Applied From our research,
we found the following characteristics in classrooms where ICT was used to support collaborative work
across cultures and communities. We suggest that these characteristics provide the beginnings of a
framework illustrating the communal constructivist approach in action. These ideas and environments
are in many cases not new; however, various forms of ICT facilitate the implementation of various
educational ideals: o collaboration through shared projects with communities outside the school; o
internationalisation of the curriculum through such collaborative projects; o communal construction of
knowledge is an objective; Marilyn Leask & Sarah Younie 130 o students becoming stakeholders in their
own learning and in the knowledge that they are engaging with and creating; o an acceptance that
knowledge is not static but that it is organic and continuously created and changing and that ICT can be
harnessed to support access to up-to-date knowledge; o tasks are relevant and authentic as they apply
to and are drawn from contemporary real-world experience; o involvement in different ways, in the
learning process, of a range of communities, e.g. expert groups of scientists or communities living in
particular locations and with particular experiences; o technology is embedded in practice as a tool for
use as an appropriate rather than a distractive innovation; o the audience for students’ work includes
the peer community in school, children in other schools and the wider public; o use of a range of ICT to
facilitate publishing of high-quality outcomes through Internet publishing opportunities. These
publications are revisited, revised and elaborated on by subsequent groups of learners. Specific
outcomes seem to be that students’ self-esteem is raised as they actively contribute and construct
knowledge. Students’ awareness that they are writing for an external audience is said to enhance
motivation and add a real-world dimension to classwork. There is an incremental growth in the quality
and amount of knowledge in targeted areas, which is generated year on year by students as new
knowledge is put back into the system for others to build on. We acknowledge that communal building
of knowledge may challenge assessment systems currently based on individual rather than team
achievement. Communal constructivist pedagogy also conflicts with the ‘teacher as expert’ pedagogical
paradigm. Unfortunately, factors hindering the development of ICT in schools still probably place the
curriculum activities described above beyond the experience of most children. Many of these factors
may be resolved in time – the speed with which change happens in any country depends on a complex
matrix of factors, of which resources are only one. (The dynamics of implementing change in teachers’
practice is further developed in Leask et al [2000].)