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Chap 92

Tecnología automotriz un enfoque de sistemas

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Chap 92

Tecnología automotriz un enfoque de sistemas

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Herbert Enrique Pomaccosi Benavente

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Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
PrenticeHall
Hall- -Upper
UpperSaddle
SaddleRiver,
River,NJ
NJ07458
07458
OBJECTIVES:
After studying Chapter 92, the reader should
be able to:
• Prepare for ASE Suspension and Steering (A4)
certification test content area “D” (Wheel
Alignment Diagnosis, Adjustment, and Repair).
• Discuss which vehicle handling problems can
and cannot be corrected by an alignment.
• Define camber, toe, caster, SAI, included
angle, scrub radius, turning radius, setback,
and thrust line.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

dog tracking • drift

four-wheel alignment • included angle • KPI • lead

MSI • pull • returnability • road crown

SAI • scrub radius • setback • shimmy • steering

dampener • steering offset

thrust line • toe • toot • tramp

wander
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
PrenticeHall
Hall- -Upper
UpperSaddle
SaddleRiver,
River,NJ
NJ07458
07458
A wheel alignment is the adjustment of the suspension
and steering to ensure proper vehicle handling with
minimum tire wear.

When a vehicle is new, the alignment angles are set at

the factory. After many miles and/or months of driving,
the alignment angles can change slightly.

By adjusting the suspension and steering components,

proper alignment angles can be restored. An alignment
includes checking and adjusting, if necessary, both
front and rear wheels.
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
PrenticeHall
Hall- -Upper
UpperSaddle
SaddleRiver,
River,NJ
NJ07458
07458
ALIGNMENT-RELATED PROBLEMS
Most alignment diagnosis is symptom-based diagnosis. The
problem with the alignment is determined from symptoms such as
excessive tire wear or a pull to one side of the road.

Pull Defined as a definite tug on the steering wheel or pull

toward the left or the right while driving straight on a level road.
Figure 92–1 A pull is usually defined as a tug on the steering wheel
toward one side or the other.

Bent, damaged,
worn suspension
and/or steering
components or
tire problems
can cause this.
Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
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Road Crown Effects Most roads are constructed with a slight
angle to permit water to drain from the road surface. On a two-lane
road, the center of the road is often higher than the berms, resulting
in a road crown.

Figure 92–2 The crown of the road refers to the angle or slope of the roadway needed to drain
water off the pavement. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

On a four-lane expressway (freeway), the crown is often between

the two sets of lanes. Because of this slight angle to the road,
some vehicles may lead or drift away from the road crown.

CAUTION: When test-driving a vehicle for a lead or a drift, make sure

that the road is free of traffic and that your hands remain close to the
steering wheel. Your hands should be away from the steering wheel for
just a second or two—long enough to check for a lead or drift condition.

Figure 92–3 Wander is an unstable condition requiring constant driver corrections.

Tramp or Shimmy Vibration Tramp Vertical-type (up-and-

down) vibration usually caused by out-of-balance or defective
tires or wheels. Shimmy is a back-and-forth vibration that can be
caused by an out-of-balance tire or defective wheel or by an
alignment problem.

NOTE: Wheel alignment will not correct a tramp-type vibration.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

Camber is the inward or outward tilt of the wheels from true

vertical as viewed from the front or rear of the vehicle.

1. If the top of the tire is tilted out, then camber is positive

(+), as shown in Figure 92–4.
2. If the top of the tire is tilted in, then camber is negative (–),
as shown in Figure 92–5.
3. If the wheel is true vertical, camber is zero (0 degrees) as
shown in Figure 92–6, camber is zero (0 degrees).

NOTE: Many front-wheel-drive vehicles that use sealed wheel bearings

often specify negative camber.
Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
PrenticeHall
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SaddleRiver,
River,NJ
NJ07458
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Figure 92–4 Figure 92–5 Figure 92–6
Positive camber. The solid Negative camber. The solid Zero camber. Note
vertical line represents true vertical line represents true the angle of the tire
vertical; the dotted line the vertical; the dotted line the is true vertical.
angle of the tire. angle of the tire.

5. Camber can cause tire wear if not correct.

a. Excessive positive camber causes scuffing and wear on
the outside edge of the tire, as shown in Figure 92–7.
b. Excessive negative camber causes scuffing and wear on
the inside edge of the tire, as shown in Figure 92–8.

6. Camber can cause pull if it is unequal side-to-side. A

difference of more than 1/2 degree from one side to the other
will cause the vehicle to pull.
The vehicle will pull toward the side with the most
positive camber.

See Figures 92–7 through 92–11 Continued

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
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Hall- -Upper
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Figure 92–7
Excessive positive camber and how the front tires would wear due to the excessive camber.

Figure 92–11 If camber angles are

different from one side to the other, the
vehicle will pull toward the side with the
most camber.

Many vehicle manufacturers specify positive camber so the

vehicle’s weight is applied to the larger inner wheel bearing
and spindle.

As the vehicle is loaded or when the springs sag, camber

usually decreases. If camber is kept positive, the running
camber is kept near zero degrees for best tire life.

See Figures 92–12 and 92–13.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

9. If camber is adjustable, the change is made by moving the

upper or the lower control arm or strut assembly by means
of one of the following methods:
a. Shims
b. Eccentric cams
c. Slots

10. Camber should be equal on both sides; however, if camber

cannot be adjusted exactly equal, make certain that there is
more camber on the front of the left side to help compensate
for the road crown (1/2 degree maximum difference).

Caster is the forward or rearward tilt of the steering axis in

reference to a vertical line as viewed from the side of the vehicle.

The steering axis is defined Figure 92–14 Zero caster. (Courtesy of Hunter
Engineering Company)
as the line drawn through
the upper and lower steering
pivot points.
Zero caster means the steering
axis is straight up and down.

This is also called 0 degrees

or perfectly vertical, as shown
at right.
Continued Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
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On an SLA suspension system, the upper pivot is the upper ball
joint and the lower pivot is the lower ball joint.

On a MacPherson strut system, the upper pivot is the center of the

upper bearing mount and the lower pivot point the lower ball joint.

1. Positive (+) caster is present when the upper suspension pivot

point is behind the lower pivot point (ball joint) as viewed
from the side. See Figure 92–15.

2. Negative (–) caster is present when the upper suspension pivot

point is ahead of the lower pivot point (ball joint) as viewed
from the side. See Figure 92–16.

Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
PrenticeHall
Hall- -Upper
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3. Caster is measured in Figure 92–16 Negative (–) caster is seldom
specified on today’s vehicles because it tends
degrees or fractions of to make the vehicle unstable at highway
speeds. Negative caster was specified on
degrees. some older vehicles not equipped with power
steering to help reduce the steering effort.
Figure 92–15 Positive (+) caster. (Courtesy of (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)
Hunter Engineering Company)

Figure 92–17
As the spindle rotates,
it lifts the weight of the
vehicle due to the angle
of the steering axis.
(Courtesy of Hunter
Engineering Company)

Figure 92–18 Vehicle weight tends to lower the spindle,

which returns the steering to the straight-ahead position.
Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
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Hall- -Upper
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SaddleRiver,
River,NJ
NJ07458
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5. Caster is a stability angle.
b. If the caster is positive, steering effort will increase with
increasing positive caster. Greater road shocks will be felt
by the driver when driving over rough road surfaces.

Vehicles with as many as 11

degrees positive caster usually
use a steering dampener to
control possible shimmy at high
speeds and to dampen the snap-
back of the spindle after a turn.

See Figure 92-20.

Figure 92–19 High caster provides

a road shock path to the vehicle.
Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
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Figure 92–20 A steering dampener is used on many pickup trucks, sport utility vehicles (SUVs),
and many luxury vehicles designed with a high-positive-caster setting. The dampener helps
prevent steering wheel kickback when the front tires hit a bump or hole in the road and also helps
reduce steering wheel shimmy that may result from the high-caster setting.

Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
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5. Caster is a stability angle.
c. If caster is negative, or excessively unequal, the vehicle
will not be as stable and will tend to wander (constant
steering wheel movement will be required to maintain
straight-ahead direction). If a vehicle is heavily loaded in
the rear, caster increases.
Figure 92–21 As the load increases in the rear of
a vehicle, the top steering axis pivot point moves
rearward, increasing positive (+) caster.
(Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

7. Caster is not adjustable on many vehicles.

8. If caster is adjustable, it is changed by moving the lower or the

upper pivot point forward or backward by means of the following:

a. Shims c. Slots
b. Eccentric cams d. Strut rods
Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
2009Pearson
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9. Caster should be equal on both sides; however, if caster
cannot be adjusted to be exactly equal, make certain that
there is more caster on the right side (maximum 1/2-degree
difference) to help compensate for the crown of the road.

NOTE: Caster is only measured on the front turning wheels of the

vehicle. While some caster is built into the rear suspension of many
vehicles, rear caster is not measured as part of a four-wheel alignment.

When the front wheels are turned on a vehicle with a lot of positive caster, they become angled. This
is called camber roll.

(Caster angle is a measurement of the difference in camber angle from when the wheel is turned
inward compared to when the wheel is turned outward.)

Most vehicle manufacturers have positive caster designed into the suspension system. This positive
caster increases the directional stability.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
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Caster Angle Tire Wear - Part 2
If the vehicle is used exclusively in city driving, positive caster can
cause tire wear to the outside shoulders of both front tires.
Figure 92–22 Note how the
front tire becomes tilted as
the vehicle turns a corner
with positive caster. The
higher the caster angle, the
more the front tires tilt,
causing camber-type tire
wear.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

Toe is the difference in distance

between the front and rear of the tires.

As viewed from the top of the vehicle (a bird’s eye view), zero toe
means that both wheels on the same axle are parallel, as shown:

Figure 92–23
Zero toe. Note how both
tires are parallel to each
other as viewed from
above the vehicle.
(Courtesy of Hunter
Engineering Company)

Figure 92–24 Total toe is often expressed as an angle. Because both front wheels are tied
together through the tie rods and center link, the toe angle is always equally split between the
two front wheels when the vehicle moves forward.

Figure 92–25 Toe-in, also called positive (+) toe. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

Figure 92–26 Toe-out, also called negative (–) toe. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

NOTE: Some manufacturers of front-wheel-drive vehicles specify a toe-

out setting to compensate for the toe-in forces created by the engine drive
forces on the front wheels.

2. Incorrect toe is the major cause

of excessive tire wear!
Figure 92–27
This tire is just one month old! It was new and installed
on the front of a vehicle that had about 1/4 inch (6 mm)
of toe-out. By the time the customer returned to the tire
store for an alignment, the tire was completely bald on
the inside. Note the almost new tread on the outside.

If not correct, toe causes camber-type wear on one side of the tire.
Figure 92–28
Excessive toe-out and the type of wear that can occur to the inside of the left front tire.

Figure 92–30 Feather-edge wear pattern caused by

excessive toe-in or toe-out.

Figure 92–29 Excessive toe-in and the type of wear

that can occur to the outside of the left front tire.

4. Incorrect (or unequal) rear toe can cause tire wear. If the toe
of the rear wheels is not equal, the steering wheel will not be
straight and will pull toward the side with the most toe-in.

See Figures 92–31 through 92–33.

Figure 92–32
Incorrect toe can
cause the tire to
run sideways as it
rolls, resulting in a
diagonal wipe.

Figure 92–34 Toe on the front

of most vehicles is adjusted
by turning the tire rod sleeve
as shown. (Courtesy of John
Bean Company)

6. Many vehicle manufacturers specify a slight amount of toe-

into compensate for the natural tendency of the front wheels
to spread apart (become toed-out) due to centrifugal force of
the rolling wheels acting on the steering linkage.

Excessive front toe-out will cause wander (lack of directional

stability), especially during braking. Incorrect toe will cause
an uncentered steering wheel. If toe is unequal in the rear,
the vehicle will pull toward the side with the most toe-in.

Why Doesn’t Unequal Front

Each wheel could have individual Toe on the Front Wheels
toe, but as the vehicle is being driven Cause the Vehicle to Pull?
the forces on the tires tend to split the toe, causing the steering wheel to
cock at an angle as the front wheels both track the same. If the toe is
different on the rear of the vehicle, the rear will be “steered” similar to a
rudder on a boat because the rear wheels are not tied together as are the
front wheels.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

2009Pearson
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Smooth In, Toed-In; Smooth Out, Toed-Out
Each wheel could have individual toe,
but as the vehicle is being driven, the
forces on the tires tend to split the toe,
causing the steering wheel to cock at
an angle as the front wheels both track
the same.

If the toe is different on the rear of the

vehicle, the rear will be “steered”
similar to a rudder on a boat because
the rear wheels are not tied together
as are the front wheels.

Figure 92–35 While the feathered or sawtooth tire tread wear pattern may not be noticeable to
the eye, this wear can usually be felt by rubbing your hand across the tread of the tire.
(Courtesy of FMC)

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

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STEERING AXIS INCLINATION (SAI)
The steering axis is the angle formed between true vertical and an
imaginary line drawn between the upper and lower pivot points of
the spindle.

Steering axis inclination (SAI) is the inward tilt of the steering

axis. SAI is also known as kingpin inclination (KPI) and is the
imaginary line drawn through the kingpin as viewed from the
front.

SAI is also called ball joint inclination (BJI), if SLA-type

suspension is used, or MacPherson strut inclination (MSI).

See Figure 92–36.

Continued
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2009Pearson
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Figure 92–36 The left illustration shows that the steering axis inclination angle is determined by
drawing a line through the center of the upper and lower ball joints. This represents the pivot
points of the front wheels when the steering wheel is rotated during cornering. The right
illustration shows that the steering axis inclination angle is determined by drawing a line through
the axis of the upper strut bearing mount assembly and the lower ball joint.

Continued
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
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The SAI provides an upper suspension pivot location causing the
spindle to travel in an arc when turning, tending to raise the vehicle.
The greater the SAI, the more
stable the vehicle.
It also helps center the steering
wheel after making a turn and
reduces the need for excessive
positive caster.
The SAI/KPI angle of all
vehicles ranges between 2
and 16 degrees.
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
have greater than 9 degrees Figure 92–37 The SAI causes the spindle to
travel in an arc when the wheels are turned.
SAI (typically 12 to 16 degrees) The weight of the vehicle is therefore used to
help straighten the front tires after a turn and
for directional stability. to help give directional stability.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

Figure 92–38 Included angle on a MacPherson-strut-type

suspension. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

The included angle is determined by

the design of the steering knuckle,
or strut construction.

See Figure 92–39.

If the included angles are equal Figure 92–40 Cradle placement. If the cradle is
not replaced in the exact position after removal
side-to-side, but the camber is for a transmission or clutch replacement, the
SAI, camber, and included angle will not be
unequal on both sides, the SAI equal side-to-side.
must be unequal.

For best handling, the included

angle should be within 1/2
degree of the SAI of the other
side of the vehicle.

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

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SCRUB RADIUS
Scrub radius refers to the distance between the line through the
steering axis and the centerline of the wheel at the contact point
with the road surface.

Scrub radius is not adjustable and cannot be measured. Scrub

radius can be zero, positive, or negative. Zero scrub radius means
that the line through the steering axis intersects the centerline of
the tire at the road surface.

NOTE: It is this tendency to toe-in caused by the negative scrub radius

and engine torque that requires many front-wheel-drive vehicles to specify
a toe-out setting for the front-drive wheels.

See Figure 92–41. Continued

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Figure 92–41 A positive scrub radius is usually built into most SLA front suspensions, and a
negative scrub radius is usually built into most MacPherson-strut-type front suspensions.

If a wheel is permitted to roll rather than pivot, then steering will

be more difficult because a tire can pivot more easily than it can
roll while turning the front wheels. If the point of intersection is
inside the centerline of the tire and below the road surface, this
creates a toe-out force on the front wheels.

Negative scrub radius is required on front-wheel-drive vehicles to

provide good steering stability during braking.

See Figures 92–42 and 92–43.

Continued
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Figure 92–43 With a positive scrub radius, the pivot point, marked with a + mark, is inside the
centerline of the tire and will cause the wheel to turn toward the outside, especially during
braking. Zero scrub radius does not create any force on the tires and is not usually used on
vehicles because it does not create an opposing force on the tires, which in turn makes the
vehicle more susceptible to minor bumps and dips in the road. Negative scrub radius, as is used
with most front-wheel-drive vehicles, generates an inward force on the tires.

Negative scrub radius causes the tire to toe-in during acceleration,

braking, or traveling over bumps. Zero scrub radius is acceptable;
positive scrub radius is less desirable because it causes the wheel
to toe-out during acceleration, braking, or traveling over bumps
and causes instability. Positive scrub radius is commonly used on
rear-wheel-drive vehicles and requires a toe-in setting to help
compensate for the tendency to toe-out.

Changing tire or wheel sizes can affect the centerline location of

the wheel or height of the tire assembly. When larger-diameter
tires and positive-offset wheels are installed, the scrub radius
becomes positive, causing wander, poor handling, and tire wear.
Continued
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TURNING RADIUS (TOE-OUT ON TURNS)
When a vehicle turns a corner, the inside wheel has to turn at a
sharper angle than the outside wheel because the inside wheel has
a shorter distance to travel.
Turning radius, a nonadjustable
angle, is called toe-out on turns,
TOT or TOOT.
It is determined by angle of the
steering knuckle arms, and
Figure 92–44 To provide handling, the inside
should be measured to check wheel has to turn at a greater turning radius
if the steering arms are bent than the outside wheel.

or damaged.
1. Tire squeal noise during normal
Symptoms of out-of-spec cornering, even at low speeds
turning angle include:
2. Scuffed tire wear
Continued
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The proper angle of the steering arms is where imaginary lines drawn
from the steering arms should intersect exactly at the center of the rear
axle. This angle is called the Ackerman Effect (named for its promoter,
English publisher, Rudolph Ackerman, ca. 1898).

Figure 92–45 The proper toe-out on turns is achieved by angling the steering arms.

(a)

(b)
Figure 92–46 (a) Positive setback. (b)
Negative setback. (Courtesy of Hunter
Engineering Company)

Setback can be measured with a four-wheel alignment machine or

can be determined by measuring the wheel base on both sides of
the vehicle.

Setback is a nonadjustable measurement,

even though it may be corrected.

NOTE: The wheel base of any vehicle is the distance between the center
of the front wheel and the center of the rear wheel on the same side. The
wheel base should be within 1/8 in. (3 mm) side-to-side.

2. An accident that affected the frame or cradle of the vehicle

and was unnoticed or not repaired

Figure 92–47 Cradle placement

affects setback.

Thrust angle is the angle of the rear wheels

as determined by the total rear toe.

On vehicles with an independent rear suspension, if both wheels

do not have equal toe, the vehicle will pull in the direction of the
side with the most toe-in.

See Figure 92-48.

(a)

(b)

(c)

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TRACKING
The rear wheels should track directly behind the front wheels. If
the vehicle has been involved in an accident, it is possible that
the frame or rear axle mounting could cause dog tracking.

To check the frame for possible damage, two diagonal

measurements of the frame and/or body are required. The
diagonal measurements from known points at the front and the
rear should be within 1/8 in. (3 mm) of each other.

See Figure 92–49.

(a)

(b)
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By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
PrenticeHall
Hall- -Upper
UpperSaddle
SaddleRiver,
River,NJ
NJ07458
07458
FOUR WHEEL ALIGNMENT
Four-wheel alignment refers to the checking and/or adjustment
of all four wheels. Four-wheel alignment is important for proper
handling and tire wear, to check the camber and the toe of the
rear wheels of front-wheel-drive vehicles.

Some rear-wheel-drive vehicles equipped with independent rear

suspension can be adjusted for camber and toe. Rear-wheel
caster cannot be measured or adjusted because to measure caster,
the wheels must be turned from straight ahead.

Unequal toe in the rear can cause the vehicle to pull or lead. The
rear camber and toe are always adjusted first before adjusting the
front caster, camber, and toe. This procedure ensures that the
thrust line and centerline of the vehicle are the same.

2. Low or unequal tire pressures can often cause symptoms such

as wander, pull, and excessive tire wear.

3. Camber is both a pulling angle (if not equal side-to-side) as

well as a tire wearing angle (if not set to specifications).

4. Incorrect camber can cause tire wear and pulling if camber is

not within 1/2 degree from one side to the other.

6. Incorrect toe causes excessive tire wear and creates instability

if not within specifications.

7. Caster is the basic stability angle, yet it does not cause tire
wear (directly) if not correct or equal side-to-side.

8. SAI and included angle (SAI and camber added together) are
important diagnostic tools.

10. A four-wheel alignment includes aligning all four wheels of

the vehicle; a thrust line alignment sets the front toe equal to
the thrust line (total rear toe) of the rear wheels.

2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
PrenticeHall
Hall- -Upper
UpperSaddle
SaddleRiver,
River,NJ
NJ07458
07458
end

2009Pearson
PearsonEducation,
Education,Inc.
Inc.
By James D. Halderman Pearson
PearsonPrentice
PrenticeHall
Hall- -Upper
UpperSaddle
SaddleRiver,
River,NJ
NJ07458
07458

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