Module 4

Data Collection

Data Collection: Primary and Secondary Data. Primary data collection methods - Observations,
survey, Interview and Questionnaire, Qualitative Techniques of data collection. Questionnaire
design – Meaning - process of designing questionnaire. Secondary data -Sources – advantages
and disadvantages
Measurement and Scaling Techniques: Basic measurement Scales-Nominal scale, Ordinal
scale, Interval scale, Ratio scale. Attitude measurement scale - Likert’s Scale, Semantic
Differential Scale, Thurstone scale, Multi-Dimensional Scaling.

Primary data
 Primary data is also called as first hand data.
 Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the
problem at hand.
 Obtaining primary data can be expensive and time consuming.

Secondary data

 Secondary data are data that have already been collected for purposes other than the
problem at hand.
 These data can be located quickly and inexpensively
 Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which
have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes
secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them.
In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated
with the collection of original data.
 Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data
are available in:
(a) various publications of the central, state are local governments;
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies
and their subsidiary organizations;
(c) technical and trade journals;
(d) books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with
business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in
different fields; and
(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of
published information.
 The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters,
unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and
research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/ private individuals
and organizations.
Advantages of Secondary Data
 Secondary data are easily accessible, relatively inexpensive and quickly obtained.
 Available on topics where it would not be feasible for a firm to collect primary data.

Secondary data can help

 Identify the problem.

 Better define the problem.
 Develop an approach to the problem.
 Formulate an appropriate research design.
 Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses.
 Interpret primary data more insightfully.

Disadvantages of secondary Data

 Mismatch between the original purpose and the purpose of current study

 Because secondary data have been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand,
their usefulness to the current problem may be limited in several important ways,
including relevance and accuracy.

 The objectives, nature and methods used to collect the secondary data may not be
appropriate to the present situation.

 Secondary data may be lacking in accuracy, or they may not be completely current or
dependable.

Sources of secondary data

secondary
data

internal data external data

Computerized Syndicated
Published data
database services
Internal data:

The data which is available within the organization conducting research is termed as internal
data. The main advantage of this data is that it is easily available and greater reliance can be
placed on the degree of accuracy and relevance to the study.

Ex- sales and costs data

External data

External data are those generated by sources outside the organization. These are mainly
a) published data,
b) computerized databases
c) Syndicated services.

a) Published Data: these are the most popular of the external sources of data. Different
sources of published data are:
a. Guides: Excellent source of standard information. A guide may help identify
other important sources such as directories, trade associations and trade
publications.
Some of the useful guides are:
 Vancouver India business guide
 Encyclopedia of business information sources
 A Guide to Consumer Markets
 Business information sources
b. Directories: Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect
specific data. Eg. Research Services Directory.
www.webdir.biz/Human_Resources/; forex directories, retail direct. Small
business, real estate, fortune 500 directory, leading public and private companies,
Standard directories of advertisers.
c. Indexes – It is possible to locate information on a particular topic in several
different publications by using an index. Indexes can, therefore, increase the
efficiency of the search process.
Ex: Business Periodical Index. the wall street journal index
Librarian’s Internet index, -www.lli.org
d. Statistical Data – Published statistical data are of great interest to researchers.
Graphic and statistical analyses can be performed on these data to draw important
insights. Ex: A Guide to Consumer Markets, standard and poor’s statistical
service.
e. Government Sources
 Census Data – Provides detailed view of the human population, their income
and education level. The quality of census data is high and the data are often
extremely detailed. Important census data include Census of Housing, Census
of Manufacturers, Census of Population, Census of Retail Trade, Census of
Service Industries and Census of Wholesale Trade.
  Other Government Publications – addition to the census, the government
collects and publishes a great deal of statistical data. The more useful
publications are Business Conditions Digest and Survey of Current Business.

 Web Directory - A one-point source to access all Indian Government

Websites at all levels and from all sectors.

 The Publications Division (PD) under the Ministry of Information and

Broadcasting

It attempts to promote National Integration by disseminating information and creating awareness

about the various activities, regions, people and the myriad cultures & beliefs of this Nation.

b) Computerized databases
 Online Databases- Databases, stored in computers, which require a telecommunications
network to access.

 Internet Databases – Internet databases can be accessed, searched and analyzed on the
internet. It is also possible to download data from the internet and store them in the
computer or an auxiliary storage device.

 Offline Databases – Databases that are available on diskette or CD-ROM.

c) Syndicated services

Syndicated sources, also referred to as syndicated services, are companies that collect and
sell common pools of data of known commercial value, designed to serve information needs
shared by a number of clients. These data are not collected for the purpose of marketing
research problems specific to individual clients, but the data and reports supplied to client
companies can be personalized to fit particular needs.

Primary data collection methods

The data is also called as first hand data, contains information that has been collected specifically
for the purpose of investigation at hand.

The data directly collected by the researcher with respect to the problem under study is known as
primary data.

The primary data collection involves greater effort on behalf of the researcher and is time
consuming and expensive.
OBSERVATIONS

It refers to monitoring and recording the behavioural and non-behavioural activities and
conditions in a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomena of interest.

It is a popular method of data collection.

In the observation method, only present or current behaviour can be studied. Therefore, many
researchers feel that this is a great disadvantage.

This is the least expensive method of data collection.

Classification of observation methods

1. Structured vs. Unstructured observation

In structured observation the problem has been clearly defined. Hence, behaviour to be
observed and the methods by which it will be measured is specified beforehand in detail.
Unstructured analysis is used in situations where the problem has not been clearly defined.
Hence it cannot be pre-specified that what is to be observed. Hence a researcher monitors all
relevant phenomena and a great deal of flexibility is allowed in terms of what they note and
record.
2. Disguised vs. Non-disguised Observation:
When subjects do not know they are being observed, this is called a disguised observation.
Subjects in disguised observations tend to act more naturally and the data collected tends to
reflect their true reactions. The primary concern with disguised observation is the ethical concern
over recording behavioral information that would normally be private or not voluntarily revealed
to a researcher. However, if one is simply observing a subject's behavior in a public setting then
by definition, their behavior is no longer private.
When subjects know they are being observed, this is called a non-disguised observation. Using
the non-disguised observation technique alone alleviates ethical concerns, however, since the
subjects are aware that they are being watched, the advantages of using the observational
technique are neutralized and a survey technique would be equally effective. There is one
exception: the non-disguised approach offers the advantage of allowing the researcher to follow
up the observations with a questionnaire in order to get deeper information about a subject's
behavior.
3. Participant Observation vs. Non-Participant Observation
Participant Observation
Participant observation is a method by which researchers systematically observe people while
joining in their routine activities.
The participant observation means watching the events or situation or activities from inside by
taking part in the group to be observed. He freely interacts with the other group members,
participates in various activities of the group, acquires the way of life of the observed group or
his own, and studies their behaviour or other activities not as an outsider but by becoming a
member of that group.

Non-Participant Observation
When the observer observes the group passively from a distance without participating in the
group activities, it is known as non-participant observation.

Advantages of Participant Observation:

 (a) Observation of natural behaviour: The natural behaviour of the respondent can be studied
by participant observation. When a group knows that they are going to be observed by a stranger,
they feel conscious, uncomfortable. But in case of the participant observation, the respondents do
not know that they are being observed. So their behaviour is not constrained by the conscious
feeling of being observed by a stranger.
(b) Closeness with the group: In participant observation, the observer has a very good rapport
with the respondents. He has a very close primary relationship with the group members. Because
of this he can participate in all activities from a close angle and thus can better interpret the
situation than a non-participant observer.
(c) Studying the real character: Often in order to study the actual behaviour, the group research
requires close participation and contact with the group members. Through participant
observation the observer can make an intensive and inclusive study of the group and can gain
into the real character of such group.
(d) Better Understanding: In participant observation the observer can better understood the
feeling of the respondents than an outsider. For example, a person who is actually living in a
slum area can realize the feeling and hardship of the slum dwellers in a better way than an
outsider.
(e) Participation provides opportunity to learn more about an event: The chief advantage of
participant observation is that in it the observer gets an opportunity to interact with the group
regarding various activities of them. He can thus learn the significance of these activities that are
actually not open for observation.
  
Disadvantages of Participant Observation:
 (a) Lack of objectivity: By becoming members of a group and participating very closely in it,
the observer may lose his objectivity.
(b) Often close association brings biased interpretation: Because of his close association and
emotional participation with the group members the researcher creates a special position for
himself in that group. He may be influenced or pleased by this and begins to support them
blindly.
(c) Misses important issues due to familiarity: Due to much familiarity many crucial events
appear to the participant observer as of little or no significance. Therefore, he misses many of the
important issues. But a stranger pay much attention even to a small thing, as this appears new to
him.
(d) Limited range of experience: In participant observation the observer is confines himself to a
particular group. So his experience becomes very deep, but the range of his experience becomes
very limited.
(e) Involvement in groupism: The active participation and proximity of the observer with the
group may involve him in quarrels and group factionalism.
(f) Limits of participant observation: There are certain situations in which the participant
observation is not possible. For example, it is not possible to observe criminals or prisoners.

Advantages of Non-Participant Observation:
 (a) Objectivity: non-participant observation, the objectivity or neutrality can be maintained.
The observer in this type of observation gives a detached and unbiased view about the group.
(b) Command respect and co-operation: In case of non-participant observation the researcher
plays an impartial role. Therefore, every member of the group gives him a special status and co-
operate with his study.
(c) Careful analysis: In participant observation because of the much familiarity with the events,
sometimes the observer does not realize the significance of same events and neglects them. But
in non- participant observation the researcher does not even miss a minute thing. He carefully
judges the merits and demerits of each and every phenomenon under study.
(d) Freedom from groupism: In non-participant observation the researcher always maintains
his unbiased status.

Disadvantages of Non-Participant Observation:
 (a) Subjectivity: In non-participant observation the observer does not have clarity about certain
events on activities. He cannot clear his doubts by asking various questions to the group
members. Therefore, he has to simply understand and interpret what he sees. This lack of
understanding may make some of his findings biased and coloured by his personal prediction,
belief and pre-conception.
(b) Inadequate observation: The observer can observe only those events which take place in
front of him. But that is not enough and only a part of the phenomena as a vast range of
information required for the research. He can know many things about the group when he
participates in the group and interacts with the group members.
(c) Unnatural and formal information: The members of a group become suspicious of a
person who observes them objectively. In front of an outsider or stranger they feel conscious and
provide only some formal information’s in an unnatural way. It creates bias and what the
observer collects is not actual or normal thing but only formal information’s.
(d) Inconvenience to the respondents: The members of a particular group always feel
uncomfortable when they know that their behaviour is critically analyzed by an outsider.
Therefore, in some cases the tribal do not allow an outsider to watch their socio-cultural
activities. It is always better for a researcher to become a member of the group in order to learn
much about it.
4. Natural vs. Contrived Observation:
Conducting the study in a natural setting essentially means that one is simply observing your
subjects in their "real life" environments. Because one has no way of influencing what your
subjects are doing, this method can be time consuming to gather the information that oneare
specifically trying to obtain for your project. Alternatively, the data that is collected in a natural
setting does have more accuracy in reflecting "real life" behavior rather than "contrived"
behavior.
A contrived setting is one where the specific situation being studied is created by the observer.
The contrived setting offers you, the observer, greater control over the gathering of data and
specifically will enable one to gather the information more quickly and efficiently. However, it
may be questionable as to whether or not the data collected does truly reflect a "real life"
situation.

Human vs. Mechanical Observation:

Human observation is self-explanatory, using human observers to collect data in the study.
Mechanical observation involves using various types of machines to collect the data, which is
then interpreted by researchers. With continuing improvements in technology, there are many
"mechanical" ways of capturing data in observation studies; however, these new "gadgets" tend
to be extremely expensive. The most commonly used and least expensive means of mechanically
gathering data in an observation study is a video camera. A video camera offers a much more
precise means of collecting data than what can simply be recorded by a human observer.

Direct vs. Indirect Observation:

Direct observations involve looking at the actual behavior or occurrence rather than a result of
that occurrence, which would be an indirect observation. For example, if one were interested in
seeing how much candy was purchased by a particular neighborhood, one could gather the
information in one of the two following ways:
Direct observation: observe customers in a store and count how many bags of candy they
purchase. Indirect observation: look through trash cans on garbage day to see how many empty
candy bags are in each trash bin
Indirect observation tends to be used when the data cannot be gathered through direct means, or
when gathering the data through direct observation tends to be too expensive.

Mechanical Observation – Mechanical devices, rather than human observers, record the
phenomenon being observed. Devices are:
Audiometer – Attached to a television set to continually record what channel the set is tuned to.
Turnstiles – Record the number of people entering or leaving a building.
On-site cameras – Used by retailers to assess package designs, counter space, floor displays and
traffic flow patterns.
Eye-tracking monitors – Records the gaze movements of the eye. Used to determine how a
respondent reads an advertisement and views a TV commercial.
Voice pitch analysis – Measures emotional reactions through changes in the respondent’s voice.
Response latency – Time a respondent takes before answering a question.
Audit – The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory
analysis of inventory of brands, quantities and package sizes in a consumer’s home or at a retail
store.
Content Analysis – Objective, systematic and quantitative description of the clear content of a
communication. The unit of analysis may be words, characters, themes, space and time measures
or topics.
Trace Analysis – Data collection is based on physical traces or evidence of past behavior. E.g.
No. of different fingerprints on a page was used to find out the readership of various
advertisements in a magazine.

Advantages of Observation Method

1. Original data can be collected at the time of occurrence of the event.

2. Observation is done in natural surroundings. Therefore, the facts emerge more clearly.
3. Sometimes, the respondents may not like to part with some of the information, such
information can be obtained by the researcher through observation.
4. Observation can also be done on those who cannot articulate.
5. Any bias on the part of the researcher is greatly reduced in the observation method.

Disadvantages of Observation Method

1. Time consuming method.

2. This is an expensive method.
3. An extensive training of observers is required.
4. Only overt behavior can be observed.
5. Two observers may observe the same event, but may draw different inference.
6. It is very difficult to gather information on opinions and intentions.
7. Cannot be applied when the size of the population is large.
INTERVIEW

Interview is the verbal conversation between two people with the objective of collecting
research relevant information.

Types of Interview

1. Personal interview.
2. Telephone interview.
3. Focus group interview.
4. Depth interview.
5. Projective Techniques.

1. Personal interview: A personal interview is a face to face two-way communication between

the interviewer and the respondent. Generally, the personal interview is carried out in a
planned manner and in referred to as `structured interview`. The personal interview can be
conducted in many forms. Example: Door to door interviewing where the respondents are
interviewed in their home (or) as a planned formal executive meeting etc.
2. Telephone interview: Collecting information from the respondents by asking them questions
on the phone is called as telephone interview.
Telephone interview has the following advantages over personal interview.
1. Low cost.
2. Faster collection of data.
3. Reduces biases (caused by personal presence of interviewer)
3. Focus group interview: It is an unstructured interview which involves a moderator leading a
discussion between a small group of respondent on a specified topic.
 This interview involves 8 to 12 respondents having homogeneous
characteristics, seated in a comfortable relaxed informal atmosphere.
 Interview generally continues for 1 to 3 hours during which the respondents
develop a rapport and share their views.
 The proceedings are recorded on an audio (or) visual device.
 The moderator keeps the discussion going and probes the respondents
whenever necessary to elicit insightful responses.
 These responses are better to device conclusive results, analyzed

Advantages of Focus Group Interview

 Synergism- When group of people produce better insights into a problem than an
individual.
 Snowballing- One person`s response initiates a chain of responses.
 Stimulations- As the interview progresses, respondents are more and more encouraged to
give responses.
  Security- Since an individual generally finds somebody in the group who might endorse
his opinion, he feels secure in answering.
 Spontaneity- Since there are no pre designed questions being asked, responses are
spontaneous.
 Often new ideas are generated.
 Scientific scrutiny- Since the proceedings are being recorded, they can be analysed in a
great detain scientifically.
 Flexible and in-depth responses.
 Data is collected quickly.

Disadvantages of Focus Group Interview

 Results can be wrongly interpreted since the response is not to any specific question.
 Coding and analyzing data is difficult.
 It is difficult to find a moderator who can conduct these interviews successfully.

4. Depth interview: Depth interview, like a focus group interview is an unstructured type of
interview used to collect qualitative data. However, it involves a one to one interaction
between the interviewer and respondent.
The depth interview can be non-directive in nature where the respondent is given freedom to
answer within the boundaries of topic of interest.
The other form of depth interview is `semi structured` in nature where the interviewer covers
a specific list of topics although the linking, the sequence and the wording of each question is
left to the interviewer`s discretion.
In depth interviews, the interviewer asks the initial questions and thereafter it is the response
of the respondents from which further questions may be generated. The interviewer using
probing techniques looks for more elaboration.
It suffers from drawback of being expensive, time consuming and demands skilled
interviewer.

5. Projective techniques: involves the presentation of an ambiguous, unstructured object,

activity (or) person that a respondent is asked to interpret and explain.
Some of the techniques are,
1. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): The respondent is shown a set of pictures
and then asked what he perceives of these pictures.
2. Item substitution test: This test involved creating 2 groups of respondents, the
test group and the control group. The stimulus, presented as a list of items is given
to both the groups which is similar in all respect except for the substitution of
items relevant to the study.
 3. Word association test: Respondents are presented with a list of words one at a
time and they are asked to respond immediately with the first things that come to
their mind.
4. Rorschach test: It consists of ten cards that have print of ink blots that are
although symmetrical but defy all meaning. The respondents are asked to interpret
these cards/ inkblots and their responses are interpreted on the basis of some
predetermined framework.
5. Cloud picture test: This shows 2 or more characters conversing with each other
and cloud of one character is left empty as a response to be filled by the
respondent according to his interpretation of what the other characters are saying.
6. Sentence completion test: it is similar to a word association test where instead of
a word, a sentence is left incomplete and the respondents are asked to fill it with
the first thought that comes to mind.
Analysis of response helps the researcher in concluding about the attitude of
people to various objects or subjects.
7. Story completion study: a step further to sentence completion is the story
completion study. Under this a story is created by the researcher which defines the
topic of the research and the respondents are asked to complete the story.

Method of Conducting an Interview

i) Rapport Building
ii) Introduction
iii) Probing
iv) Recording
v) Closing

Advantages of Interview Method

1. An interview allows for gathering information in more detail.

2. It can be used to collect qualitative facts.
3. Another advantage of this method is that, it allows for greater flexibility in the
process of questioning especially in unstructured interviews.
4. The validity of the information provided can be readily checked.
5. There is a very little chance of misinterpretation of questions and answers,
especially in case of structured interviewing techniques.

Disadvantages of Interview Method

1. It requires a lot of time.

2. Variability in the data collected by interview can be caused due to the
interviewer`s characteristics.
3. When more than one interviewer has been used to collect data, then the extent of
variation would increase.
4. Expense has to be incurred on selecting, training and supervising the field staff
conducting the interviews.
5. The respondent may get affected by the presence of the interviewer.
6. The interviewer faces the dilemma of choosing a method for recording the
answers.
Questionnaire

It is a form containing a set of questions, which are filled by the respondents. In general, the
questionnaire refers to a device for securing answer to questions by using a form which the
respondents fill in himself.

Designing the Questionnaire

Importance of Questionnaire

1. To study the past and present behaviour.

2. To study demographic characteristics such as age, sex, income, occupation.
3. To study attitudes and opinions.
4. To study the level of knowledge.

Characteristics of Questionnaire

1. It must be simple. The respondents should be able to understand the questions.

2. It must generate replies that can be easily recorded by the interviewer.
3. It should be specific, so as to allow the interviewer to keep the interview to the point.
4. It should be well arranged, to facilitate analysis and interpretation.
5. It must keep the respondent interested throughout.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Structured and non-disguised

2. Structured and disguised
3. Non-structured and disguised
4. Non-structured and non-disguised

Structured and Non-Disguised Questionnaire:

Here the questions are structured so as to obtain the facts. The interviewer will ask the
questions strictly in accordance with the pre-arranged order.

In the non-disguised type, the purpose of the questionnaire is known to the respondent.

 This kind of questionnaires are widely used in the M.R

 Same questions are posed to each respondent.
 Fixed set of questions to every respondent.
 Coding, tabulation and administration is easy.
 No possibility to the respondent to misunderstand the question.
 Purpose of the question is clear.
Structured- Disguised Questionnaire

 Least used in M.R

 Used to know the people`s attitude.
 In this type of questionnaire, what come out is “what does the respondent know” rather
than what he feels.
 Respondent is not informed about the purpose.
 Same question is posed to each respondent.
 Administration, coding, tabulation is easy

Non-Structured and Disguised Questionnaire

 This kind is commonly used for focus group discussion.

 It is difficult to analyze, code etc.
 No fixed set of questions.
 Motivational research [the inner self of an individual is researched]

Non-Structure and Non-Disguised Questionnaire

 Here the purpose of the study is clear, but the responses to the question are open-
ended.
 No fixed questions.
 Suitable for conducting depth interview
 Subject matter can be questioned in great detail
 Coding, tabulation etc. are difficult.
 Not a very frequently used method.
Process of Questionnaire Design

Specify the information sought

Determine the communication

approah

Select the type of

questionnaire

Determine question content

Determine response strategy

Determine the working of each

question

Decide on the question

sequence

Determine the physical

characteristics of
questionnaire

Pretesting the questionnaire

Designing of the questionnaire goes through 3 phases

1. Developing a design strategy

2. Constructing the questionnaire
3. Drafting and refining questionnaire

Phase 1: Developing a design strategy

1. Specify the information sought: The researcher should be able to specify the list of
information needs. Generally, this task has already been accomplished when the research
proposal or the research design was developed. The hypothesis developed earlier is the
guiding light in stating the information requirement. The hypothesis establishes the
relationship between the variable and the researcher can ideally develop the data that is
required to be collected to prove or disprove the hypothesis.

2. Determine the communication approach: it refers to the decision on the method used to
conduct the survey i.e. personal interview, depth interview, telephone, mail, computer etc.
This decision on the method to be used will have a bearing on the type of questionnaire to
be designed. The choice of communication approach is influenced by factors like location
of the respondent, time and funds available, nature of study etc.

3. Select the type of questionnaire: in this step the researcher specifies how the data will
be gathered by stating the type of questionnaire required. The questionnaire can be of four
types,

a. Structured- undisguised

b. Unstructured- disguised

c. Structured- disguised

d. Unstructured- undisguised

Phase 2: Constructing the questionnaire

4. Determine question content: this involves the task of framing the questions which would
yield the data required for study. While framing the questions certain things should be
kept in mind:

 Is the question necessary?

 Is the question complete?
 Is the single question or multiple questions required?
 There should not be double barreled questions
 Can the respondent articulate?
 Is the respondent informed?
  Can the respondent remember?
 Is the respondent willing to answer?

5. Determine response strategy: it is important to decide on

a. the structured response strategy (closed response using fixed alternative

questions) ( or )

b. an unstructured response strategy (open response using open ended questions)

some of the response strategies are:

 dichotomous questions
do you own a digital camera?
o Yes
o No
 multichotomous questions

which brand do you prefer for buying digital camera?

o Sony
o Cannon
o Nikon
o Kodak
 Checklist questions
 Scale questions etc

6. Determine the working of each question: this stage is concerned with phrasing of each
question. The researcher needs to use utmost caution in framing the question. Following
things should be kept in mind while wording a question
a. Use simple words
b. Avoid technical jargon
c. Avoid using ambiguous questions
d. Avoid biased wordings
e. The level of personalization should be controlled
Phase 3: Drafting and refining questionnaire

7. Decide on the question sequence: from this step we enter the stage of drafting the
questionnaire and the ordering of questions is an important aspect. The following things
should be kept in mind:
a. Use simple and interesting questions first
b. The questions should be arranged in a logical order
c. Classification questions should be asked later on
 d. Difficult and sensitive questions should not be asked in the beginning
e. Branching of questions should be done with care.
8. Determine the physical characteristics of questionnaire

Physical appearance affects the way respondents react to the questionnaire. Hence the
following points should be observed.

 Use a good quality paper with high definition ink so that it can be read easily
 It should look professional and easy to answer
 Questionnaire should be accompanied by an introduction letter
 Size of the questionnaire is important. It should not be too lengthy or too short
 Introduction should be written politely and clearly

9. Pretesting the questionnaire: the process of using a questionnaire on a trial basis on a

small group of respondents to determine how the questionnaire is performing is termed as
pretesting.

Pretesting of questionnaire is done to detect any flaws that might be present. One of the
prime condition for pretesting is that the sample chosen for pretesting should be similar to
the respondents who are ultimately going to participate.

Advantages of questionnaire

1. Questionnaire is one of the most economical method of data collection

2. This method does not suffer from interviewer’s bias
3. Questionnaire allows for anonymity
4. The questionnaire method does not put pressure on respondent to respond immediately
5. The impersonal nature of questionnaire ensures uniformity from one measurement
situation to another
6. Possible to cover large number of respondents

Disadvantages of questionnaire

1. The level of questionnaire may not match the intelligence level of respondents
2. The non-response rate is high in questionnaire
3. since the questionnaire is filled by the respondent in his own hand, many times writing
will not be legible
4. in studies, where immediate response is required, questionnaire method is not suitable
5. clarification of doubts is not possible
Mail questionnaire

Additional consideration for the preparation of mail questionnaire

1. It should be shorter than the questionnaire used for a personal interview.

2. The wordings should be extremely simple.
3. If a lengthy questionnaire has to be made, first write a letter requesting the cooperation of
the respondents.
4. Provide clear guidance whenever necessary.

Advantages

1. Easier to reach a large number of respondents throughout the country.

2. Since the interviewer is not present face to face, the influence of interviewer on the
respondent is eliminated.
3. The respondents can think over leisurely and give the answer
4. Saves cost
5. No need to train interviewers.
6. Personal and sensitive questions are well answered.

Limitations

1. It is not suitable when question is difficult and complicated.

2. When the researches wants spontaneous response, this method is not suitable
3. It is not possible to verify whether the respondent himself/herself has filled the
questionnaire.
4. Any clarification required by the respondent regarding questions is not possible.
5. If the answers are not correct, the researcher cannot probe further.
6. Poor response.
SURVEY

A survey is a technique in which a prospective respondent is chosen and then studied

with a view to drawing inferences from their responses to the statements in a
questionnaire, or the questions in a series of interviews.
o   Sample survey: the research conducted on the selected respondents chosen
from the population is called as sample survey
o   Census survey: the research conducted on entire group of respondents is called
as census survey

SCHEDULES

A schedule is a set of questions which is answered by a respondent but filled by the

enumerator in their own hand. The schedules are particularly used in interviewing where
the interviewer not only asks the questions but also fills the answer with his own hand.
This method is more expensive since it involves the selection of trained enumerators.
This method is used by the huge organizations and government institutions who have
huge funds at their disposal.
Example: population census is conducted using schedules.
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES

Measurement is essential in a research process because measurement alone will help us gather
some kind of conclusive and quantitative data.

Measurement refers to the assignment of numerals to the objects to represent the amount of
property or characteristics possessed by the object.

The number system is defined by 3 important characteristics:

1. Order: numbers are placed in a logical sequence and the sequence has some meaning
2. Distance: the differences between the numbers are ordered
3. Origin: the number system has a unique origin indicated by number zero

Based on these 3 characteristics, measurement can be done using 4 different types of system

1. Nominal scale
 A nominal scale is a figurative labeling scheme in which the numbers serve only as labels
or tags for identifying and classifying objects. – Description
The numbers assigned to the respondents in a study constitute a nominal scale.
For eg.
 University Registration Numbers assigned to students,
 Bus Route Numbers and
 Numbers on the jerseys of cricket players are examples of Nominal scale.
 Coding male as 1 and female as 2
 Control group-1 and experimental group- 2
The numbers used in nominal scales serve only the purpose of counting and the idea is to
make sure that no two persons or objects receive the same number.
Number does not reflect any characteristic of the store

2. Ordinal scale
An ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate
the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.
 Numbers indicate the relative positions of the objects but not magnitude of differences
between them
Ordinal Scales are used to ascertain the consumer perceptions, preferences etc.
For eg. The respondents may be given a list of brands which may be suitable and were
asked to rank on the basis of ordinal scale of 1-5.
a)Lux b)Liril c)Cinthol d)Dove e) Pears
In Market Research, we often ask the respondents to rank the items, like for eg., “A soft
drink, based upon flavor or color”. In such a case, the ordinal scale is used. `
 The object ranked first has more of the characteristic as compared to the object ranked
second- but the object ranked second is a close second or poor second is not known.
  Measurement of this type include greater than or less than judgment from the respondents
 Common examples – quality rankings, ranking of teams in a tournament, preference
ranking, market position

3. Interval scale

In an interval scale, numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the
characteristic being measured. An interval scale contains all the information of an ordinal scale,
but it also allows you to compare the differences between objects.

Temperature scale i.e., Centigrade and Fahrenheit are also interval scale, e.g the temperature of
four cities are:

Shimla – 15degrees, Delhi – 30 degrees, Bangalore – 22 degrees, Jaipur – 37 degrees.

It can be said that the difference in the temperature of Delhi and Shimla is the same as difference
in the temperature of Jaipur and Bangalore. However, we cannot say that Delhi is two times
warmer than Shimla.

4. Ratio scale

It is a special kind of internal scale that has a meaningful zero point. With this scale, length,
weight or distance can be measured. In this scale, it is possible to say, how many times greater or
smaller one object is being compared to the other.

The highest scale. it allows the researcher to identify or classify objects and compare intervals or
differences

It possesses all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales and in addition an absolute
zero point.

Eg. Sales this year for product A are twice the sales of the same product last year.

Other Ex- Height, weight, age, and money

Sales, costs, market share

 BASIC MEASUREMENT SCALES

Characteristics Typical Statistic

Basic
Measures Of
Type distanc Empirical Measures Of Test Of
difference order Origin Central
e Operation Dispersion Significance
Tendency
 Chi-
square test
Nomina  Percentage
yes No No No Classification -  Lambda
l scale  Mode
test
 Phi
 Rank order
Determining  Percentile  Correlation
Ordinal
yes yes No No ‘greater than’  Median  Quartile  Non-
scale
‘less than’  Decile parametric
tests
Determining Parametric
Interval  Arithmetic  Standard
yes yes yes No equality of tests like t-
scale mean deviation
intervals test, f-test
 Arithmetic  Standard
mean deviation
Determinatio
Ratio  Geometric  Coefficient All parametric
yes yes yes yes n of equality
scale mean of tests
of ratios
 Harmonic variation
mean  Variance
1. Nominal scale
 Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label
them.
example: the assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify them. Such
numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered scale for their order is of no
consequence;
the numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class of events and as such have no
quantitative value.
 Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events.
One cannot do much with the numbers involved.
For example, one cannot usefully average the numbers on the back of a group of football
players and come up with a meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the numbers
assigned to one group with the numbers assigned to another.
The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal
scale is employed.
 Accordingly, restricted to use mode as the measure of central tendency. There is no
generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales.
Chi-square test is the most common test of statistical significance that can be utilized, and for the
measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked out.
 Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or
distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes
differences between things by assigning them to categories.
Nominal data are, thus, counted data. The scale wastes any information that we may have about
varying degrees of attitude, skills, understandings, etc.
In spite of all this, nominal scales are still very useful and are widely used in surveys and other
ex-post-facto research when data are being classified by major sub-groups of the population.
Ex: respondent will be asked to write the PAN number

2. Ordinal scale
 The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale.
 The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of
the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are
frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his
graduation class involves the use of an ordinal scale. One has to be very careful in
making statement about scores based on ordinal scales.
For instance, if Ram’s position in his class is 10 and Mohan’s position is 40, it cannot be said
that Ram’s position is four times as good as that of Mohan. The statement would make no sense
at all.
 Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest. Ordinal measures
have no absolute values, and the real differences between adjacent ranks may not be
equal. All that can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another,
but more precise comparisons cannot be made.
 Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ (an
equality statement is also acceptable) without our being able to state how much greater or
less. The real difference between ranks 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference
between ranks 5 and 6.
 Since the numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the appropriate measure of
central tendency is the median.
 A percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring dispersion.
 Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods.
 Measures of statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.
Ex: respondent is asked to rank 3 books on the content matter. They may give the following
ranks

Book Rank
Book – A 2
Book – B 3
Book – C 1
 3. Interval scale
 In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been
established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as one
accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based.
 Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them
what may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin.
 The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the
capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.
 The Fahrenheit scale is an example of an interval scale and shows similarities in what
one can and cannot do with it. One can say that an increase in temperature from 30° to
40° involves the same increase in temperature as an increase from 60° to 70°, but one
cannot say that the temperature of 60° is twice as warm as the temperature of 30° because
both numbers are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the
temperature of the freezing point of water. The ratio of the two temperatures, 30° and
60°, means nothing because zero is an arbitrary point.
 Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale
also incorporates the concept of equality of interval.
 As such more powerful statistical measures can be used with interval scales.
 Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency, while standard deviation is the most
widely used measure of dispersion. Product moment correlation techniques are
appropriate and
 the generally used tests for statistical significance are the ‘t’ test and ‘F’ test.
Ex: if we are measuring the performance of 3 students A, B &C on an interval scale and we get
the score like 1,3,7 then it can be graphically depicted as follows

4. Ratio scale
 Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement.
 The term ‘absolute zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive
of an absolute zero of length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time.
 For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of
length or height.
 The number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of incorrect letters in a page
of type script represent scores on ratio scales. Both these scales have absolute zeros and
as such all minor traffic violations and all typing errors can be assumed to be equal in
significance.
 With ratio scales involved one can make statements like “Jyoti’s” typing performance
was twice as good as that of “Reetu.” The ratio involved does have significance and
facilitates a kind of comparison which is not possible in case of an interval scale.
  Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions
such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples.
 Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales and all manipulations that
one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried out with ratio scale values.
Multiplication and division can be used with this scale but not with other scales
mentioned above.
 Geometric and harmonic means can be used as measures of central tendency and
coefficients of variation may also be calculated.

Thus, proceeding from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the most
precise), relevant information is obtained increasingly. If the nature of the variables permits, the
researcher should use the scale that provides the most precise description. Researchers in
physical sciences have the advantage to describe variables in ratio scale form but the behavioural
sciences are generally limited to describe variables in interval scale form, a less precise type of
measurement.
 ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT SCALES

1. LIKERT’S SCALE
2. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
3. THURSTONE SCALE
4. MULTI- DIMENSIONAL SCALING

Attitude may be defined as the degree of positive or negative affect associated with some
psychological object. It is a pre-disposition of the individuals to evaluate some object or symbol
or aspect of his world in a favourable or unfavourable manner. Attitude comprises of three
components.

1. A cognitive component - a person's belief or information about the object.

2. An affective component - a person's feeling about the object such as "like" or "dislike",
`"good" or "bad"

3. A behavioural component - a person's readiness to respond behaviourally to the object.

The study and measurement of attitudes is important since it is assumed that there is a
relationship between attitude and behaviour. The research, however, indicates that such a
relationship holds more at aggregate level than at the individual level. Attitude may only be one
of the factors influencing behaviour - there could be other factors besides attitude which may be
more powerful in influencing behaviour.

For example, an individual having a favourable attitude towards a product may not buy it
because of economic considerations. For the purpose of marketing decision, the attitude
behaviour relationship relates to measuring of cognitive and affective components and being able
to predict future behaviour.
1. Likert Scale – It is a widely used rating scale that requires the respondents to indicate a
degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus
objects. Typically, each scale item has five response categories ranging from “strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree”.
Example of Likert Scale
Listed below are different opinions about Spar Hypermarket. Please indicate how strongly
you agree or disagree with each by using the following scale:
-2 to + 2 or 1 to 5
-2 or 1= Strongly disagree
-1 or 2=Disagree
0 or 3=Neither agree nor disagree
1 or 4=Agree
2 or 5=Strongly agree

1. Spar sells high-quality merchandise.

2. Spar has poor in store-service.
3. I like to shop at Spar.
4. Spar charges fair prices.
 SD D NAND A SA Total

Score

1. Big Bazaar sells high quality 1 2X 3 4 5 2

merchandise

2. Big Bazaar has poor in- store service 1 2X 3 4 5 4

3. I like to shop at Big Bazaar 1 2 3X 4 5 3

4. Big Bazaar does not offer good mix of 1 2 3 4X 5 2

different brands within a product category

5. The credit policies at Big Bazaar are 1X 2 3 4 5 5

terrible

6. I do not like advertising done by Big 1 2 3 4X 5 2

Bazaar

7. Big Bazaar sells wide variety of 1 2 3 4X 5 4

merchandise

8. Big Bazaar charges fair prices 1 2 3 4 5X 5

Total Score 27