COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS & DESIGN

(EE 519 - 3)

GROUP REPORT
Power Flow Analysis

Group # 3

FINAL GRADE

FRANCISCO, Niel Danhil D. BUNDA, John Christian

Group Members:
VILLANUEVA, Elmar CASTRO, Jaymar
Date of Submission: April , 2020
Name of Instructor: Engr. Wilfredo N. Leaño
Signature of
Instructor:

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POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Introduction
Power flow analysis is one of the fundamental tools in power systems.
Conventionally, the loads are treated as constant P-Q, i.e. fixed amounts of active and
reactive power are consumed by the load regardless of the voltage at the bus
delivering electricity to that particular load. However, the actual active and reactive
power consumed by the loads are functions of the voltage magnitude and the
frequency at the load terminals. As the power system analysis is deployed for real-time
system operation and control, more accurate and faster converging models are
required. The aim of this study is to represent the loads according to their actual
behavior and introduce a power flow solution algorithm which is both numerically stable
and fast converging
 Power flow analysis is one of the basic tools used in the power system studies.
 It is connected with the steady state analysis of the system when it is working
under the normal balanced operating condition.
 Load flow or power flow analysis is determination of the voltage, current, real
power and reactive power at various points in electrical network.
 The information of load flow is essential for analyzing the effective alternate plan
for the system expansion to meet increase load demand.

Power Flow Problem

Figure below shows a 3-bus system. Perform 2 iterations to obtain the voltage
magnitude and angles at buses 2 and 3. Impedances are given on 100 MVA base.

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Solution:
The admittance values of the transmission network and the injected power in per
unit at buses 2 and 3 are calculated as shown in Figure below. Note that net
injected power at the load bus is negative while that of the PV bus is positive. Per
units values are obtained by diving actual values (MW and MVAR) by the base (100
MVA).

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Iteration #1: assume V20=1.00∠0° and V30=1.03∠0°.

V21=1y21+y23P2sch−jQ2schV20∗+y21V1+y23V30=15−j15+15−j50−2+j0.51.00
∠0°+5−j151.02∠0°+15−j501.00∠0°
V21=1.0120−j0.0260=1.0123∠−1.4717°
As Q3 is not given, it is calculated based on the latest available information
using Eqs. (12) or (13).
Q31=−ImV3∗0V30∑j=0ny3j−∑j=1j≠iny3jVjkork+1
Q31=−ImV3∗0V30y31+y32−y31V1+y32V21
Q3[ 1 ]=−Im{ 1.03∠0°( 1.03∠0°(10−j40+15−j50 )− [ (10−j40)1.02∠0° +(15−j50)
(1.0120−j0.0260) ] ) }=−Im{ 1.7201−j0.9373 }=0.9373 pu
Now that Q31 is calculated, the voltage V31 can be calculated:
V31=1y31+y32P3sch−jQ31V30∗+y31V1+y32V21=110−j40+15−j501.5−j0.93731
.03∠0°+10−j401.02∠0°+15−j501.0120−j0.0260=1.0294−j0.0022pu
Since the magnitude of V3 is specified, we retain the imaginary part of V31 and
calculate the real part using Eq. (14).
Reinew=1.032−0.00222=1.03pu
Therefore,
V31=V31=1.03−j0.0022=1.03∠−0.1226°pu

Iteration #2: considering V21=1.0120−j0.0260 and V31=1.03−j0.0022.

V22=1y21+y23P2sch−jQ2schV21∗+y21V1+y23V31=15−j15+15−j50−2+j0.51.01
20−j0.0260+5−j151.02∠0°+15−j501.03−j0.0022V22=1.0115−j0.0270=1.0119∠−1.52
73°
Q32 calculation is given below:

Q32=−ImV3∗1V31y31+y32−y31V1+y32V22
Q3[ 2 ]=−Im{ (1.03−j0.0022)( (1.03−j0.0022)(10−j40+15−j50 ) −
[ (10−j40)1.02∠0°+(15−j50)(1.0115−j 0.0270) ] ) }=1.0000 pu
The voltage V32 is calculated as follows:

V32=1y31+y32P3sch−jQ32V31∗+y31V1+y32V22=110−j40+15−j501.5−j11.03∠0
°+10−j401.02∠0°+15−j501.0115−j0.0270=1.0298−j0.0030pu
Only imaginary value of the calculated V32 is retained and the real part is
calculated based on the retained imaginary values and the scheduled V3.

Reinew=1.032−0.00302=1.03pu
Therefore,

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V32=1.03−j0.003=1.03∠−0.1644°pu

Iteration V2k V3k

1 1.0123∠−1.4717° 1.03∠−0.1226°
2 1.0119∠−1.5273° 1.03∠−0.1644°
3 1.0119∠−1.5598° 1.03∠−0.1846°
4 1.0119∠−1.5750° 1.03∠−0.1941°
5 1.0118∠−1.5823° 1.03∠−0.1986°
6 1.0118∠−1.5857° 1.03∠−0.2008°

Formulation of Bus Admittance Matrix

The admittance matrix of a power system is an abstract mathematical model of the
system. It consists of admittance values of both lines and buses. The Y-bus is a square
matrix with dimensions equal to the number of buses. This matrix is symmetrical along
the diagonal.

Y=Y11⋯Y1n⋮⋱⋮Yn1⋯YnnE1

The values of diagonal elements (Yii) are equal to the sum of the admittances
connected to bus i. The off-diagonal elements (Yij) are equal to the negative of the
admittance connecting the two buses i and j. It is worth noting that with large systems,
Y-bus is a sparse matrix.

Yii=∑j=0j≠inyijE2
Yij=Yji=−yijE3
The net injected power at any bus can be calculated using the bus voltage (Vi),
neighboring bus voltages (Vj), and admittances between the bus and its neighboring
buses (yij) as shown in Figure 1.

Ii=Viyi0+Vi−V1yi1+Vi−V2yi2+…+Vi−Vjyij

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Rearranging the elements as a function of voltages, the current equation becomes as

follows:

Ii=Viyi0+yi1+yi2+..+yij−V1yi1−V2yi2−…−Vjyij
Ii=Vi∑j=0j≠iyij−∑j=1j≠iyijVj=ViYii+∑j=1j≠iYijVj
The power equation at any bus can be written as follows:

Si=Pi+jQ i=ViIi∗
Or

Si∗=Pi−jQ i=Vi∗Ii
Substituting the expression on the current in Si∗ equation results in the following
formula:

Si∗=Vi∗Vi∑j=0j≠iyij−∑j=1j≠iyijVj=Vi∗ViYii+∑j=1j≠iYijVj
Real and reactive power can be calculated from the following equations:

Pi=ReVi∗Vi∑j=0j≠iyij−∑j=1j≠iyijVj=ReVi∗ViYii+∑j=1j≠iYijVj
Q i=−ImVi∗Vi∑j=0j≠iyij−∑j=1j≠iyijVj=−ImVi∗ViYii+∑j=1j≠iYijVj
Or

Pi=∑j=1nViVjYijcosθij−δi+δjE4

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Q i=−∑j=1nViVjYijsinθij−δi+δjE5
And the current (Ii) can be written as a function of the power as follows:

Pi−jQ iVi∗=Vi∑j=0j≠iyij−∑j=1j≠iyijVj=ViYii+∑j=1j≠iYijVjE6

Example 1: Admittance matrix formation.

For the below 4-bus system in Figure 2, the admittance matrix is constructed by
converting all impedances in the system into admittances as shown in Figure 3. Then,
diagonal and off-diagonal elements are calculated using Eqs. (2) and (3).

Y=−j7.5j4j2.50j4−j7.750j2.5j2.50−j4.5j20j2.5j2−j4.5=7.5∠−90°4∠90°2.5∠90°04∠90°7.75
∠−90°02.5∠90°2.5∠90°04.5∠−90°2∠90°02.5∠90°2∠90°4.5∠−90°

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Figure 2.

Impedance diagram.

Figure 3.

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Admittance diagram.

Formulation of Power Flow Equations

The goal of a power-flow study is to obtain complete voltages angle and
magnitude information for each bus in a power system for specified load and generator
real power and voltage conditions. Once this information is known, real and reactive
power flow on each branch as well as generator reactive power output can be
analytically determined. Due to the nonlinear nature of this problem, numerical
methods are employed to obtain a solution that is within an acceptable tolerance.
The solution to the power-flow problem begins with identifying the known and
unknown variables in the system. The known and unknown variables are dependent on
the type of bus. A bus without any generators connected to it is called a Load Bus. With
one exception, a bus with at least one generator connected to it is called a Generator
Bus. The exception is one arbitrarily-selected bus that has a generator. This bus is
referred to as the slack bus.
In the power-flow problem, it is assumed that the real power PD and reactive
power QD at each Load Bus are known. For this reason, Load Buses are also known
as PQ Buses. For Generator Buses, it is assumed that the real power generated PG
and the voltage magnitude |V| is known. For the Slack Bus, it is assumed that the
voltage magnitude |V| and voltage phase Θ are known. Therefore, for each Load Bus,
both the voltage magnitude and angle are unknown and must be solved for; for each
Generator Bus, the voltage angle must be solved for; there are no variables that must
be solved for the Slack Bus. In a system with N buses and R generators, there are then
2(N-1)-(R-1)}2(N-1)-(R-1) unknowns.
In order to solve for the 2(N-1)-(R-1)}2(N-1)-(R-1) unknowns, there must be 2(N-
1)-(R-1)}2(N-1)-(R-1) equations that do not introduce any new unknown variables. The
possible equations to use are power balance equations, which can be written for real
and reactive power for each bus. The real power balance equation is:

where Pi is the net active power injected at bus i, Gik is the real part of the element in
the bus admittance matrix YBUS corresponding to the ith row and kth column, Bik is
the imaginary part of the element in the YBUS corresponding to the ithrow and kth
column and {\displaystyle \theta _{ik}}\theta _{{ik}}.The reactive power balance equation
is:

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where Qi is the net reactive power injected at bus i.

Equations included are the real and reactive power balance equations for each
Load Bus and the real power balance equation for each Generator Bus. Only the real
power balance equation is written for a Generator Bus because the net reactive power
injected is assumed to be unknown and therefore including the reactive power balance
equation would result in an additional unknown variable. For similar reasons, there are
no equations written for the Slack Bus.
In many transmission systems, the impedance of the power network lines is
purely inductive, i.e. the phase angles of the power lines impedance are usually
relatively large close to 90 degrees. There is thus a strong coupling between real
power and voltage angle, and between reactive power and voltage magnitude, while
the coupling between real power and voltage magnitude, as well as reactive power and
voltage angle, is weak. As a result, real power is usually transmitted from the bus with
higher voltage angle to the bus with lower voltage angle, and reactive power is usually
transmitted from the bus with higher voltage magnitude to the bus with lower voltage
magnitude. However, this approximation does not hold when the phase angle of the
power line impedance is relatively small.

P-V Buses
PV bus – the real power |P| and the voltage magnitude |V| are specified. It is also
known as Generator Bus. The real power and voltage are specified for buses that are
generators. These buses have a constant power generation, controlled through a prime
mover, and a constant bus voltage.
Minimum input data for power flow analysis:

 Bus data (types of buses explained in bus types):

o For PV buses:
 Real power (generation and demand),
 Reactive power (demand),
 Voltage magnitude.
o For PQ buses:
 Real power (generation and demand),
 Reactive power (generation and demand).
o For slack bus:
 Voltage magnitude (usually 1 per unit),

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 Voltage angle(specified to be zero),

 Real power (demand),
 Reactive power (demand).
 Line data:
o Transmission lines:
 Resistance,
 Reactance,
 Capacitance (can be negligible).
o Transformers:
 Winding resistances on low and high voltage side,
 Leakage reactance on low and high voltage side,
 Magnetization reactance,
 Iron loss admittance.

Power flow analysis provides following output data for each node/branch:

 Voltage magnitude,
 Voltage angle,
 Real and reactive power,
 Power losses.

Bus Classification

Depending, upon which two variables you specify, the buses (nodes) can be
categorized into three categories:

 Slack bus (swing or reference bus),

 PQ bus (sometimes called as a load bus),
 PV bus.

Bus types Quantities specified Unknown variables

Slack |U|,δ,PD,QD|U|,δ,PD,QD PG,QGPG,QG

PQ PG,QG,PD,QDPG,QG,PD,QD |U|,δ|U|,δ
PV |U|,PG,PD,QD|U|,PG,PD,QD δ,QGδ,QG

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Slack Bus
There is only one slack bus in system under consideration. Slack bus always has a
generator attached to it, with no exception. Normally this generator is biggest in the
system. Its two main tasks is to:

 Serve as the reference for voltage angle,

 Balance generation, load and losses, because the power losses are not known
until end of load flow calculation. Slack bus needs to supply complex losses.

The rest of buses swing with the reference to this particular bus.
Whatever is extra left that will come from this slack bus remaining, anything which we
could not fulfill from the rest of the buses will come from it.

PQ Bus
Load buses may contain generators with specified real and reactive power
outputs.
PV Bus
Have generator connected to them. The PV buses can have voltage control
capabilities and uses a tap-adjustable transformer and and/or VAR compensator
instead of generator.

Generalized Power Flow Development

In power engineering, the power-flow study, or load-flow study, is a numerical

analysis of the flow of electric power in an interconnected system. A power-flow study
usually uses simplified notations such as a one-line diagram and per-unit system, and
focuses on various aspects of AC power parameters, such as voltages, voltage angles,
real power and reactive power. It analyzes the power systems in normal steady-state
operation.

Power-flow or load-flow studies are important for planning future expansion of

power systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. The
principal information obtained from the power-flow study is the magnitude and phase
angle of the voltage at each bus, and the real and reactive power flowing in each line.
Commercial power systems are usually too complex to allow for hand solution of
the power flow. Special purpose network analyzers were built between 1929 and the

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early 1960s to provide laboratory-scale physical models of power systems. Large-scale

digital computers replaced the analog methods with numerical solutions.
In addition to a power-flow study, computer programs perform related
calculations such as short-circuit fault analysis, stability studies (transient and steady-
state), unit commitment and economic dispatch. In particular, some programs use
linear programming to find the optimal power flow, the conditions which give the lowest
cost per kilowatt hour delivered.

A load flow study is especially valuable for a system with multiple load centers,
such as a refinery complex. The power flow study is an analysis of the system’s
capability to adequately supply the connected load. The total system losses, as well as
individual line losses, also are tabulated. Transformer tap positions are selected to
ensure the correct voltage at critical locations such as motor control centers.
Performing a load flow study on an existing system provides insight and
recommendations as to the system operation and optimization of control settings to
obtain maximum capacity while minimizing the operating costs. The results of such an
analysis are in terms of active power, reactive power, magnitude and phase angle.
Furthermore, power-flow computations are crucial for optimal operations of groups of
generating units.
In term of its approach to uncertainties, load flow study can be divided to
deterministic load flow and uncertainty-concerned load flow. Deterministic load flow
study does not take into account the uncertainties arise from both power generations
and load behaviors. To take the uncertainties into consideration, there are several
approaches that has been used such as probabilistic, possibilistic, information gap
decision theory, robust optimization, and interval analysis.

Solution methods for Non-linear Powerflow

Power flow solutions are the key in many power system studies. In this paper,
the power flow problem is formulated within rectangular coordinates. Using a voltage-
dependent load model and linear approximation techniques, the problem is formulated
as a system of mixed linear and nonlinear equations. An efficient matrix decomposition
is then applied to facilitate establishing the Jacobian matrix in the linear subproblems of
Newton’s method. The accuracy of the proposed method is compared to the original
nonlinear formulation and relative errors less than 0.1% are achieved. The average
computation time of the proposed method is about 30% less than the conventional
method. Index Terms—Power flow, load voltage dependency, LU Decomposition.
NOMENCLATURE
𝑎𝑝, 𝑏𝑝 Parameters representing the voltage dependency of load’s active power.
𝑎𝑞, 𝑏𝑞 Parameters representing the voltage dependency of load’s reactive power.

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𝐺, 𝐵 Network conductance and susceptance matrices, respectively. 𝐽 Jacobian matrix.

𝑚 Number of generator buses.
𝑛 Number of total buses.
𝑃, 𝑄 Active and reactive power, respectively.
𝑉 Bus voltage magnitude.
𝑉¯ Complex bus voltage.
𝛿 Bus voltage angle.
𝜗 Imaginary part of bus voltage.
𝜈 Real part of bus voltage
MIXED LINEAR-NONLINEAR POWER FLOW FORMULATION

A. Load Modeling
The voltage dependency of loads has been described previously using two well-
known models, namely the exponential model and the polynomial (ZIP) model.
Mathematically, the problem of modeling the load voltage dependency is essentially a
curve-fitting problem. Point-wise measurements of voltage-active power (𝑉,𝑃) and
voltage-reactive power (𝑉,𝑄) data can be fitted with appropriate curves. The
exponential model has only one parameter to be determined for 𝑃 and one for 𝑄. The
polynomial model, on the other hand, has three parameters. The model employed in
this paper has two parameters, as suggested in, as follows:
Where the zero subscripts stand for the nominal values. Although this model
has less free variables to fit the curve, the performance is still reasonable. Also note
that the sum of parameters in (1) should be unity (e.g. 𝑎𝑝+𝑏𝑝 = 1). In order to find the
values of the parameters in (1), a least-squares problem can be solved. This problem
and its solution are discussed in Appendix A. The next section discusses how this load
model can enhance the power flow solution.

B. Power Flow Formulation

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In power flow calculations, three types of buses are assumed: the generation
buses, or P-V buses, for which the amount of active power generated and the voltage
magnitude are fixed by the generator prime mover and excitation system, respectively;
the load buses, or P-Q buses, for which the amount of active and reactive power
demands are known; and the slack bus, for which the real and imaginary parts of the
voltage are known. Instead of solving for voltage magnitudes and angles, we formulate
the problem in a way that the variables are real and imaginary parts of the bus
voltages. The sum of the currents being injected to Bus 𝑖 from the network can be

calculated as

Note that since the reactive power generation, as a dependent variable, is not known,
(5) is considered in the formulation of power flow for the P-V buses instead of (4b). For
a P-Q bus, the voltage-dependent load model introduced in (1) is used to model the
load behavior. Using the current injection method, the total current flowing to a bus has
to be equal to the current drawing at that bus. The drawn current at Bus 𝑖 with a
voltage-dependent load described by (1) is

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Figure 1. Limits on the voltage real and imaginary parts. The shadowed area shows the
allowable operating range.
Table I PARAMETERS FOR THE LINEAR APPROXIMATION
𝑢0 𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢ˆ0 𝑢ˆ1 𝑢ˆ2
0.0146 0.9820 0 0 0 0.9976

C. Solution of the Power Flow Problem

As discussed above, we have now a system of mixed linear and nonlinear
equations to solve. The Newton method suggests the utilization of the Jacobian matrix
and iterative solution of linear subproblems. Ordering the equations appropriately, i.e.
the P-Q buses first and then the P-V buses, yields a special structure for the Jacobian
matrix. The first-order partial derivatives of the linear equations are constant and do not
require recalculation at each iteration. It is worthwhile to mention that this constant part

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of the matrix is indeed comparatively larger than the variable part based on the fact that
there are more load buses in the network than generation buses. This fact is pictorially
represented in Fig. 2 by the size of the blocks. It is of interest to take advantage of the
special structure of the Jacobian matrix. Let the upper block in the Jacobian matrix in
Fig. 2 be horizontally divided into two block columns, namely 𝐽11 ∈ ℝ2(𝑛−𝑚)×2(𝑛−𝑚)
and 𝐽12 ∈ ℝ2(𝑛−𝑚)×2(𝑚−1). Similarly, divide the second block into two block columns,
namely 𝐽21 ∈ ℝ2(𝑚−1)×2(𝑛−𝑚) and 𝐽22 ∈ ℝ2(𝑚−1)×2(𝑚−1). Then, linear algebra
allows us to write

where 𝐼 and 0 are the identity and zero matrices of appropriate size; 𝑄𝑆 is the Schur
complement of 𝐽 defined by:
𝑄𝑆 = 𝐽22 − 𝐽21𝐽−1 11 𝐽12 (10)

The following remarks follow from (9):

 This is a factorization of the Jacobian matrix into lower triangular, block diagonal,
and upper triangular matrices (LDU decomposition).
 𝐽11 is a constant square matrix which is the only matrix that appears in inverse
form. Thus, just one matrix inverse calculation before the iterative process
suffices.
 The LDU decomposition facilitates the solution of the linear subproblems at each
iteration.

Preconditioning techniques are also applicable to this process to take care of the ill-
conditioned matrices. This is beyond the scope of this study and is well-established in
the literature, e.g. [18].
Components of Power Flow
In power engineering, the power-flow study, or load-flow study, is a numerical
analysis of the flow of electric power in an interconnected system. A power-flow study
usually uses simplified notations such as a one-line diagram and per-unit system, and
focuses on various aspects of AC power parameters, such as voltages, voltage angles,

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real power and reactive power. It analyzes the power systems in normal steady-state
operation.
Power-flow or load-flow studies are important for planning future expansion of power
systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. The principal
information obtained from the power-flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of
the voltage at each bus, and the real and reactive power flowing in each line.
Commercial power systems are usually too complex to allow for hand solution of the
power flow. Special purpose network analyzers were built between 1929 and the early
1960s to provide laboratory-scale physical models of power systems. Large-scale
digital computers replaced the analog methods with numerical solutions.
In addition to a power-flow study, computer programs perform related calculations such
as short-circuit fault analysis, stability studies (transient and steady-state), unit
commitment and economic dispatch. In particular, some programs use linear
programming to find the optimal power flow, the conditions which give the lowest cost
per kilowatt hour delivered.
A load flow study is especially valuable for a system with multiple load centers,
such as a refinery complex. The power flow study is an analysis of the system’s
capability to adequately supply the connected load. The total system losses, as well as
individual line losses, also are tabulated. Transformer tap positions are selected to
ensure the correct voltage at critical locations such as motor control centers.
Performing a load flow study on an existing system provides insight and
recommendations as to the system operation and optimization of control settings to
obtain maximum capacity while minimizing the operating costs. The results of such an
analysis are in terms of active power, reactive power, magnitude and phase angle.
Furthermore, power-flow computations are crucial for optimal operations of groups of
generating units.
In term of its approach to uncertainties, load flow study can be divided to
deterministic load flow and uncertainty-concerned load flow. Deterministic load flow
study does not take into account the uncertainties arise from both power generations
and load behaviors. To take the uncertainties into consideration, there are several
approaches that has been used such as probabilistic, possibilistic, information gap
decision theory, robust optimization, and interval analysis.The Open Energy Modelling
Initiative promotes open source load-flow models and other types of energy system
models.

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