Course Literature

Vehicle Dynamics and Control

Course book is Theory of Ground Vehicles, 4th edition, by J.Y. Wong
You can borrow a copy during the course.
Jan Åslund Chapter 1: Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires
[email protected]
Chapter 3: Performance Characteristics of Road Vehicles
Associate Professor
Chapter 5: Handling Characteristics of Road Vehicles
Dept. Electrical Engineering
Vehicular Systems
Chapter 7: Vehicle Ride Characteristics
Linköping University
Sweden Some additional material is taken from the books Vehicle Dynamics,
Stability and Control, 2nd edition, D. Karnopp, and Tire and Vehicle
Lecture 1 Dynamics, H. Pacejka.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 1 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 2 / 43

Chapter 1: Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires Chapter 3: Performance Characteristics of Road Vehicles

ω
F = ma

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Chapter 3: Performance Characteristics of Road Vehicles Chapter 5: Handling Characteristics of Road Vehicles

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 5 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 6 / 43

Chapter 7: Vehicle Ride Characteristics L-building

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L-building L-building

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 9 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 10 / 43

L-building L-building

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Stability Stability

Direction of motion

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Stability Stability

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 15 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 16 / 43
Tapered wheels Tapered wheels: Basic motion

Why is the wheels on a train tapered?

Consider a wheelset with tapered wheels on a rail. In the steady

motion/basic motion, the wheels are moving on a straight line in the
longitudinal direction:

2r0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 17 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 18 / 43

Tapered wheels: A train taking a turn Tapered wheels: Perturbed motion

One reason for using tapered wheels is illustrated in the following figure What will happen if the basic motion is perturbed?
showing a wheelset of a train taking a right turn: Basic motion is shown to the left and perturbed motion to the right:
dy
ψ θ≈ dx
ψ
2r0 + 2ψy 2r0 − 2ψy Vxl

y ω

(x(t), y (t))
The longitudinal speed is larger for the outside wheel Vxl than for the w x
inside wheel Vxr , but the rotational speed ω is the same. The basic motion
in this case includes a constant drift y in the lateral direction, which
compensates for this difference:
Vxr
Vxl = (r0 + ψy )ω, Vxr = (r0 − ψy )ω
2r0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 19 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 20 / 43
Tapered wheels Tapered wheels
Lateral drift causes a difference in the longitudinal
velocity of the wheels in the same way as before:
dy
θ≈ dy
θ≈ dx Using Vxl = (r0 + ψy )ω and Vxr = (r0 − ψy )ω the
dx Vxl = (r0 + ψy )ω
Vxl
angular velocity can be written as
Vxl Vxr = (r0 − ψy )ω
Vxr − Vxl 2ψy ω
θ̇ = =−
w w
The longitudinal velocity of the center of gravity is Differentiating ẏ = θr0 ω and using the expression
(x(t), y (t))
(x(t), y (t)) now given by: w
for the angular velocity above, the following
w

Vxl + Vxr differential equation for y is obtained:

ẋ = = r0 ω
2 2r0 ψω 2
dy
ÿ + y =0
The approximation ≈ θ gives the lateral velocity: Vxr
w
Vxr
dx

dy dx
ẏ = = θr0 ω
dx dt
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 21 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 22 / 43

Tapered wheels: Harmonic oscillation Tapered wheels: Unstable system

For a wheelset with positive taper angle (as in the figure) the solution

2r0 ψω 2 For a wheelset with negative taper angle the solutions of the differential
ÿ (t) + y (t) = 0 equation
w
2r0 ψω 2
is a harmonic oscillation ÿ (t) + y (t) = 0
w
are !
y (t) = cos(ωn t + φ)
r
2r0 ψ
y (t) = C exp ± ω
w
with natural frequency r
2r0 ψ which means that the a small perturbation would cause an exponential
ω
ωn =
w growth of the lateral displacement and the system is clearly unstable.
If there is friction in the system, then the wheelset will return to the basic
motion asymptotically.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 23 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 24 / 43
Tapered wheels: Spatial coordinates Tire

The dynamic equation

dy
θ≈ dx 2r0 ψω 2
ÿ (t) + y (t) = 0
Vxl w
can be rewritten by using the relations
Figure 1.1: Tire construction
d 2y ẋ 2 Figure 1.2: Coordinates, forces, and moments.
ÿ = ẋ 2 , ω2 =
w
(x(t), y (t)) dx 2 r02

and the result is the following:

2ψ
y 00 (x) + y (x) = 0
wr0
Vxr

A model that doesn’t depend on speed.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 25 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 26 / 43

Rolling resistance Hysteresis

Exampel of a hysteresis loop caused by friction:

Direction of motion

F F

The rolling resistance of tires is primarily caused by the hysteresis in tire

materials due to the deflection of the carcass while rolling. Ffriction
Other less important contributors to the rolling resistance are:
Direction of motion

Friction between the tire and the road caused by sliding F Ffriction
Displacement
Air circulating inside the tire
d
−Ffriction
Ffriction
The energy loss due to hysteresis is equal to the shaded in the figure:

2 · d · Ffriction

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 27 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 28 / 43
Rolling resistance: Hysteresis Rolling resistance

The center of normal pressure is shifted in the direction of motion due to

the hysteresis The coefficient of rolling resistance fr is defined as the ratio of the rolling
Normal pressure resistance Rr to the normal load W , i.e., fr = Rr /W .
Empirical formulas for calculating the rolling resistance coefficient as a
function of speed V , based on experimental data:
O Radial-ply passenger car tire: fr = 0.0136 + 0.40 × 10−7 V 2
Radial-ply truck tire: fr = 0.006 + 0.23 × 10−6 V 2

Fz Other factors that affect the rolling resistance:

Deformation
Surface texture, Figure 1.5.
Fr Inflation pressure, Figure 1.7 and 1.8.
The applied wheel torque on free-rolling tire is zero. Therefore, a Internal temperature, Figur 1.11 and 1.12.
horizontal force Rr at the contact patch must exists to maintain
equilibrium. This force is called known as the rolling resistance.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 29 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 30 / 43

A Tire Under the Action of a Driving Torque A Tire Under the Action of a Driving Torque

ω
Longitudinal slip
   
V re
i = 1− × 100% = 1 − × 100%
V ωr r

Limit cases:
Free-rolling tire: i = 0
Definitions: The tire is not moving: i = 100% om V = 0,
Rolling radius of a free-rolling tire: r = V /ω,
Effective rolling radius under the action of a driving torque: re = V /ω,
where V is the linear speed of the tire center, and ω is the angular speed.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 31 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 32 / 43
Driving Wheel: The Brush Model Driving Wheel: The Brush Model

The brush model is a very simple physical model of tire. The tread of the The contact patch is assumed to rectangular and can be divided into an
tire is modeled as elastic bristles attached to the rim, and longitudinal adhesion region (0 ≤ x ≤ lc ) and a sliding region (lc ≤ x ≤ lt ).
force is generated by the deflection of the brush elements.

lc

lt

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 33 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 34 / 43

Driving Wheel: The Brush Model Driving Wheel: The Brush Model
The objective is to find the length of the adhesion region lc . When does User a linear model for the relation between deflection and longitudinal
the longitudinal force becomes so large that the bristles begins to slide? force per unit of length:
Consider a bristle in the adhesion region
dFx
x = kt e = kt ix
dx
ωr − V
It is assumed that normal force W is uniformly distributed in the contact
region,
dFz W
=
dx lt
e = x
where lt is the length of the contact region.
The velocity at the rim is ωr − V . The time since the bristle first touch Assumption: The bristle will not slide if
the ground is t = x/(ωr ). The deflection at the distance x is:
dFx dFz
  < µp
x V dx dx
e(x) = (ωr − V ) = 1− x = ix
ωr ωr where µp is the coefficient of friction.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 35 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 36 / 43
Driving Wheel: The Brush Model Driving Wheel: The Brush Model
The distribution of the longitudinal force in this case (i < ic )
dFx
dx

The condition can be written

µp W
lt
W
kt ix < µp
lt
k t lt i
First case: When is there no sliding region?
Answer: When x = lt fulfills the condition above, i.e. x
lt
µp W µp W
kt lt i < or i< ≡ ic
lt kt lt2 1
Fx = Area of the shaded region = kt lt2 i ≡ Ci i
2
µp W
In the limit case i = ic = k l 2 is
t t

1 µp W µp W
Fx = kt lt2 2
= ≡ Fxc
2 kt lt 2
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 37 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 38 / 43

Driving Wheel: The Brush Model Driving Wheel: The Brush Model
Solution: Recall that the bristle will not slide if kt ix < µp W /lt , i.e.,
µp W
The second case: There is a sliding region (i > ic ). x≤ ≡ lc
kt lt i
The distribution of the longitudinal force in this case: dFx
dFx
dx dx

µp W µp W
lt lt

x x
lc lt lc lt
How do we calculate the length of the adhesion region lc ? The longitudinal force is equal to the shaded area
 
1 µp W µp W 1 lc
Fx = lc + (lt − lc ) = µp W 1 −
2 lt lt 2 lt
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 39 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 40 / 43
The Brush Model: Summary Braking Wheel: The Brush Model
Critical values if longitudinal slip and force: The skid is defined
   
µp W µp W µp W ωr r
ic = = och Fxc = = Ci ic is = 1− × 100% = 1− × 100%
kt lt2 2Ci 2 V re

There is no sliding region when i ≤ ic eller Fx ≤ Fxc and in this case when a braking torque is applied to the wheel.
Limit cases:
kt lt2
Fx = i = Ci i
2 Free-rolling tire: is = 0

If i > ic eller Fx > Fxc , then the length of the adhesion region is Locked wheel is = 100%

µp W Relations between i and is :

lc =
kt lt i is
i =−
and the longitudinal force is 1 − is

1 lc
 
µp W
 and
F x = µp W 1 − = µp W 1 − i
2 lt 4Ci i is = −
1−i
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 41 / 43 Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 42 / 43

Braking Wheel: Summary


∂Fx 
Cs =
∂is is =0
Critical values of skid and longitudinal force
µp W
isc =
2Cs + µp W
Cs isc µp W
Fxc = =
1 − isc 2
No slide region (is < isc ):
Cs is
Fx =
1 − is
With slide region (is ≥ isc ):
 
µp W (1 − is )
Fx = µ p W 1 −
4Cs is
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 43 / 43