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CHAPTER-I

A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE VEDIC CONCEPT OF GOD AND

RELIGION

Religion plays a very important role in the individual as well as social life of

man. It has always been an important factor for determining the development of

mankind. While dealing with the topic of religion, the first and foremost question

which arises is that of the meaning of the word „religion‟ and its nature.

A. Religion : Its Definition and Nature:

Religion has a very wide scope. It includes in its fold the whole of human

existence. Hence, it is very difficult to give a proper definition to the concept of

religion. Same is the case with the derivation of the term „religion‟.

The word „religion‟ is derived either from the Latin word religare (to bind

together), or from religere (to execute or to rehearse). Another Latin word religio (to

bind) is also said to be the origin of the word „religion‟. 1 Thus, the sense of unity of

thinking and unity of activities can be found in the concept of religion. Having

derived the word „religion‟ from relegere, Cicero in his Da Natura deorum, II,

XXVIII, holds his view as follows – “Those who carefully took in hand all things

pertaining to the Gods were called religiosi,”2 i.e. religious. Max Müller is a

supporter of this view. Another derivation from the word religare (to bind), which is

1. cf., Mohapatra, A.R., PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION AN APPROCH TO WORLD RELIGIONS,

New Delhi, 1985, p. 3.
2. http en.wikipedia.org wiki Catholic Encyclopaedia, Vol.12.
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seemingly more acceptable, is given by Lactantius in his book “Divine Institutes”, IV,

XXVIII.3 According to him, religion binds men to God by the bond of piety.

Religion, he believes, has received its name because of this very capacity of creating

a bond between men and God.

Many a definitions of the word „religion‟ can be found given by both the

western and Indian scholars. The definitions of the western scholars are largely

influenced by their theistic thoughts. Thus, Flint considers religion as one form of

theism when he says – “The highest possible form of religion must be a theistic

religion.”4 According to James, religion is “the feelings, acts and experiences of

individual men in their solitude so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in

relation to whatever they may consider the divine.”5 Another theist Galloway holds

that religion stands for „man‟s faith in a power beyond himself.‟ 6 He gives expression

to this faith through worship and service. This faith in a supreme power helps man to

fulfill his emotional needs, which in turn gives him „stability of life.‟ Again to

Alexander, religion means faith in deity.7 Among the Indian scholars, according to

Swami Vivekananda, the Aryan and Semitic races are the two great sources of all

3. cf., http en.wikipedia.org wiki Catholic Encyclopaedia, Vol.12.

4. Flint, R., Theism, Being The Baird Lecture For 1876, Edinburgh and London, 1877, p. 54.
5. James, W., THE VARIETIES OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE, n. p., 1902, p. 32.
6. Galloway, G., THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION, Edinburgh, First Edition 1914, p. 184.
7. cf., Alexander, S., Space, Time, and Deity, Vol. II, Macmillan, 1927, p. 3.
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religions, and the common conception in both of them is the „One supreme being,

supreme by being infinitely more powerful than the rest.‟8

B. Origin and Evolution of Religion :

Numerous theories have been formed explaining the origin and evolution of

religion. There are two earlier theories of the origin of religion in general. These are –

(a) the Theory of Divine Origin, and (b) the Theory of Human Origin.9 According to

the Divine Origin Theory, religion has been revealed to us by the divinity; God is the

ultimate source of religion. On the other hand, the Theory of Human Origin holds that

human consideration or judgment, i.e. viveka is the cause of the origin of religion. So

far as religion in India is concerned Hopkins had the following to say – “Orthodoxy

maintained in ancient India that there was one inspired religion and all other religions

were decadent forms of it.”10 This view of Hopkins finds support in what has been

stated in Ṛgveda, X.90.16. There it is said that it was the gods who introduced

religion on earth through the performance of a divine ritual of creation.11

Both the theories have their own stand. In fact, both god and man find place

in the origin and evolution of religion. Thus, Radhakrishnan says – “Even if religions

8. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Mayavati Memorial Edition, Vol. VIII, Advaita
Ashrama, Calcutta, Second Impression 1955, p. 150.
9. cf., Prasad, G., Fountain Head of Religion, Introduction, Ajmer, Seventh Edition 1966, pp. xviii-
xxii. Also see Sinha, H. P., Dharma-Darśan Kī Rūp-Rekhā (Hindi), Varanasi, Third Edition
1977, pp. 31-32.
10. Hopkins, E. W., ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF RELIGION, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan,
Varanasi, Delhi, n. d., p. 2.
11. cf., yajñena yajñamayajanta devāstāni dharmāṇi prathamānyāsan
te ha nākaṁ mahimānaḥ sacanta yatra pūrve sādhyāḥ santi devāḥ , RV., X.90.16.
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claim to be the results of divine revelation, the forms and contents are necessarily the

products of the human mind.”12

Having taken into to consideration various phases of beliefs and practices

etc., different scholars have classified religion into different types which explain

different theories of origin and development of religion. The following types of

religion13 can be taken into account here –

(a) Primal Religion,

(b)Naturalistic Religion,

(c) Humanistic Religion and

(d)Spiritual Religion.

(a) Primal Religion: Because of the very environment in which the

ancient men lived, their religion was full of superstition magic, fear, illusions, etc.

Primitive religion was characterized by animism, spiritism, fetishism, manaism and

totemism. Some aspects of these primal beliefs are to be found in the Vedic religion.

The Vedic worship of the various elements of nature, such as the sun, the moon, the

earth, the rivers, the dawn, the wind, the storm, the fire and also the cow, horse, bull,

the goat, etc. as personified beings, seems to be developed from the concept of

animism. According to animistic belief, there exists a soul in each and every thing of

12. Radhakrishnan, S., RELIGION AND CULTURE, Delhi, 1968, p. 25.

13. George Galloway has divided religion into three classifications, viz. (a) Tribal Religion, (b)
National Religion and (c) Universal religion. cf., Galloway, G., op.cit., pp. 88, 109, 131.
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nature. The worship of the ancestors and other departed soul which forms an

important part of the Vedic and the later Indian religions seems to be the outcome of

spiritism,14 which holds that each and every thing in the world is possessed of a soul

or spirit of independent nature. Instances of fetishism are also found in the Vedic

religion. Fetishism is a belief which considers a fetish, i.e. a particular object, such as

a stone, a piece of metal like gold, a wheel, wood, or even a separated part of human

body, as having a spirit within it and consequently possessing divine and mysterious

powers, though of temporary nature. Thus, the wheel representing the sun in the

Vājapeya-sacrifice, a swing made of the wood of the udumbara-tree stated as a

symbol of the sun in the Mahāvrata-festival of the winter solstice,15 a torch

representing the sun, gold (gold-figure of a man) representing Agni in the piling of

the fire-altar,16 the bull representing Indra17 in the Sākamedha-sacrifice, the horse

representing the sun18 in the Ṣoḍaśin-form of the Soma-sacrifice, and representing

Agni19 in the kindling of fire from the fire-sticks, etc. are the fetishes that are

worshipped in the Vedic religion. As a consequence of using such elements the Vedic

religion inherits a flavour of magic. As a matter of fact, religion and magic have

always been found intermingled more or less in Vedic religious practices during the

transitory period of its evolution between Ṛgvedic religion and the ritualism of the

Brāhmaṇa-texts.

14. cf., Galloway, G., ibid., pp. 90-98.

15. cf., ŚĀ., 1.7.
16. cf., KŚS., 17.4.3; ŚB., 7.4.1.15-21.
17. cf., ŚB., 2.5.3.18; MS., I.10.16; TB., 1.6.7.4; AV., IX.4.9; ĀpŚS., 8.11.19.
18. cf., TS., VI.6.11.6.
19. cf., ĀpŚS., 5.10.10; V.14.17; KŚS., 4.8.25; 26; IV.9.13.
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(b) Naturalistic Religion: The very name suggests that it is a form of

religion which believes in worshipping objects and powers of nature. The Mother

Nature becomes the object of worship in this religion. Here, a question may arise as

to the difference between the naturalistic religion and the primal forms of religion

which too worshipped natural phenomena. To answer this question it can be said that

the naturalistic religion is a developed form of religion in contrast to its primal form.

As against the objects of worship in primal religion which are vague and indistinct in

character, the gods of naturalistic religion are endowed with names and a variety of

attributes and activities. The relation between the worshiper and the worshipped

becomes closer in naturalistic religion. With the development of human intelligence

in a higher social order of a civilized life, the gods are also characterized with ethical

principles. Unlike the objects of nature in primal religion that were mere sources of

reverential fear or dread, the same natural elements have been gradually elevated to a

spiritual level towards the later stage of naturalistic religion. It seems that Galloway

has named the naturalistic religion as National religion. He has perceived a possibility

that due to the increasing complexity of human behaviour and activities in changed

social atmosphere, there developed the tendency to multiply the number of gods, each

god with a specific function to perform.20 And this polytheistic system, developed

from the practice of nature-worship of the primal society, maintains the continuity

between the old and the new religion which forms the basis of proper religious

development.21 Instances of Naturalistic religion are found in ancient Babylonia,

20. cf., Galloway, G., op.cit., p. 117.

21. cf., Galloway, G., ibid., p. 113.
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Egypt, Greece, Rome, Germany, Iran etc. and also in India in the Vedas. Babylonian

„Marduk‟ and Egyptian „Ra‟ – the sun-gods, Zeus and Jupiter – the Greek and Latin

heaven-gods, Odin and Indra – the German and Vedic storm-gods, Ahura – the

Persian god of light, Agni – the Vedic fire-god, etc. are the examples of naturalistic

deities. The Vedic religion can be called the best example of naturalistic religion,

because the Vedic pantheon of god is made up of the manifestations of natural

phenomena.

Gradually, with the development of better bonding among the groups of

people in the society, there developed a tendency towards unification of worship.

This tendency to unification is found in the form of a divine and universal principle

constantly working in and through the world. For example, reference may be made to

the Chinese religious concept of Tao, the soul of heaven existing before all gods and

human beings, the all-governing path fulfilled by the orderly movements of all

celestial bodies and mortals. In Vedic religion also ṛta is recognized as the principle

of law which is working behind the natural, moral and religious order of the world,

binding all things together. In Vedic religion tendency towards unification becomes

more distinct in the concept of „one soul of all the gods‟ that has found expression in

the Ṛgvedic passage -- ekaṁ sad viprāḥ bahudhā vadanti (I.164.46). This idea of one

single Divine Being who is one with all creation has been clearly stated in hymn X.90

of the Ṛksaṁhitā where it is said – puruṣa eva idaṁ sarvaṁ yad bhūtaṁ yacca

bhavyam.
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Besides, some humanistic and spiritualistic aspects, in terms of the ethical

principles and human attributes of the god and the supreme and unlimited position

ascribed to the god, have also been dealt with in the Vedic religion.

(c) Humanistic Religion: It is comparatively a modern concept of

religion. Its very name suggests that this religion glorifies human beings. 22 This

religion believes in the worship of man endowed with ethical values. While going

through the discussions on humanistic religion, two phases of this religion come out.

In one phase god is believed to incarnate in human form. The Avatāras of Lord Viṣṇu

as Rāma, Vāmana, Kṛṣṇa, and Paraśurāma in Hinduism may perhaps be cited as

instances of humanistic aspect of religion. In all these incarnations god is shown as

bound by human limitations and at the same time he remains above men by virtue of

being Divine in essence. In another phase man is exalted to the position of god and

worshipped. The qualities of god are attributed to him. For example, Buddha, who

was an extraordinary human being, is revered and worshipped by the masses. Above

all, the main idea of humanistic religion is that in it, the utmost importance is laid

upon mankind. According to this religion, man himself is the creator of his destiny.

Traces of this religion are also found in the humanism of Mahatma Gandhi and

Rabindranath Tagore, Hellenism, Positivism, etc. But in the Vedas no such aspect of

religion has been found except the one instance of the Ṛbhus -- the sons of

Sudhanvan, being elevated to the status of gods.

22. For the details of Humanistic religion, see Sinha, H. P., op. cit., pp. 82-83.
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(d) Spiritual Religion: Spiritual religion or Spiritualism is another phase

of religion. The belief of pre-historic man in spirits and a world beyond is the main

source of Spiritual religion. According to Spiritual religion, god is the greatest entity.

He is self-born, universal, omnipresent, omnipotent, and infinite and is beyond this

world. In the spiritual stage of religion the belief in god becomes an inner quality of

man whose insight becomes wider and he no longer believes in mere ritualism. This

is the reason which makes this religion the universal religion. It is a religion which

can bind all men irrespective of their nationality, colour of the skin or any such factor

which normally tends to divide one group of people from another. Among the

different forms of Spiritual religion, the Islamic religion, Christianity and Judaism are

prominent. Forms of this religion are also found in Zoroastrianism and in the highest

form in Vedic Hinduism. Now-a-days there are many a spiritual organizations in our

society, such as Ram-Krishna Mission, Satsang-Vihar of the followers of Anukul

Thakur, etc. The best examples of Spiritual religion in Assam are the Vaiṣṇavite

Satras and the Nāmghars i.e. the centers meant for nāmakīrtana by the masses. While

discussing the types of religion it seems that although there is a gradual development

from the primal stage of religion through naturalistic and humanistic up to spiritual

religion, these types of religions have influences upon one another. It is also noticed

that more than one of these types or characteristics may be present in any one form of

religion. All the pre-historic, naturalistic, humanistic and the spiritual aspects of

religion are more or less present in the Vedic and later Hindu religion, Islamic

religion and Christianity. The humanistic and spiritualistic aspects of religion are seen
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in Buddhism. Thus, all the types and forms of religion have certain aspects in

common.

From the point of view of religious philosophy also there are many divisions

of religion among which Pantheism, Polytheism and Monotheism are found

interwoven in the Vedic religion. Pantheism is the belief which considers all finite

things as manifestations of the one infinite eternal Being (i.e. all is god). In

Polytheism the existence of many gods is accepted. Monotheism is the belief in one

and only God.

C. The Vedic Concept of Religion:

It can be said that the most ancient phase of Indian religion is to be in the

pages of the Vedas. The Sanskrit word for religion is dharma, although it is far wider

in meaning than its counterparts in all other languages including English. The

Sanskrit word dharma is derived either from the root dhṛñ – (dhāraṇe), i.e. to

support, or from the root dhṛṅ -- (avasthāne), i.e. to take a position. The word dharma

is so wide in its scope that it has got a lot of implications from the Vedic period to the

present times. Here, an elaborate idea of this word may be given from the point of

view of some lexicographers. At first, mention may be made to Williams according to

whom the word dharma means „that which is established or firm, steadfast decree,

statue, ordinance, law; usage, practice, customary observance or prescribed conduct,

duty; right, justice; virtue, morality, religion, religious merit, good works.‟23 In the

23. Williams, M. M., SANSKRIT-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, New Edition, Oxford, First Edition 1899,
Reprint 1951, p. 510.
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view of Amarasiṁha the word dharman implies the ritualistic performance which is

sacred blissful, virtuous and full of offerings.24 The commentator of the Amarakoṣa

gives the meaning of the word dharma in masculine gender, as being held or carried

or preserved or sustained, and states that the word dharman which is in neuter gender

denotes the components of sacrifice.25 „Good fortune‟ is the meaning of the word

dharma both in masculine and neuter gender, as given in the Śabdakalpadruma.26

Different gods are also called dharma or dharman and described as carrying

out the act of sustenance. Agni, the fire-god is called dharma because he protects,

supports and accomplishes the ritual as the centre of its performance.27 Sūrya, the

sun-god is described as divaḥ dharman,28 because he supports the heaven which is his

own region. He is also called the sustainer (dharmaḥ) of the entire creation for his

life-yielding aspects.29 Vāyu, the god of wind is also mentioned as doing the act of

sustenance30 by way of giving life to all living beings. Another great god Indra has

been eulogized as the sustainer, and the ruler and protector of the act of sustenance.31

As it is seen above that the word dharman has been applied to the Vedic deities in the

dual sense of both a sustainer and a protector, it seems to have been used for the

Vedic yajña also in the same dual sense. This fulfills the characteristic feature of

24. cf., syāddharmamastriyāṁ puṇyaśreyasī sukṛtaṁ vṛṣaḥ , AK., 1.4.24.

25. cf., dhriyate dharmaḥ …. yāgāṅge napuṁsakam, on ibid.
26. cf., śubhādṛṣṭam (puṁ klī), ŚKd., 2.
27. cf., RV., X.92.2.
28. cf., ibid., X.170.2.
29. cf., ibid., VIII.6.20; KS., XI.10; TS., I.1; VS., XXXVIII.14; ŚB., 14.2.2.29.
30. cf., tvaṁ viśvasmād bhuvanāt pāsi dharmaṇā’suryāt pāsi dharmaṇā, RV., 1.134.5.
31. cf., varāya te pātraṁ dharmaṇe tanā yajño mantro brahmodyataṁ vacaḥ, ibid., X.50.6;
dharmaṇāmirajyasi, ibid., I.55.3; dharmasya goptā, AB., 8.12.
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Vedic religion that god and sacrifice are its two pivotal points. In the Ṛgveda, the

very first yajña which was performed by the gods is described as the very first means

of sustenance in the following way – yajñena yajñam ayajanta devāḥ tāni dharmāṇi

prathamāni āsan.32 This yajña is imagined as the Puruṣa, i.e. personification of

Prajāpati – the lord and protector of all beings. Like the first yajña the Vedic rituals

performed by following the former by men have become the means of supporting and

protecting the creatures33 as well as of uniting with the gods, their sustainers and

protectors. That is why yajña is also designated as dharman,34 and the sacrificer as

dharmakṛt, i.e. the performer of dharma.35 In the Atharvaveda the sense of a sustainer

of the world or the act of sustaining has been denoted by the word dharman in some

of the verses.36 In the Vedas the word dharman has also been used to mean fixed

ordinance or holy statue,37 will of god,38 virtue,39 inherent nature or quality40 and

custom.41

In this way it is seen that the concept of dharma as found in the Vedic

literature has a very wide scope with a variety of meanings which denote, in a way or

other, a positive and benevolent mental strength leading the mankind to create a

32. RV., I.164.50 (X.90.16).

33. cf., ibid., V.15.2; X.35.8, etc.
34. cf., ibid., III.3.1; III.38.2; III.60.6; VIII.43.24; IX.7.7; IX.35.6; IX.64.1; IX.97.12; IX.97.22.
35. cf., ibid., VII.6.20.
36. cf., AV., VII.5.1; VII.27.5; XX.62.5; XX.94.1.
37. cf., RV., III.17.1; VI.70.1; VIII.89.5; IX.63.22; VIII.52.3; X.149.3; X.167.3; AV., VI.132;
VII.15.4; VII.26.3; XII.1; XIV.1.51.
38. cf., RV., X.175.1, 4.
39. cf., ibid., IX.16.3; X.56.3; AV., XI.9.17; XII.5.61; XVIII.27, etc.
40. cf., RV., IX.25.2; IX.63.22. Also see ibid., IX.86.5; 9.
41. cf., dharmaṁ purāṇam, AV., XVIII.3.1.
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society having sustenance and protection. Vedic dharma also seeks to create a

bonding between the worshipper and the worshipped. This is evident in the fact that

very often in the Vedic Mantras the worshipper looks up to the god as his father,

brother or his son or friend.42 In the same way an aspect of Vedic dharma is that it

involves group activity. For, all the principal Vedic sacrifices are meant to be

performed by a group of people, such as the yajamāna, the Ṛtviks, and a host of

attendants.

In this context it may be stated here that a noteworthy aspect of Vedic

religion is that it is out and out ritualistic in nature. The priests played a very

indispensable role in the religious life of the Vedic age. Each of them had his own

specific function in the ritual. Many priestly families were the seers or composers of

the Vedic hymns, especially of the „family Books‟. As a matter of fact, many of the

early Vedic priests or seers performed manifold duties of a seer, priest, poet and even

a warrior. The priests with prayers and offerings served as the mediators between the

gods and the sacrificers. The peace, happiness and victory of men, it was believed,

depend only upon the sincere prayers and rich offerings made to the gods by the

priests. Having occupied such important position in the ritual, the priests were

honoured by the kings with dakṣiṇā or sacrificial fee and gifts.43 This fact has been

reflected in the Dānastutis of the Ṛksaṁhitā.

42. cf., RV., I.1.9; II.1.9; IX.97.30.

43. For dakṣiṇā, see ibid., I.18.5; I.123.1; I.40.4; I.123.5, I.125.5; II.3.23, etc. For gifts, see ibid.,
I.126.1-3, etc.
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The religion of the Vedic people is optimistic in nature. It aims at securing

all positive things in terms of good health and long life, heroic offsprings, prosperity,

abundance of food and drink, freedom from diseases, victory over enemies, success

and happiness and so on in the worldly life, and also the share of the heaven in the

company of the gods and the pious ancestors in the life after death.44

It has been mentioned already that the concept of religion in pre-historic

times resulted out of the people‟s seeking of protection and shelter from various

elements of nature which created fear and dread in their minds. Then the concept of

religion in Vedic age – a civilized state of society,45 centers round the concept of god,

which again is shaped on the basis of developed human emotions of faith and

devotion and the like, and it becomes fully developed with the realization of the

Divine within.46 This is also true that the Vedic people did not suddenly have a

refined concept of religion. It had to be a gradual process of development of the

minds of the people of that period. The Vedic age in itself covered thousands of

centuries so much so that it can be divided into early Vedic and later Vedic periods.

So, the concept of religion had naturally undergone a gradual development

throughout the Vedic period as a whole.

44. cf., RV., I.1.3; I.4.2; 9; II.27.7; II.29.6; II.32.1-6; II.32.14; III.35.13; IV.23.11; V.4.2; V.10.1; 7;
VI.1.12; 13; VII.27.5; VIII.5.10; VIII.42.2; IX.96.4; IX.110.12; X.4.6; X.37.4; X.97.12;
X.118.8; X.145.2; 5; X.154.2; 3; VS., XVI.2; 4; 5; AB., 2.7.4; 8.37.3; ŚB., 5.3.3.11-12;
5.1.3.3; 5.1.5.25, etc.
45. cf., Bora, M., Facets of Vedic Religion and Culture, Delhi, 2009, pp. 2, 11.
46. According to Ghate, “That the Vedic people had a civilization of their own; that the hymns mark
a certain advanced stage in artistic and material development ….. these are facts which
every student of the Rigveda will easily see for himself.” V.S. GHATE’S LECTURES ON
RIGVEDA, Revised and Enlarged by V.S. Sukthankar, Delhi, 1 st Ed. 2005, p. 123.
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D. The Vedic concept of God:

The concept of god has undergone a gradual development throughout the

Vedas.

(a) Meaning of the term deva: In the Vedas the term deva is used to

denote god. This word denotes a number of meanings all of which describe the

unique qualities of the Vedic deities. The term deva is explained by Sāyaṇa as --

dānādiguṇayuktam,47 which means one endowed with qualities like making gifts, etc.

Yāska, the famous etymologist, has explained the word deva as – devo dānādvā

dīpanādvā dyotanādvā dyusthāno bhavatīti vā yo devaḥ sā devatā .48 According to

Yāska, this word can be derived from the roots dā, dīp or from dyut. Thus, deva is

called so for making gifts to the earthly beings, or for being brilliant or radiant, or

because he belongs primarily to the heavenly sphere.49 Deva or god is also called

devatā which means a deity. The grammarian, Patañjali has derived the word deva

from the root div which denotes the sense of being shining.50 The Devas shine with

their heavenly qualities and deeds of supremacy or divine splendour or glory.

The Devas are referred to in the Ṛgveda as the divine clan -- daivya jana.51

The heaven, i.e. Dyaus has been considered as the father of the Devas since the Indo-

European period, and this conception has got extended with certain modifications

47. Sāyaṇa on RV., I.1.1.

48. Nir., 7.15.
49. cf., Sarup, L., THE NIGHAṆṬU and THE NIRUKTA, Part-II, English Translation (on RV., I.1.1),
Delhi, First Edition: 1920-27, p. 121.
50. cf., diveraiśvaryakarmaṇo devaḥ, MBhāṣ., 5.1.59.
51. cf., RV., VII.53.2.
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through the Indo-Iranian period.52 In the Vedic period, Heaven (Dyaus) and Earth

(Pṛthivī) are regarded as the parents of the Devas.53 They are given the epithet

devaputre, i.e. they who have the gods as their sons,54 and are said to be pūrvaje

pitarā and pitarā pūrvajā, i.e. the primeval parents.55 The universal parenthood of

Heaven and Earth is also clear from the words, such as pitarā (two fathers), mātarā

(two mothers).56 Thus for being the descendants of Dyaus the Devas are divine. And

all phenomena of nature within the sphere of heaven and earth are naturally

considered as their children.57 Accordingly, all the natural powers and objects, such

as the sun, moon, planets, dawn, wind, lightning, rain, mountains, river, trees, fire,

etc. have been endowed with divine qualities in Vedic religion. The term deva or

devatā, in Vedic religion, has been applied to denote the gods of all kinds – the higher

gods with great functional importance, and gods with lesser importance as well as the

abstract deities. Here, reference may be made to the Ṛgveda. The Ṛgveda, which is

the oldest source of Vedic religion, is devoted to the worship of the higher gods, such

as Sūrya, Agni, Indra, Varuṇa, Savitṛ, the Ādityas, Vāyu, Uṣas, the Maruts, Aśvins

and so on. Nevertheless, the deities relatively of lesser importance, such as Vivasvat,

Trita Āptya, Mātariśvan, etc., the semi divine deities, like the Ṛbhus, Apsarases,

Gandharvas, the tutelary deities like Vāstospati, etc., have been invoked in the

52. cf., Grisworld, H.D., The Religion of the Ṛigveda, Delhi, First Edition 1971, p. 98.
53. Heaven and Earth are celebrated together in six hymns in the RV. (I.159; I.160; I.185; IV.56;
VI.70 and VII.53) with the name dyāvā pṛthivī. Earth is also invoked alone in one hymn in
the RV. (i.e. V.84).
54. cf., ibid., I.185.4; IV.56.2; VII.53.1.
55. cf., ibid., VII.53.2; X.65.8.
56. cf., ibid., VII.53.2; I.160.3; I.159.3; III.1.7.
57. cf., Griswold, H.D., op. cit., pp. 101-102.
 17

Ṛgveda. Similarly, some abstract ideas have also been worshipped in the Veda. Thus,

faith (śraddhā), charity (dakṣiṇā), anger (manyu), knowledge (jñāna), the speech or

wisdom (vāk), have been deified. In this way, with the spread of religious fervour the

concept of the Divine started to include in its fold a large number of concrete objects

and abstract ideas in the pages of the Ṛgveda itself. And this broad concept of the

Divine continued throughout the later Vedic Saṁhitās58 and the Brāhmaṇas59 as well.

Keith has observed this natural expansion of the use of the term deva with the

development of religion. Thus he says, „Naturally enough, we find the term Deva

expanding in use with the development of religion … .‟60 In this way, the Vedic

concept of god has come to denote both the truly „divine‟ (deva) as well as any object

of eulogy, such as Ulukhala Muṣala, Oṣadhayaḥ, etc. which are invoked in verses (as

devatā) by the seer.

(b) Characteristics of Vedic Gods: It has been already mentioned above

that in Vedic religion the gods are regarded as the heavenly class or group. The gods

being the members of this divine clan have certain common characteristics.

(i) First of all, as the very name suggests, the gods are Devas, i.e. „shining

heavenly beings‟ the sky being their original place of dwelling and light being their

original nature. The heavenly origin of many terrestrial gods is evident from the

58. e.g., In the AV. besides the higher gods, even various diseases, medicinal plants and creepers,
various human organs, etc. have been widely invoked as devatā.
59. The Brāhmaṇas also have Śraddhā, Śrī, the Apsarases, Gandharvas, animal like horse, bull, boar,
tortoise, agricultural elements like ploughshare (Śuna) and the plough (Sirā), metals like
gold, etc. as their deities. cf., e.g. ŚB., 12.7.3.11; 11.4.3.1; 11.5.1.4; 2.5.3.18; 7.4.3.5;
2.6.3.5; 3.9.2.9; TB., 2.3.10.1; AB., 8.21.10.
60. Keith, A.B., THE RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE VEDA AND UPANISHADS, Part-I,
Delhi, First Edition: 1925, pp. 75-76.
 18

accounts of their descent to earth from heaven. Thus, gods like Agni, Soma, etc. have

been clearly stated as having heavenly origin and then descending to earth.61 The

same may be understood in case of the deified water and rivers from their descend in

the form of rain. Of the deified rivers, the Sarasvatī has been described as flowing

from the (celestial) ocean,62 occupying three abodes,63 and is invoked to descend

from the sky, from the great mountain, to the sacrifice.64

(ii) The gods are „immortal‟; they are not perishable.

(iii) The term asura is applied to the mighty gods in general.65 The word

asu is used in the Veda to denote prāṇa, i.e. the vital breath.66 The gods are called

asura because they are the possessors of the cosmic prāṇa which they bestow upon

the earthly beings.67

(iv) The gods are reciprocal by nature. According to Yāska, some of the

gods are produced from each other and are the prototypes of each other –

itaretarajanmāno bhavanti itaretaraprakṛtayaḥ.68 For instance, in the Ṛgveda the

gods, such as Sūrya and Agni, Aditi and Dakṣa,69 etc. are often described as being

61. cf., RV., III.9.5; VI. 8.4; I.93.6; IX.61.10, etc.

62. cf., ibid., VII.95.1, 2. Also see ibid., V.43.11.
63. cf., ibid., VI.61.11, 12.
64. cf., ibid., V.43.11.
65. cf., mahaddevānāmasuratvam ekam, ibid., III.55.1-22.
66. cf., Nir., 3.7; 11.18.
67. According to Skandasvāmin, the word asura is derived by adding matvarthiya ra to the word asu.
The word may also be explained as asūn prāṇān rāti dadāti iti asuraḥ.
68. Nir.,7.4.
69. cf., …….. tvagneḥ sūryo’jāyata sūryāccagniḥ sāyaṁ jāyate … aditerdakṣo dakṣāccāditiriti ,
Durga on ibid.
 19

born from each other. Yāska is also of the opinion that the gods are born, i.e. they

manifest themselves for carrying on certain activities like providing light, protecting,

etc. to the earthly beings.70 Life exists on earth only because of the sun, air, water,

etc.

(v) The gods are again described by Yāska as ātmajanmānaḥ,71 i.e.

produced from the One Supreme Soul. Even the chariot, horse, weapon, arrows, etc.

belonging to the gods are all said by Yāska to be identical with the Soul which is the

all-in-all of all gods.72 Thus, Yāska states that the so-called non-deities are deities in

reality for being identical to the Soul. The Supreme Soul manifests itself as various

elements of nature and these are worshipped as gods. Here, the pantheistic nature of

Vedic divinity is propounded by Yāska.

(vi) Another characteristic feature of the gods as advocated by Yāska is

that they are conceived of as anthropomorphic as well as non-anthropomorphic. First,

he cites two different views about the physical characteristics of the gods. According

to one view, the gods are anthropomorphic in nature.73 They are depicted in the

Vedas as human beings with form, action and consciousness.74 This view is accepted

by Vedavyāsa in the Brahmasūtra (1.3.33) and Śaṅkarācārya in Brahmasūtra-

70. cf., Nir.,7.4.

71. ibid.
72. cf., BD., I.73-74.
73. cf., athākāracintanaṁ devānām puruṣavidhā syurityekam cetanāvadbhiḥ stutayo bhavanti
tathābhidhānāni athāpi pauruṣavidhikairaṅgaiḥ saṁstūyante athāpi
pauruṣavidhikairdravyasaṁyogaiḥ athāpi pauruṣavidhikaiḥ karmabhiḥ , Nir., 7.6.
74. e.g., Indra killed Vṛtra with his weapon, the thunderbolt, RV., I.32.5; Indra drinks soma, ibid.,
I.32.3; Agni is described as a priest, ibid., I.1.1, an archer, ibid., IV.4, a bull, ibid., I.58. The
Aśvins are described as physicians of the gods, who ward off death from the worshipper,
AV., VII.53; TB., 3.1.2, etc.
 20

Bhāṣya75 and also in different Smṛtis and Purāṇas.76 According to the other view, the

gods are not anthropomorphic because, whatever is perceptible to the eye about them

is non-anthropomorphic in nature.77 The fire, the air, the sun, the moon, the earth, the

water which are worshipped as gods, do not own any human form. According to this

view, the mere fact that these gods are praised like sentient beings as having

anthropomorphic limbs, or as associated with anthropomorphic objects and action,

does not prove their anthropomorphism because, insentient objects are also praised in

the same way.78 This view is accepted by Jaimini in his Pūrvamīmāṁsā.79 And in the

Nirukta these two self-contradictory views are combined by Yāska. Yāska states that

the Vedic gods have both anthropomorphic and non-anthropomorphic characteristics.

As presiding deities of different objects and powers the gods are anthropomorphic.

The non-anthropomorphic forms are the agents of the presiding deities and in these

forms the deities carry out their acts of protection, sustenance, benevolence and so

on.80

(vii) All Vedic gods are characterized as upholders of law and order.

Varuṇa is regarded as the chief supporter of moral order. The word used in the Vedas

75. cf., Śaṅkarācārya on BS., I.3.33.

76. Viṣṇu or Nārāyaṇa or Bhagavat is conceived as a puruṣa with a thousand heads, eyes and feet; he
assumed ten different incarnations, viz. Matsya (fish), Kūrma (tortoise), Varāha (boar),
Narasiṁha (man-lion), Vāmana (dwarf), Paruśurāma, Rāma, Kṛṣṇa, Buddha and Kalkī.
Thus, it is often described in the Purāṇas that Viṣṇu took the shape of a fish or a tortoise or a
boar and uplifted the earth from the great flood.
77. cf., apuruṣavidhāḥ syurityaparam api tu yad dṛśyate’puruṣavidhaṁ tat yathāgnirvāyurādityah
prthivī candramā iti , Nir., 7.7.
78. cf., ibid.
79. cf., mantramayī devatā, PM.
80. cf., api vobhayavidhāḥ syuḥ api vā puruṣavidhānāmeva satāṁ karmātmāna ete syuḥ yathā yajño
yajamānasya , Nir., 7.7.
 21

to denote order of any kind is ṛta. It is one of the important elements of Vedic

religion. The word ṛta in Vedic religion covers three senses, viz., cosmic order,

ritualistic order and moral law and order.81 All the gods are spoken of as being born

of ṛta (ṛtajā),82 the protectors of ṛta (ṛtapā or ṛtasya gopā),83 increasers of ṛta

(ṛtāvṛdhā),84 and so on. All these gods are not only the upholders of ṛta, they abide

by it. At the human level ṛta stands for moral order, such as truthfulness,

righteousness, ethical values, etc. Ritualistic order is the due order of the sacrifice,

under the influence of which Agni performs his functions of carrying the oblations to

the gods, or bringing the gods to the sacrificial place for having the oblations.

(viii) A very important aspect of the Vedic gods is that most of them are

mythological characters. A large number of the Vedic gods have various myths and

legends to their account, which describe various attributes and deeds of these deified

objects of nature. Thus, the list of Vedic myths is very long which includes the

stories, such as Indra‟s victory over Vṛtra, the liberation of the cows from the control

of the Paṇis, the descent of Agni from heaven, the marriage of the Aśvins and Sūryā,

Varuṇa‟s fashioning and upholding of the heaven and the earth, Varuṇa‟s cutting out

a pathway for the sun and leading the watery floods of rivers onwards, Aśvin‟s

restoring youth to the sage Cyavana and rendering him desirable to his wife, the

81. cf., Keith, A.B., op. cit., Part-I, p. 83. Also see H.D. Griswold, op. cit., p. 24; fn. 1, p. 166. The
fully developed conception of ṛta, i.e. order dates back to the Indo-Iranian period, although
it was present earlier implicitly in the Indo-European period. For ṛta, see RV., I.65.3;
I.164.11; II.32.1; I.105.6; III.6.6; 7.2; V.7.3; 63.7; VI.15.14; VIII.6.2; 76.12; 100.4; IX.7.1;
86.32; 89.2; X.5.4; 8.5; 10.6; TS., 1.1.9.3, etc.
82. Agni is called ṛtajāta, cf., RV., III.20.2.
83. cf., ibid., X.8.5.
84. cf., ibid., I.2.8; I.23.5.
 22

strides of Viṣṇu, the creation of the world from the body of the primeval giant, and so

on.85

(c) Number and Classification of Vedic Gods: A large number of gods

have been eulogized in the Vedic literature.86 However, the number of gods generally

considered in Vedic treatises is „thirty-three‟.87 All these thirty-three gods are

distributed as eleven in heaven, eleven on earth and eleven in atmosphere. The

following verse of the Ṛksaṁhitā gives the evidence for this –

ye devāso divyekādaśa stha pṛthivyāmadhyekādaśa stha

88
apsukṣito mahinaikādaśa stha te devāso yajñamimaṁ juṣadhvam

According to Sāyaṇa, although the representative gods of the three worlds are three in

number, yet through their greatness or varied manifestations they number thirty-

three.89 Thus, the Ṛgveda itself gives the oldest classification of Vedic gods according

to their three different dwellings.90 In this context it should however be recalled that

the common place of dwelling of all the gods is heaven. The three regions assigned to

them are to be looked upon as their places of activities (karmādhisthāna). Again, the

thrice eleven gods are mentioned with another Vedic god Soma.91 In another verse of

the Ṛgveda, mention has been made to „three thousand, three hundred, thirty and

85. cf., RV., I.32; II.10.108; II.19.3; X.8.9; X.85; VII.86.1; VII.87.5; 6; VII.87.1; I.116.10; VIII.29.7;
I.154.5; X.90, etc.
86. cf., ibid., III.6.9; VIII.35.3; IX.92.4; III.9.9. Also see ibid., XI.5.2.
87. cf., ibid., I.34.11; I.45.2; I.139.11. Also see VS., XIV.31; AV., X.7.27, etc.
88. RV., I.139.11. Also see VS., VII.19; TS., I.4.10.1.
89. cf., Sāyaṇa on RV., I.139.11.
90. cf., ŚB., 14.3.2.4-9.
91. RV., IX.92.4.
 23

nine‟ (3,339) gods along with Agni.92 The Atharvaveda-Saṁhitā counts the number

of the Gandharvas, i.e. demi-gods alone as six thousand, three hundred and thirty-

three (6,333), thereby indicating a large sum of total Vedic gods. 93 In the Ṛksaṁhitā

the three gods, viz. Sūrya, Vāyu and Agni are invoked for bestowing protection from

the calamities that may befall on man from the three regions, viz. heaven, atmosphere

and earth respectively and each god representing each region as its presiding deity.

The following Ṛgvedic verse expresses this as –

sūryo no divaspātu vāto’ntarikṣāt

94
agnirnaḥ pārthivebhyaḥ

These three gods as the masters of three worlds are eulogized in the Aitareya

Brāhmaṇa,95 Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa96 and the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa.97 The number of

three primary Vedic deities is also stated in the Nirukta98 of Yāska and the

Bṛhaddevatā99 of Śaunaka. In these two treatises it is mentioned that owing to the

supereminence or the diversity of action of the three gods (viz. Agni, Vāyu or Indra,

and Sūrya) each one of them receives many names.100 The various qualities and

92. RV., III.9.9.

93. cf., AV., XI.5.2.
94. RV., X.158.1.
95. cf., AB., 2.17.17; 5.32.1.
96. cf., KB., 8.8.
97. cf., ŚB., 11.2.3.1.
98. cf., tisra eva devatā iti nairuktāḥ agni pṛthivīsthānaḥ vāyurvendro vāntarikṣasthānaḥ sūryo
dyusthānaḥ , Nir., 7.5.
99. cf., agnirasminnathendrastu madhyato vāyureva ca
sūryo divīti vijñeyāstisra eveha devatāḥ , BD., I.69.
100. cf., tāsāṁ māhābhāgyādekaikasyā api bahūni nāmadheyāni bhavanti api vā karmapṛthaktvāt ,
Nir., 7.5. Also see BD., I.70.
 24

functions of Agni give birth to his various appellations, such as Jātaveda, Vaiśvānara,

Tanūnapāt, Narāśaṁsa, etc. Thus, the names like Indra, Rudra, Marut, Mātariśvan,

Apāṁnapāt, etc. represent various activities and qualities of Vāyu, and Āditya, Mitra,

Varuṇa, Viṣṇu, Pūṣan, Bhaga, Uṣas, Savitṛ, the Aśvins, etc. are the various names of

Sūrya. All these names and epithets representing different aspects of the three

different primary deities are worshipped as different manifestations of the powers of

the three gods. And when observed from philosophical point of view it is seen that

these three primary gods are also three different manifestations of the One Supreme

Godhead. This fact has actually been clearly observed in the following Ṛgvedic verse

which says –

indraṁ mitraṁ varuṇamagnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo garutmān

101
ekaṁ sadviprā bahudhā vadantyagniṁ yamaṁ mātariśvānamāhuḥ

[They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is

heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.

To what is One, sages give many a title: they call it

Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.]102

This very idea is also echoed in another verse of the Ṛgveda which is X.114.5.103

Again, in another hymn of this Veda the last pāda of each verse reads as –

101. RV., I.164.46. Also see AV., IX.10.28.

102. Griffith, R.T.H., THE HYMNS OF THE ṚGVEDA, Delhi, New Revised Edition 1973, Reprinted
1986, p. 113.
103. ekaṁ santaṁ bahudhā kalpayanti, RV., X.114.5.
 25

mahaddevānāmasuratvamekam.104 The implication of this refrain is that there exists

in the plurality of gods one single life-yielding power. And this power is in reality,

nothing but one single Supreme Soul. This single Supreme Soul manifests itself as

various deities, as stated in the Ṛgdeva and the Śukla-Yajuveda and as supported by

the Nirukta and the Bṛhaddevatā.105 According to Yāska, all the deities are the

individual limbs of the single Soul.106

As to the classification of the Vedic gods,107 the earliest one which is done in

accordance with the three regions (worlds) is already mentioned above. Another

classification is seen according to the gender of the gods, i.e. male and female. Thus,

the Vedic religion has various gods and goddesses. Of these the goddesses may be

grouped as follows -- (a) those having a natural basis, such as Pṛthivī (earth), Uṣas

(dawn), Vāc (speech), Rātri (night), Sarasvatī (the river), etc., (b) goddesses who are

personifications of abstract feminine nouns, such as Iḷā, (nourishment), Dhiṣaṇā

(abundance), etc., and (c) those as wives of gods, such as Agnāyī (wife of Agni),

Indrāṇī (wife of Indra), Varuṇānī (wife of Varuṇa), and so on and so forth. So far as

the classification of the male deities is considered, it has already been taken into

consideration while discussing the nature of the gods in general.

104. RV., III.55.

105. cf., ekaṁ vā idaṁ vi babhūva sarvam, ibid., VIII.58.2; māhābhāgyad devatāyā eka ātmā
bahudhā stūyate, Nir., 7.4.; tasyātmā bahudhā hi saḥ, BD., IV.143.
106. cf., ekasyātmano’nye devāḥ pratyaṅgāni bhavanti, Nir., 7.4.
107. Griswold has shown certain principles of the classification of the Vedic gods in his „The
Religion of the Ṛigveda‟, p. 102.
 26

Another class of the Vedic gods is constituted by the so-called „dual

divinities‟ in which each pair is looked upon as one single deity. They form the

smallest group of Vedic gods. The Vedic dual divinities are – Dyāvāpṛthivī, Mitrā-

Varuṇā, Indrāgnī, Indrā-Varuṇā, Indrā-Vayū, iIdrā-Somā, Indrā-Viṣṇū, Naktā-Uṣasā,

Sūryā-Māsā and Aśvinā.

The Vedic pantheon also includes small groups of gods, like the Ādityas,

Vasus, Rudras, Maruts, Aṅgirases, Ṛbhus, Gandharvas, Apsarases, Viśvedevas, etc.

The classification of gods is also seen according to the similarity of their

functions. For instance, Agni and Bṛhaspati are the priest-gods; Indra and the Maruts

are the warrior-gods; Tvaṣṭṛ and the Ṛbhus are artisans, the Aśvins, Rudra, the

Maruts, Varuṇa, Vāta, Soma and the Waters are physicians; Parjanya, Varuṇa, Indra,

Dyaus, Rudra and the Maruts are in general the rain-gods; Indra, Trita-Āptya, etc. are

the gods of lightning; Agni, Indra and Sūrya are in general the gods of light, and so

forth. Griswold has stated that although considerable overlapping and extensive scope

have been seen in case of the functions of the Vedic gods, yet on the whole they are

„departmental deities.‟108 All these classifications become merged into the one and

only Supreme Godhead of Monotheistic belief. In this way the Vedic religion travels

through polytheism, Pantheism and Monotheism, thus including in itself a variety of

beliefs.

108. cf., Griswold, H.D., ibid., p. 105.