Social behavior

Social behavior is behavior among two or more

organisms within the same species, and encompasses
any behavior in which one member affects the other.
This is due to an interaction among those members.[1][2]
Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of
goods, with the expectation that when you give, you
will receive the same.[3] This behavior can be effected
by both the qualities of the individual and the
environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social
behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the
two—the organism and its environment. This means
that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be A colony of Northern gannet gathered around. A
determined by both the individual characteristics of the fine example of social behavior.
person, and the situation they are in.[4]

A major aspect of social behavior is communication, which is the basis for survival and reproduction.[5]
Social behavior is said to be determined by two different processes, that can either work together or oppose
one another. The dual-systems model of reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior came out
of the realization that behavior cannot just be determined by one single factor. Instead, behavior can arise by
those consciously behaving (where there is an awareness and intent), or by pure impulse. These factors that
determine behavior can work in different situations and moments, and can even oppose one another. While
at times one can behave with a specific goal in mind, other times they can behave without rational control,
and driven by impulse instead.[6]

There are also distinctions between different types of social behavior, such as mundane versus defensive
social behavior. Mundane social behavior is a result of interactions in day-to-day life, and are behaviors
learned as one is exposed to those different situations. On the other hand, defensive behavior arises out of
impulse, when one is faced with conflicting desires.[7]

Contents
The development of social behavior
Patterns of development across the lifespan
Neural and biological correlates of social behavior
Neural correlates
Biological correlates
Affect and social behavior
Electronic media and social behavior
Aggressive and violent behavior
Verbal, coverbal, and nonverbal social behavior
Verbal and coverbal behaviors
Nonverbal behaviors
Disorders involving impairments in social behavior
See also
References

The development of social behavior

Social behavior constantly changes as one continues to grow and develop, reaching different stages of life.
The development of behavior is deeply tied with the biological and cognitive changes one is experiencing at
any given time. This creates general patterns of social behavior development in humans.[8] Just as social
behavior is influenced by both the situation and an individual's characteristics, the development of behavior
is due to the combination of the two as well—the temperament of the child along with the settings they are
exposed to.[9][7]

Culture (parents and individuals that influence socialization in children) play a large role in the development
of a child's social behavior, as the parents or caregivers are typically those who decide the settings and
situations that the child is exposed to. These various settings the child is placed in (for example, the
playground and classroom) form habits of interaction and behavior insomuch as the child being exposed to
certain settings more frequently than others. What takes particular precedence in the influence of the setting
are the people that the child must interact with—their age, sex, and at times culture.[7]

Emotions also play a large role in the development of social behavior, as they are intertwined with the way
an individual behaves. Through social interactions, emotion is understood through various verbal and
nonverbal displays, and thus plays a large role in communication. Many of the processes that occur in the
brain and underlay emotion often greatly correlate with the processes that are needed for social behavior as
well. A major aspect of interaction is understanding how the other person thinks and feels, and being able to
detect emotional states becomes necessary for individuals to effectively interact with one another and
behave socially.[10]

As the child continues to gain social information, their behavior develops accordingly.[5] One must learn
how to behave according to the interactions and people relevant to a certain setting, and therefore begin to
intuitively know the appropriate form of social interaction depending on the situation. Therefore, behavior is
constantly changing as required, and maturity brings this on. A child must learn to balance their own desires
with those of the people they interact with, and this ability to correctly respond to contextual cues and
understand the intentions and desires of another person improves with age.[7] That being said, the individual
characteristics of the child (their temperament) is important to understanding how the individual learns
social behaviors and cues given to them, and this learnability is not consistent across all children.[9]

Patterns of development across the lifespan

When studying patterns of biological development across the human lifespan, there are certain patterns that
are well-maintained across humans. These patterns can often correspond with social development, and
biological changes lead to respective changes in interactions.[8]

In pre and post-natal infancy, the behavior of the infant is correlated with that of the caregiver. In infancy,
there is already a development of the awareness of a stranger, in which case the individual is able to identify
and distinguish between people.[8]

Come childhood, the individual begins to attend more to their peers, and communication begins to take a
verbal form. One also begins to classify themselves on the basis of their gender and other qualities salient
about themselves, like race and age.[8]
When the child reaches school age, one typically becomes more aware of the structure of society in regards
to gender, and how their own gender plays a role in this. They become more and more reliant on verbal
forms of communication, and more likely to form groups and become aware of their own role within the
group.[8]

By puberty, general relations among same and opposite sex

individuals are much more salient, and individuals begin to behave
according to the norms of these situations. With increasing
awareness of their sex and stereotypes that go along with it, the
individual begins to choose how much they align with these
stereotypes, and behaves either according to those stereotypes or not.
This is also the time that individuals more often form sexual pairs.[8]

Once the individual reaches childrearing age, one must begin to

An adult and infant
undergo changes within the own behavior in accordance to major
life-changes of a developing family. The potential new child requires
the parent to modify their behavior to accommodate a new member
of the family.[8]

Come senescence and retirement, behavior is more stable as the individual has often established their social
circle (whatever it may be) and is more committed to their social structure.[8]

Neural and biological correlates of social behavior

Neural correlates

With the advent of the field social cognitive neuroscience came

interest in studying social behavior's correlates within the brain, to
see what is happening beneath the surface as organisms act in a
social manner.[11] Although there is debate on which particular
regions of the brain are responsible for social behavior, some have
claimed that the paracingulate cortex is activated when one person is
thinking about the motives or aims of another, a means of
understanding the social world and behaving accordingly. The
medial prefrontal lobe has also been seen to have activation during
Rhesus monkey
social cognition[12] Research has discovered through studies on
rhesus monkeys that the amygdala, a region known for expressing
fear, was activated specifically when the monkeys were faced with a
social situation they had never been in before. This region of the brain was shown to be sensitive to the fear
that comes with a novel social situation, inhibiting social interaction.[13]

Another form of studying the brain regions that may be responsible for social behavior has been through
looking at patients with brain injuries who have an impairment in social behavior. Lesions in the prefrontal
cortex that occurred in adulthood can effect the functioning of social behavior. When these lesions or a
dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex occur in infancy/early on in life, the development of proper moral and
social behavior is effected and thus atypical.[14]

Biological correlates
Along with neural correlates, research has investigated what happens
within the body (and potentially modulates) social behavior.
Vasopressin is a posterior pituitary hormone that is seen to
potentially play a role in affiliation for young rats. Along with young
rats, vasopressin has also been associated with paternal behavior in
prairie voles. Efforts have been made to connect animal research to
humans, and found that vasopressin may play a role in the social
responses of males in human research.[15]

Oxytocin has also been seen to be correlated with positive social

behavior, and elevated levels have been shown to potentially help
improve social behavior that may have been suppressed due to
stress. Thus, targeting levels of oxytocin may play a role in Anatomical location of the amygdala
interventions of disorders that deal with atypical social behavior.[16]

Along with vasopressin, serotonin has also been inspected in relation to social
behavior in humans. It was found to be associated with human feelings of social
connection, and we see a drop in serotonin when one is socially isolated or has
feelings of social isolation. Serotonin has also been associated with social
confidence.[15]

Affect and social behavior A prairie vole

Positive affect (emotion) has been seen to have a large impact on social behavior,
particularly by inducing more helping behavior, cooperation, and sociability.[17] Studies have shown that
even subtly inducing positive affect within individuals caused greater social behavior and helping. This
phenomenon, however, is not one-directional. Just as positive affect can influence social behavior, social
behavior can have an influence on positive affect.[18]

Electronic media and social behavior

Social behavior has typically been seen as a changing of behaviors relevant to the situation at hand, acting
appropriately with the setting one is in. However, with the advent of electronic media, people began to find
themselves in situations they may have not been exposed to in everyday life. Novel situations and
information presented through electronic media has formed interactions that are completely new to people.
While people typically behaved in line with their setting in face-to-face interaction, the lines have become
blurred when it comes to electronic media. This has led to a cascade of results, as gender norms started to
merge, and people were coming in contact with information they had never been exposed to through face-to-
face interaction. A political leader could no longer tailor a speech to just one audience, for their speech
would be translated and heard by anyone through the media. People can no longer play drastically different
roles when put in different situations, because the situations overlap more as information is more readily
available. Communication flows more quickly and fluidly through media, causing behavior to merge
accordingly.[19]

Media has also been shown to have an impact on promoting different types of social behavior, such as
prosocial and aggressive behavior. For example, violence shown through the media has been seen to lead to
more aggressive behavior in its viewers.[20][21] Research has also been done investigating how media
portraying positive social acts, prosocial behavior, could lead to more helping behavior in its viewers. The
general learning model was established to study how this process of translating media into behavior works,
and why.[22][23] This model suggests a link between positive media with prosocial behavior and violent
media with aggressive behavior, and posits that this is mediated by the characteristics of the individual
watching along with the situation they are in. This model also
presents the notion that when one is exposed to the same type of
media for long periods of time, this could even lead to changes
within their personality traits, as they are forming different sets of
knowledge and may be behaving accordingly.[24]

In various studies looking specifically at how video games with

prosocial content effect behavior, it was shown that exposure
influenced subsequent helping behavior in the video-game
player.[23] The processes that underlay this effect point to prosocial
thoughts being more readily available after playing a video game
related to this, and thus the person playing the game is more likely to
behave accordingly.[25][26] These effects were not only found with An example of helping behavior
video games, but also with music, as people listening to songs
involving aggression and violence in the lyrics were more likely to
act in an aggressive manner.[27] Likewise, people listening to songs related to prosocial acts (relative to a
song with neutral lyrics) were shown to express greater helping behaviors and more empathy
afterwards.[28][29] When these songs were played at restaurants, it even led to an increase in tips given
(relative to those who heard neutral lyrics).[30][24]

Aggressive and violent behavior

See article: Aggression

Aggression is an important social behavior that can have both negative consequences (in a social
interaction) and adaptive consequences (adaptive in humans and other primates for survival). There are
many differences in aggressive behavior, and a lot of these differences are sex-difference based.[31]

Verbal, coverbal, and nonverbal social behavior

Verbal and coverbal behaviors

See articles: Conversation and Language

Although most animals can communicate nonverbally, humans have

the ability to communicate with both verbal and nonverbal behavior.
Verbal behavior is the content one's spoken word.[32] Verbal and
nonverbal behavior intersect in what is known as coverbal behavior,
which is nonverbal behavior that contribute to the meaning of verbal
speech (i.e. hand gestures used to emphasize the importance of what
someone is saying).[33] Although the spoken words convey meaning
in and of themselves, one cannot dismiss the coverbal behaviors that
accompany the words, as they place great emphasis on the thought An example of hand gestures and
and importance contributing to the verbal speech.[34][33] Therefore, facial expression accompanying
the verbal behaviors and gestures that accompany it work together to speech.
make up a conversation.[34] Although many have posited this idea
that nonverbal behavior accompanying speech serves an important
role in communication, it is important to note that not all researchers agree.[35][33] However, in most
literature on gestures, we see that unlike body language, gestures can accompany speech in ways that bring
inner thoughts to life (often thoughts unable to be expressed verbally).[36] Gestures (coverbal behaviors) and
speech occur simultaneously, and develop along the same trajectory within children as well.[36]

Nonverbal behaviors

See main article: Nonverbal communication

Behaviors that include any change in facial expression or body

movement constitute the meaning of nonverbal behavior.[37][38]
Communicative nonverbal behavior include facial and body
expressions that are intentionally meant to convey a message to
those who are meant to receive it.[38] Nonverbal behavior can serve
a specific purpose (i.e. to convey a message), or can be more of an
impulse/reflex.[38] Paul Ekman, an influential psychologist,
investigated both verbal and nonverbal behavior (and their role in
communication) a great deal, emphasizing how difficult it is to
empirically test such behaviors.[32] Nonverbal cues can serve the
function of conveying a message, thought, or emotion both to the
person viewing the behavior and the person sending these cues.[39]

Disorders involving impairments in social

behavior
An example of a nonverbal behavior
(facial expression, smile)
A number of forms of mental disorder affect social behavior. Social
anxiety disorder is a phobic disorder characterized by a fear of being
judged by others, which manifests itself as a fear of people in
general. Due to this pervasive fear of embarrassing oneself in front of others, it causes those affected to
avoid interactions with other people.[40] Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a neurodevelopmental
disorder mainly identified by its symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Hyperactivity-
Impulsivity may lead to hampered social interactions, as one who displays these symptoms may be socially
intrusive, unable to maintain personal space, and talk over others.[41] The majority of children that display
symptoms of ADHD also have problems with their social behavior.[42][43] Autism Spectrum Disorder is a
neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the functioning of social interaction and communication. People
who fall on the autism spectrum scale may have difficulties in understanding social cues and the emotional
states of others.[44]

Learning disabilities are often defined as a specific deficit in academic achievement; however, research has
shown that with a learning disability can come social skill deficits as well.[45]

See also
Health behavior
Herd behavior
Social learning theory
Social science
Aggression
Violent Behavior
 Sociality
Collective animal behavior

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