CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

CHAPTER 1 – QUALITIES OF MEASUREMENT

1.1 Introduction

• Measurement: a process of comparing an unknown quantity with an

accepted standard quantity.
• It involves connecting in measuring instrument into the system under
consideration and observing the result response of the instrument.
• Measurement serves 3 functions:
• Indication
• Observation and monitoring
• Controlling process
• Instrument: a device used to determine the present value of the quantity
under measurement.

1.2 Performance Characteristics

• A knowledge of the performance characteristic of an instrument is

necessary for selecting suitable instrument for measurement.
• Performance characteristic consists of:
o Static characteristics
o Dynamic characteristics

1.3 Static Characteristics

• Static characteristics are considered when the desired input to the

instrument may be constant or varying slowly with respect to time.
• Example of static characteristics:
o Absolute error / error, e: the difference between the expected value
and the measured value.

where  
 
o Percent error: absolute error in percentage (%)

%  % %

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 1 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

o Accuracy, A: degree of exactness of a measurement compared to

expected (desired) value.

o Percent accuracy, a: accuracy expressed in percentage (%)

o Precision, P: a measure of consistency or repeatability of

measurements

where      
     

o Resolution: the smallest change in a measured value to which an

instrument will respond.
o Sensitivity: the ratio of the change in output to the change of input
measured variable.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 2 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

Example:

The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80V. However the
measurement gives a value of 79V. Calculate:
i. absolute error
ii. % error
iii. relative accuracy
iv. % of accuracy

Solution:
i. Absolute error, Yn − Xn
e = Yn − Xn = 80 − 79 = 1V ii. % error = × 100%
Yn
80 − 79
= × 100% = 1.25%
80

iii. Relative accuracy, iv. % of accuracy,

Y − Xn a = A × 100%
A = 1− n = 0.9875 x 100% = 98.75%
Yn

80 − 79
= 1− = 0.9875
80

Example:

Table 1 gives the set of 5 measurements that were recorded in the lab.
Calculate:
i. the precision of the 2nd measurement
ii. the precision of the 5th measurement
iii. Which measurement is the most precise? Why?

Table 1
No. 1 2 3 4 5
Value 98 101 102 97 103

Solution:
5

∑x n
98 + 101 + 102 + 97 + 103
Average value Xn = 1
= = 100.2
n 5

i. Precision of the 2nd measurement ii. Precision of the 5th measurement

Xn − Xn Xn − Xn
= 1− = 1−
Xn Xn
101 − 100.2 103 − 100.2
= 1− = 0.992 = 1− = 0.972
100.2 100.2

iii. Measurement no. 2 is the most precise since it has the highest precision
compared to other measurement.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 3 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

1.4 Error in Measurement

• It can be classified into two types:

o Static error: errors due to limitation of the measuring devices or the
physical law governing its behavior.
o Dynamic error: errors due to instrument not responding fast enough
to follow the changes in a measured variable.

1.5 Types of Static Error

• Static error can be categorized into 3 types:

o Gross error: cause by human mistakes in reading / using the
instruments / recording observations.
Solution: taking proper care in reading and recording the
measurement parameter, two or more reading should be taken by
different experimenters.
o Systematic error:
ƒ Instrument error: due inherent in measuring instruments,
because of their mechanical structure e.g. internal friction,
irregular spring tension in the instrument.
Solution: select a suitable instrument, calibration.
ƒ Environmental error: due to condition external to the
measuring device, including conditions in the area
surrounding the instruments such as temperature, humidity,
pressure, etc.
Solution: air-conditioning, use magnetic shield.
ƒ Observational error: due to the habits of individual observers
e.g. holding head too far to the left while reading a scale -
parallax error.
ƒ Simplification error: due to simplification of an equation or
value of a measurement.
o Random error: errors that remain after gross and systematic errors
have been reduced or at least accounted for. It can be determined by
statistical analysis.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 4 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

1.6 Dynamic Characteristic

• The dynamic characteristic of an instrument are:

o Speed of the response: the rapidity with which an instrument
responds to changes in the measured quantity.
o Fidelity: the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in
the measured variable without dynamic error
o Lag: the delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured value.
o Dynamic error: the difference between the true value of a quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 5 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

1.7 Statistical Analysis of Error in Measurement

• The statistical analysis of measurement data is important because it allows

an analytical determination of the uncertainty of the final test result
• To make statistical analysis meaningful, a large number of measurements
is usually required

• Arithmetic Mean / Average Mean

n

x + x 2 + x 3 + ..........xn ∑x x
x= 1 = n= 1
x n = n -th reading taken
n n
n = total no. of reading

• Deviation: the difference between each piece of test data and the arithmetic
mean

d1 = x1 − x
d2 = x 2 − x
d3 = x 3 − x
dn = xn − x

*The deviation may be positive or negative

• Algebraic Sum of the Deviation: the total of deviation

dtotal = d1 + d2 + d3 + ............dn

*The algebraic sum of the deviation must be a small number or zero

• Average Deviation: the sum of the absolute value of the deviation divided
by the no. of readings

d1 + d2 + d3 + .......... dn
D=
n

• Standard Deviation: the square root of the sum of all individual deviations
squared, divided by the no. of readings.

d12 + d22 + d32 + .............dn2

σ=
n

*If the no. of reading is less than 30 (n < 30) the denominator is
expressed as (n - 1) to obtain a more accurate value

• Probable Error

r = 0.6745 × σ

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 6 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

Example:

The output voltage of an amplifier was measured by six different students

using the same oscilloscope in the laboratory as shown in Table 2. Calculate:
i. the arithmetic mean ii. deviation
iii. algebraic sum of the deviation iv. average deviation
v. standard deviation vi. probable error
rd
vii. precision of the 3 student
Table 2
Measurement No. Output Voltage
1 20.00
2 19.80
3 19.85
4 20.05
5 20.10
6 20.15

Solution:
i. the arithmetic mean ii. deviation

x1 + x 2 + x 3 + ..........xn d1 = x 1 − x = 20.00 − 19.992 = 0.008

x= d2 = x 2 − x = 19.80 − 19.992 = − 0.192
n
d3 = x 3 − x = 19.85 − 19.992 = − 0.142
20.00 + 19.80 + 19.85 + 20.05 + 20.10 + 20.15 d4 = x 4 − x = 20.05 − 19.992 = 0.058
=
6 d5 = x 5 − x = 20.10 − 19.992 = 0.108
d6 = x 6 − x = 20.15 − 19.992 = 0.158
= 19.992 V
iii. algebraic sum of the deviation iv. average deviation

dtotal = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 + d5 + d6 d1 + d2 + d3 + .......... dn
= 0.008 + ( −0.192) + ( −0.142) + 0.058 + D=
n
0.108 + 0.158 0.008 + −0.192 + −0.142 + 0.058 + 0.108 + 0.158
=
= −0.002 6
= 0.111
v. standard deviation

d12 + d22 + d23 + .............dn2

σ=
n−1
(0.008)2 + (−0.192)2 + (−0.142)2 + (0.058)2 + (0.108)2 + (0.158)2
= = 0.139
6−1

vi. probable error vii. precision of the 3rd student

r = 0.6745 × σ = 0.6745 × 0.139 x n − xn 19.85 − 19.992

= 0.094 = 1− = 1− = 0.993
xn 19.992

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 7 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

Tutorial:
March 2005 Question 1(e)

The diameter of a copper conductor varies over its length are measured by the
4 different observer as shown in the Table 3. Calculate:
i. the arithmetic mean ii. average deviation
iii. standard deviation vi. probable error in percent of the
average of the readings

Table 3
No. of observer No. of measurement Diameter (mm)
1 2 2.21
2 1 2.18
3 3 2.20
4 2 2.22

October 2004 Question 1(d)

The current in a certain circuit has been measured and the results are
tabulated as shown in Table 4.

Table 4
No. of measurement Current (mA)
1 2.50
2 2.45
5 2.25
3 2.55
1 2.30

i. Determine the arithmetic mean

ii. Show that the algebraic sum of the deviation is equal to ZERO
iii. Calculate the probable error
iv. Calculate the precision of the last measurement

March 2004 Question 1(c)

Table 5 shows data obtained in measuring the value of 50.0k Ω resistor which
is used to verify measurement setup performance of different equipments.

Table 5
No. of equipment Value (k Ω )
2 51.3
3 49.7
1 50.8
1 50.3
2 48.9

i. Determine the relative accuracy

ii. Find the precision for each data.
iii. Which data is more precise? Why?

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 8 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

1.8 Limiting Errors

• Limiting error: specification that any instrument can be guaranteed to be
accurate within that specified limit.
• Most manufacturers of measuring instruments specify accuracy within a
certain percent of a full scale reading (full scale defelction).
• Example :
A voltmeter to be accurate within ±2% with full scale deflection (fsd) –
means that a full scale deflection reading is guaranteed to be accurate
within ±2% of a perfectly accurate reading.
• If the reading less than full scale, the limiting error increases.

Example:
A 600V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within ±2% at full scale. Calculate
the limiting error when the instrument is used to measure a voltage of 250V

Solution:
2
The magnitude of the limiting error = × 600 = 12V
100
12
∴ The limiting error of 250V is × 100 = ±4.8%
250
The voltage can be written as V = 250V ± 4.8%

Example:
A voltmeter reading 70V on its 100V range and an ammeter reading 80mA on
its 150mA range are used to determine the power dissipated in a resistor. Both
these instrument are guaranteed to be accurate within ±1.5% at full scale
deflection. Determine limiting error for the voltmeter and the ammeter.

Solution:
Voltmeter Ammeter
1.5 x 100 = 1.5V 1.5 x 150 = 2.25mA
100 100
∴ Limiting error at 70V ∴ Limiting error at 70V
1.5 x 100 = ±2.143% 2.25 x 100 =± 2.813%
70 80
V = 70V ± 2.143% I = 80mA ± 2.813%

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 9 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

1.9 Total Measurement System Errors

• A measurement system often consists of several separate components,

each of which is subject to systematic & random errors
• Mechanisms have now been presented for quantifying the errors arising
from each of these sources and therefore the total error at the output of
each measurement system can be calculated
• Total measurement system errors can be classified into 3 cases:
o Error in a sum
o Error in a multiplication
o Error in a power factor

1.9.1 Error in a Sum

If x=a+b+c
∴ Percent error of x (% error x)
⎡⎛ a da ⎞ ⎛ b db ⎞ ⎛ c dc ⎞ ⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × ⎟+⎜ × ⎟+⎜ × ⎟ ⎥ × 100%
⎣⎝ x a ⎠ ⎝ x b ⎠ ⎝ x c ⎠ ⎦
⎡⎛ a ⎞ ⎛b ⎞ ⎛c ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × (% error a) ⎟ + ⎜ × (% error b) ⎟ + ⎜ × (% error c) ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ x ⎠ ⎝x ⎠ ⎝x ⎠⎦

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 10 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

Example:
Calculate the maximum percentage error in the sum of three voltage
measurements when V1 = 100V±1%, V2 = 80V±5% and V3 = 8V±2%. Express your
answer in percent error and absolute error. What is the minimum and
maximum value or the sum of three voltage measurements?

Solution:
Magnitude:
VTOTAL = V1 + V2 + V3
= 100 + 80 + 8 =188V

% Error
⎡ ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛ V3 ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × (% error V1 ) ⎟ + ⎜ × (% error V2 ) ⎟ + ⎜ × (% error V3 ) ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ VTOTAL ⎠ ⎝ VTOTAL ⎠ ⎝ VTOTAL ⎠ ⎦⎥

⎡ ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ 80 ⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × (1) ⎟ + ⎜ × (5) ⎟ + ⎜ × (2) ⎟ ⎥ = ± 2.745%
⎣ ⎝ 188 ⎠ ⎝ 188 ⎠ ⎝ 188 ⎠⎦

VTOTAL= 188V ± 2.745% (in percent error)

2.745 x 188 = 5.16 Ω

100
VTOTAL = 188 ± 5.16 Ω (in absolute error)

Minimum value
VTOTAL = 188 - 5.16 = 182.84 Ω

Maximum value
VTOTAL = 188 + 5.16 = 193.16 Ω

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 11 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

Example:

Consider a four decade resistor box having:

Decade ‘a’ of 10x1000 ± 1 Ω
Decade ‘b’ of 10x100 ± 0.1 Ω
Decade ‘c’ of 10x10 ± 0.05 Ω
Decade ‘d’ of 10x1 ± 0.01 Ω
and set to 5643 Ω . Calculate the error of the set value.

x1000 x100 x10 x1

3
6 4
5

Resistor Box

Solution:

Decade ‘a’ of 10x1000 ± 1 Ω ( 0.1% ) ⇒ 5000 Ω ± 0.1%

Decade ‘b’ of 10x100 ± 0.1 Ω ( 0.1% ) ⇒ 600 Ω ± 0.1%
Decade ‘c’ of 10x10 ± 0.05 Ω ( 0.5% ) ⇒ 40 Ω ± 0.5%
Decade ‘d’ of 10x1 ± 0.01 Ω ( 1.0% ) ⇒ 3 Ω ± 1%

Magnitude:
RTOTAL = 5000 + 600 + 40 + 3 = 5643 Ω

% Error
⎡⎛ 5000 ⎞ ⎛ 600 ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × (0.1) ⎟ + ⎜ × (0.1) ⎟ + ⎜ × (0.5) ⎟ + ⎜ × (1) ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 5643 ⎠ ⎝ 5643 ⎠ ⎝ 5643 ⎠ ⎝ 5643 ⎠⎦
= ± 0.103%

So the total resistor is 5643 Ω ± 0.103%

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 12 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

1.9.2 Error in a Multiplication / Division

For X = A x B
∴ Percent error of X (% error X) = ± [ (% error A) + (% error B) ]

For X = A
B
∴ Percent error of X (% error X) = ± [ (% error A) + (% error B) ]

For X = A B
CD
∴ Percent error of X (% error X) =
± [ (% error A)+(% error B)+(% error C)+(% error D) ]

Example:
A voltmeter reading 70V on its 100V range and an ammeter reading 80mA on
its 150mA range are used to determine the power dissipated in a resistor. Both
these instrument are guaranteed to be accurate within ±1.5% at full scale
deflection. Determine the limiting error of the power.

Solution:
Voltmeter Ammeter
1.5 x 100 = 1.5V 1.5 x 150 = 2.25mA
100 100
∴ Limiting error at 70V ∴ Limiting error at 80mA
1.5 x 100 = ±2.143% 2.25 x 100 =± 2.813%
70 80
V = 70V ± 2.143% I = 80mA ± 2.813%

Power, P = V I

Magnitude of P % Error of P (Limiting error of P)

-3
P = 70 x (80x10 ) = 5.6W (% Error P) = ± (2.143 + 2.813) = ±
4.956%

∴ Power P = 5.6W ± 4.956%

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 13 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

1.9.3 Error in a Power Factor

For X = AB

∴ Percent error of X (% error X) = ± B x (% error A)

Example:

A 820 Ω resistor with an accuracy of ±10% carries a current of 10mA. The

current was measured by an analogue ammeter on a 25mA range with an
accuracy of ±2% of full scale. Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor

Solution:

R = 820 Ω ±10%

Magnitude error I
2 x 25mA = ± 0.5mA
100

for 10mA, the % error is 0.5 x 100 = ± 5%

10
So I = 10mA ± 5%

Power dissipated P = I2 R

Magnitude % Error P
-3 2 -3
P = (10x10 ) (820) = 82x10 W = ± [ 2 (% error I) + (%error R) ]
= ± [2 (5%) + (10%) ] = ± 20%

Power P = 82x10-3 ± 20%

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 14 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

March 2005 Question 1(b)

The voltage across a resistor is 20V with a probable error of ± 2% and the
resistance is 25 Ω with a probable error ± 1%. Calculate the power dissipated in
the resistor and its percentage error

Solution:
Power dissipated, P = V2
R
Magnitude % Error P
P = V2 = 202 = 16W = ± [ 2 (% error V) + (% error R) ]
R 25 = ± [ 2(2) + 1 ] = ± 5%

∴ Power dissipated P = 16W ± 5%

March 2005 Question 1(d)

Using the circuit shown in Figure Q1d, calculate the voltage across resistor R1
or VR1 and its relative error. Given
R1 = 10k Ω ± 0.5%, R2 = 5k Ω ± 0.2%, R3 = 5k Ω ± 0.1%, R4 = 1k Ω ± 2%, VIN = 20V
± 0.2%

R1 R3

Vin
R4
R2

Figure Q1d

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 15 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

Solution:
Let RA = R3 + R4
Magnitude RA % Error RA
= 5k + 1k = 6k Ω ⎡⎛ R ⎞ ⎛R ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢ ⎜ 3 × (% error R 3 ) ⎟ + ⎜ 4 × (% error R 4 ) ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ R A ⎠ ⎝ RA ⎠ ⎦⎥

⎡⎛ 5k ⎞ ⎛ 1k ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × (0.1) ⎟ + ⎜ × (2) ⎟ ⎥ = ±0.42%
⎣⎝ 6k ⎠ ⎝ 6k ⎠⎦

∴ RA = 6k Ω ± 0.42%

Let RB = R2 // RA = R2 RA
R2 + RA
Magnitude R2 RA % Error R2 RA
= (5k) (6k) = 30 x 10 Ω 6
= ± [ 0.2 + 0.42 ] = ± 0.62%

Magnitude R2 + RA % Error R2 + RA
= 5k+ 6k = 11k Ω ⎡⎛ R 2 ⎞ ⎛ RA ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × (% error R 2 ) ⎟ + ⎜ × (% error R A ) ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ R 2 + R A ⎠ ⎝ R2 + R A ⎠ ⎦⎥

⎡⎛ 5k ⎞ ⎛ 6k ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × (0.2) ⎟ + ⎜ × (0.42) ⎟ ⎥ = ± 0.32%
⎣⎝ 11k ⎠ ⎝ 11k ⎠⎦
RB = R2 RA
R2 + RA
% Error RB
Magnitude RB = 30 x 10 = 2.73k Ω
6
= ± [(% Error R2 RA) + (% Error R2 + RA)
11 x 103 = ± [ 0.62 + 0.32 ] = ± 0.94%

Voltage across R1 or VR1 = R1 x VIN

R1+RB

Magnitude R1+RB % Error R1+RB

= 10k + 2.73k =12.73k Ω =
⎡⎛ R1 ⎞ ⎛ RB ⎞⎤
± ⎢⎜ × (% error R 1 ) ⎟ + ⎜ × (% error R B ) ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ R 1 + R B ⎠ ⎝ R1 + RB ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎡⎛ 10k ⎞ ⎛ 2.73k ⎞⎤
= ± ⎢⎜ × (0.5) ⎟ + ⎜ × (0.94) ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 10k + 2.73k ⎠ ⎝ 10k + 2.73k ⎠⎦
=± 0.59%

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 16 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

Magnitude VR1
= R1 x VIN % Error VR1
R1+RB = ± [ (% error R1) + (% error R1+RB) + (% error VIN) ]
= 10k x 20 = 15.71V = ± [ 0.5 + 0.59 + 0.2 ] = ± 1.29%
10k + 2.73k Therefore the voltage VR1 = 15.71V ± 1.29%

April 2007 Question 1(b)

An ammeter with 0 – 120 mA range has a ± 0.2% uncertainty at full scale

deflection is used to measure the grid current, Ig, of the circuit in Figure 1(b).
The meter reads 40mA. Given that R1 = 200Ω ±5%, R2 = 250Ω ±0.5% and R3 =
300Ω ±2%. Calculate;

(i) The current through R2 and its percentage error.

(ii) The dissipated power by R3 and its percentage error.

Figure 1(b)

November 2007 Question 1(d)

a) For the circuit of Figure Q1d, calculate the following by expressing your
answer in term of absolute and percent error
(i) Total resistance in the circuit
(ii) Current through R3
Given VDC = 12V ± 1.2% , R 1 = 300Ω ± 1.5% , R 2 = 250Ω ± 2% ,
R 3 = 470Ω ± 1% , R 4 = 500Ω ± 0.5%
R2

VDC R1 R3 R4

Figure Q1d

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 17 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 1 – Qualities of Measurement

1.10 Standards of Measurements

• Standard: physical representation of the unit of measurement.
• These standards are used to determine the values of other physical
quantities by the comparison method.
• Standards can be classified based on their function and application into 4
categories:
1. International standard:
ƒ Defined by international agreement.
ƒ Represents the unit of measurements of various physical
quantities e.g. mass, time, frequency, electricity to the
highest possible accuracy that is attainable by the use of
advanced techniques of production and measurement
technology.
ƒ Maintained by International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Sevres, France.
• http://www.bipm.org/en/home/
2. Primary standard:
ƒ Maintained at the National Standards Laboratories in
different countries.
ƒ Use to calibrate and, check and certify secondary
standards.
3. Secondary standard:
ƒ Basic reference standards employed by industrial
measurement laboratories.
ƒ Each industry has its own secondary standard and
periodically checked by National Standards Laboratories
4. Working standard:
ƒ Principle tools in measurement laboratories.
ƒ Used to check laboratory instrument for accuracy and
performance.
ƒ Example: standard resistor for checking of resistance
value manufactured.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 18 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

CHAPTER 2 – MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

2.1. Basic Meter Movement

• The action of the most commonly analog meter is based on the

fundamental principle of motor.
• The motor action is produced by the flow of a small current through a
moving coil which is positioned in the field of a permanent magnet. The
basic moving coil system is called d’Arsonval meter or Permanent Magnet
Moving Coil (PMMC) meter.
• The coil (rotor) moves in a rotary fashion. The amount of rotation is
proportional to the amount of current flowing through the coil.
• A pointer attached to the coil indicates the position of the coil on a scale
calibrated in terms of current or voltage.

Figure 2.1: Basic meter movement

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 19 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.2. Principle Operation of a PMMC Meter

• Figure 2.2 shows a basic construction of PMMC meter. A coil is suspended

in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet in the shape of a horse-shoe.
• A spring is attached to the coil. The functions of the spring are:
o To make electrical connections to the coil.
o To return the coil to its original position when there is no current
through the coil.
o To resist the movement of when there is current through the coil.
• When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field reacts
with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet generating an
electromagnetic (EM) torque, causing the coil to rotate.
• The torque is counter-balanced by a mechanical torque of spring.
• The amount of balance torque is indicated by a pointer against a fixed
reference called a scale.

Figure 2.2: Basic construction of a PMMC meter

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 20 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC Meter

Advantages Disadvantages

Can be modified using shunt to cover

Can measure only dc current / voltage
a wide range of currents / voltages
No hysteresis loss Friction due to jewel-pivot suspension
Some errors due to ageing of control
Cheap and robust
springs and the permanent
Low power consumption
Scales are uniform

2.4. DC Ammeter

• Since the coil winding is small and light, it can carry only a small current.
• When large current to be measured, it is necessary to bypass a major part
of current through a resistor called shunt resistor, Rsh.

I
I = full scale deflection current of
the ammeter
Im
Ish Im = full scale deflection current of
the moving coil

Rsh Rm Ish = current through shunt

resistor
Rm = internal resistance of meter
Rsh = shunt resistor

Figure 2.3: Basic dc ammeter circuit

• Refer to Figure 2.3, the value of shunt resistor, Rsh can be calculated as
follows:

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 21 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Example:
A 1mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100Ω is to be converted
into 0-100mA dc ammeter. Calculate the value of shunt resistor.

Solution:

Example:

You are given a meter with the following specifications:

o Internal resistance = 200Ω
o Full scale deflection current of the moving coil = 2mA
Design a dc ammeter with a current range of 0 – 1A.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 22 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.5. Ayrton Shunt

• An Ayrton shunt extends the current ranges by a number of shunts.

• Figure 2.4 shows a basic design of an Ayrton shunt with three (3) ranges of
current.

Rm Im

Ish

Rc Rb Ra
I3 B I2 I1
A
C
* Note: I1 < I2 < I3
- +
Figure 2.4: Basic design of an Ayrton shunt
At point A:
         … … … … … . . .

                       … … … . … … . . .

At point B:

From Equation (2.1),

                         … … … . … … . . .

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 23 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

At point C:

From Equation (2.1),

                          … … … . … … . . .

• The value of Rb can be found by substituting Equation (2.4) into Equation

(2.3)
• The value of Ra can be found by substituting Equation (2.3) into Equation
(2.1)

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 24 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Example:
Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with current ranges of 1A, 5A
and 10A. A d’Arsonval meter movement with an internal resistance of 100Ω and
full-scale deflection current of 1mA is used as shown in Figure 2.5.

Rm Im

Ish

Rc Rb Ra
10A B 5A A 1A

- +
Figure 2.5

Solution:
At point A

At point B
.
.

At point C
.
.

. . .

. . .

   . , .           .  

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 25 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.6. Ammeter Insertion Effect

• All ammeters contain internal resistance.

• Inserting an ammeter in a circuit will increase the resistance, hence
reducing the current.
• Consider the current flow in the circuit without ammeter as shown in Figure
2.6. (Iactual = current without inserting an ammeter)

Iactual R
V

Figure 2.6

• Inserting an ammeter will reduce the current to:

Rm

Im R
V

Figure 2.7

• The insertion error of an ammeter is defined as:

    %

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 26 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Example:
An ammeter with internal resistance of 100Ω and full scale deflection current of
0.1A is used to measure current in the circuit as shown in Figure 2.8.
Determine the insertion error.

Figure 2.8

Solution:

     %

. .
.

. %

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 27 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.7. DC Voltmeter

• A PMMC meter can be converted to a voltmeter by connecting a multiplier,

Rs in series with the meter.
• The purpose of the multiplier Rs is to extend the range of meter and to limit
the current through the meter to the maximum full-scale deflection current.

Figure 2.9
• The sensitivity of the voltmeter is defined as:

,       /   

• Refer to Figure 2.9, the multiplier Rs can be determined as:

Or

Example:
A basic PMMC meter movement with full scale deflection current of 50µA and
has an internal resistance of 500Ω is used as a voltmeter. Determine the value
of the multiplier, Rs needed to measure a voltage range of 0 – 10V.

Solution:

.  

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 28 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.8. Multirange DC Voltmeter

• A dc voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by connecting

a number of multipliers to provide a number of ranges as shown in Figure
2.10.

Figure 2.10

Example:

Refer to Figure 2.10. A PMMC meter movement with full scale deflection current
of 2mA and has an internal resistance of 50Ω is to be converted into a
multirange voltmeter with voltage range V1 = 0 – 10V, V2 = 0 – 50V and V3 = 0 –
100V. Identify the value of R1, R2 and R3.

Solution:

For 0 – 10V range:

.  

For 0 – 50V range:

.  

For 0 – 10V range:

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 29 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.9. Loading Effect

• A voltmeter when connected across two points in a highly resistive

circuits, act as a shunt for that portion, reducing the total equivalent
resistance of that portion.
• The voltmeter then indicates a lower reading than the actual value. This is
called the loading effect.

Example:

Figure 2.11 shows a series circuit consists of resistor R1 and R2, connected to
a 100V dc source. The voltage across R2 is to be measured by two voltmeters
as follows:
• Voltmeter A: S = 1000 Ω/V, range = 50V
• Voltmeter B: S = 20000 Ω/V, range = 50V
Determine:
i) The actual voltage (before the meter is connected).
ii) Measured voltage using Voltmeter A.
iii) Measured voltage using Voltmeter B.
iv) Errors in both Voltmeter A and B.
v) Which voltmeter gives more accurate reading? Justify your answer.

Figure 2.11

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 30 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Solution:
i) Actual voltage

ii) Measured voltage using Voltmeter A

Internal resistance of Voltmeter A:

Equivalent resistance:

// // .

Measured voltage using Voltmeter A

.
.
.

iii) Measured voltage using Voltmeter B

Internal resistance of Voltmeter B:

Equivalent resistance:

// // .

Measured voltage using Voltmeter B

.
.
.

iv) Errors in Voltmeter A

.
. %

Errors in Voltmeter B
.
. %

v) Voltmeter B gives more accurate reading. Since error in Voltmeter B

is less than error in Voltmeter A.
*High sensitivity voltmeter should be used to get accurate readings.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 31 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.10. AC Voltmeter

• A PMMC meter can be used to measure ac current and voltage.

• In order to measure ac current/voltage, we may first rectify the alternating
current by using diode rectifier to produce unidirectional current flow.
• There are 2 types of ac voltmeter:
i) AC voltmeter using half-wave rectifier.
ii) AC voltmeter using full-wave rectifier.

2.10.1. AC Voltmeter Using Half-Wave Rectifier

• If a diode is added to the dc voltmeter, we have an ac voltmeter using half-

wave rectifier.
• Figure 2.12 shows an ac voltmeter using half-wave rectifier.

Figure 2.12: AC voltmeter using half-wave rectifier

• Diode D1 conducts during the positive half of the input cycle cause the
meter to deflect according to the average value of this half cycle.
• The meter movement is shunted by resistor Rsh in order to draw more
current from through the diode D1.
• In the negative half cycle, diode D2 conducts. The current flows in an
opposite direction and bypasses the PMMC meter.
• Refer to Figure 2.12, the sensitivity of dc voltmeter is defined as:

• Since the meter will only responds to the average value / dc value of the ac
sine
.
• This means that the ac voltmeter is less sensitive than a dc voltmeter:
.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 32 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Example:

Figure 2.13
A PMMC meter movement has an internal resistance of 100Ω and requires 1mA
dc full scale deflection current as shown in Figure 2.13. Shunting resistor Rsh is
placed across the meter and has the value of 50Ω. Diodes D1 and D2 has an
average forward resistance of 300Ω and infinite resistance in the reverse
direction. For a 20V ac range, calculate:
i) The voltmeter sensitivity on dc and ac range
ii) The value of multiplier resistor Rs
iii) Full scale deflection current of the meter when the input source is
reduced to 10V ac range.

Solution:
i) The voltmeter sensitivity on dc and ac range
Since Rsh is parallel with Rm

    , . /

    , . . . /

ii) The value of multiplier resistor Rs

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 33 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

iii) Full scale deflection current of the meter when the input source is

reduced to 10V ac range.

. .
.

. .

2.10.2. AC Voltmeter Using Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure 2.14: AC Voltmeter Using Full-Wave Rectifier

• If a bridge rectifier is added to the dc voltmeter, we have an ac voltmeter

using full-wave rectifier as shown in Figure 2.14.
• Diode D2 and diode D3 conduct during the positive half of the input cycle
cause the meter to deflect according to the average value of this half cycle.
• In the negative half cycle, diode D1 and diode D4 conduct. The current flows
in an opposite direction cause the meter to deflect according to the average
value of this second half cycle.
• A full wave rectification is used to improve the sensitivity of an ac
voltmeter.
• The average value / dc value of a full-wave ac voltmeter is given by:
.
• The sensitivity of a full-wave ac voltmeter is given by: :
.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 34 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Example:

D1 D2
Rs
120Vrms
Ifsd = 1mA
D3 D4
Rsh = 500Ω Rm = 1kΩ

Figure 2.15

A PMMC meter with full scale deflection current of 1mA and internal resistance
of 1kΩ is to be employed as an ac voltmeter as shown in Figure 2.15. All diodes
used in the bridge rectifier circuit have an average forward resistance of 100Ω
and infinite resistance in the reverse direction. Determine:
i) The voltmeter sensitivity on dc and ac range
ii) The value of multiplier resistor Rs
iii) Full scale deflection current of the meter when the input source is
reduced to 10V ac range.

Solution:
i) The voltmeter sensitivity on dc and ac range
Since Rsh is parallel with Rm

    , . /

    , . . . /

ii) The value of multiplier resistor Rs

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 35 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

iii) Full scale deflection current of the meter when the input source is

reduced to 10V ac range.

. .
.

. .

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 36 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.11 Ohmmeter – Series Type Ohmmeter

• A series type ohmmeter is a D’Arsonval meter connected in series with a

resistance RZ and a battery E. An unknown resistor RX is then connected
across point A-B
• RZ is the current limiting resistance used to adjust the meter movement to
indicates full scale deflection

RZ

Rm RX
I fsd

E
Figure 2.16: Series type ohmmeter

• The current through the meter depends on the magnitude of the unknown
resistor RX
• Consider the maximum current through the meter Ifsd (without RX)
E
Ifsd =
Rm + R Z

E
So R Z = − Rm
Ifsd

• To determine the value of the unknown resistor, we connect the unknown

RX between terminal A-B. The current through the circuit is expressed as:
E
I=
Rm + R Z + R X

I
• Let P = where P is the ratio of the current I to the full scale current Ifsd
Ifsd

E
I R + RZ + RX
P= = m
Ifsd E
Rm + R Z

Rm + R Z
=
Rm + R Z + R X

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 37 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Rm + R Z
and R X = − (Rm + R Z )
P
• For P = 100% RX = 0 Ω
• For P = 0% RX = ∞ Ω
• For P = 50% RX = Rm + RZ

2.11.1 Calibration Of Series Type Ohmmeter

To mark ‘0’ reading:

• Terminal A-B is shorted ( R X = 0Ω ). So maximum current flows in the
circuit or Ifsd
• The value of RZ which will limit the current to full scale deflection is

E
determined using equation R Z = − Rm
Ifs

• The position of the pointer on the scale is marked as 0 Ω

To mark ‘∞’reading (0% of fsd):

• Terminal A-B is opened ( R X = ∞ )

• No current flows in the circuit & no deflection of the pointer

• The position of the pointer is marked as ∞ Ω

To mark other value of reading:

• Terminal A-B is connected with different known resistance
• The position of the pointer is marked with the value of the known
resistance

Disadvantages Of The Series Ohmmeter:

• Decrease of the voltage of internal battery, hence the full scale
deflection current drops and the meter does not read ‘0’ when terminal
A-B is shorted.
• To overcome this problem, a zero adjust resistor can be added in
parallel to the meter to counteract the drop in the voltage and bring back
the pointer to ‘0’

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 38 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Example:
A 1mA full scale deflection current meter movement is to be used in an
ohmmeter circuit as in Figure 2.17. The meter movement has an internal
resistance Rm of 100 Ω and a 3V battery will be used in the circuit. Mark off the

meter for 0%, 20%, 40%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the meter reading / full scale
deflection.

RZ

Rm = 100Ω
RX
I m = 1mA

E = 3V
Figure 2.17
Solution:
To mark ‘0Ω’ reading (100% fsd):
• Terminal A-B is shorted ( R X = 0Ω )

• The value of RZ which will limit the current to full scale deflection is

E 3
RZ = − Rm = − 100 = 2.9kΩ
Ifs 1m

• The position of the pointer on the scale is marked as 0 Ω

To mark ‘∞’reading (0% of fsd):

• Terminal A-B is opened ( R X = ∞ )

• No current flows in the circuit & no deflection of the pointer

• The position of the pointer is marked as ∞ Ω

To mark reading at 20% of fsd:

• Terminal A-B is connected to R X

• The value of the resistance to be measured R X is determined using

equation :
R Z + Rm 2.9k + 100
RX = − (R Z + R m ) = − (2.9k + 100) = 12kΩ
P 0.2
• The position of the pointer on the scale is marked as 12k Ω

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 39 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

To mark reading at 40% of fsd:

• Terminal A-B is connected to R X

• The value of the resistance to be measured R X is determined using

equation :
R Z + Rm 2.9k + 100
RX = − (R Z + R m ) = − (2.9k + 100) = 4.5kΩ
P 0.4
• The position of the pointer on the scale is marked as 4.5k Ω

To mark reading at 50% of fsd:

• Terminal A-B is connected to R X

• The value of the resistance to be measured R X is determined using

equation :
R Z + Rm 2.9k + 100
RX = − (R Z + R m ) = − (2.9k + 100) = 3kΩ
P 0.5
• The position of the pointer on the scale is marked as 3k Ω

To mark reading at 75% of fsd:

• Terminal A-B is connected to R X

• The value of the resistance to be measured R X is determined using

equation :
R Z + Rm 2.9k + 100
RX = − (R Z + R m ) = − (2.9k + 100) = 1kΩ
P 0.75
• The position of the pointer on the scale is marked as 1k Ω
P (%) RX (k Ω )
0 ∞
20 12
40 4.5
50 3
75 1
100 0

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 40 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

4k Ω 3k Ω
12k Ω 1k Ω
0Ω
∞ 20%
40% 50%
75%

0% % FULL SCALE 100%

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 41 
 CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.12 Oscilloscope

• Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) or oscilloscope is the basic instrument for display, measure and analyze waveform in electrical
and electronic circuits.
• An oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube and associated control and input circuitry. Figure 2.18 shows block diagram of
an oscilloscope.

Figure 2.18: Basic oscilloscope block diagram

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 42 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Parts Function

• Main part of the oscilloscope.

Cathode ray tube • Generates the electron beam, accelerates the
(CRT) beam to a high velocity and deflects the beam to
provide a visual display of signal.

A wide band amplifier used to amplify signals in the

Vertical amplifier
vertical section

Used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical

Delay line section until the trigger and time base circuits have
a chance to start the sweep of the beam.

Notify the horizontal amplifier when to start tracing

Trigger circuit (moving the beam from the left to the right of the
CRT).

Time base generator Generates the saw-tooth voltage required to deflect

(Sweep generator) the beam in the horizontal section.

Amplify the saw-tooth voltage before it is applied to

Horizontal amplifier
the horizontal deflection plates.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 43 
 CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.13 Cathode Ray Tube

• Figure 2.19 shows a block diagram of a cathode ray tube (CRT)

Figure 2.19: Basic CRT block diagram

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 44 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Parts Function

• The cathode is heated by heater / filament to

provide a source of electron.
Electron gun
• The control grid controls the number of electron
assembly
directed to the screen (control the brightness of the
glow at the screen.

Accelerates and focuses the electrons to a fine point

Focusing section
on the screen of the tube.

• Control the path of the electron beam.

• Consists of:
o Vertical deflection plates: deflect the electron
Deflection section
beam vertically.
o Horizontal deflection plates: deflect the
electron beam horizontally.

Produce an electron glows with a minimum and best

Phosphor screen
defined spot for visual display of signal.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 45 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Notes on Digital Oscillo
oscope 

A  digital  oscilloscope 
o samples  the  waveform  annd  uses  an  a nalog‐to‐digital  converterr  (ADC)  to  co
onvert 
the voltagge being measured into digital information, and theen it stores the digital dataa in the memo ory. It 
then usess this stored ddigital informaation to recon
nstruct the wwaveform on tthe screen. 

Since the waveform is stored in a digital format, the data cann be processed either within the oscilloscope 
itself, or e
even by a PC  connected to
o it. One advaantage of usi ng the digital oscilloscopee is that the sstored 
data can be used to visualize or proocess the sign nal at any tim
me. The digitaal oscilloscopees are widelyy used 
in many aapplications in
n view of theiir flexibility an
nd performannce.  

Figgure 3‐A: Digiital Oscillosco
ope Display W
Waveforms an
nd its block diagram 

Pre Amp  ‐channge the analoggue input am mplitude so that it falls with

hin the input 
rangee of ADC. 
Triggger Detector  ‐ dete
ect the voltagge that crossees the threshoold set by thee user. 
‐start recording wh hen the triggeer detector iss ON. 
Co
ontrol Logic  ‐ work as the CPU of the digital oscilloscope. 
ADC  ‐ analog‐to‐digital converter 
‐ADC samples the output of thee pre amp at regular intervvals 
Memory  ‐store
ed the converrted ADC valuue. 
‐when n the memoryy is full the reecording is sto
opped. 
DAC  ‐digitaal‐to‐analogu
ue converter.
‐continuously scan ns through th e recording p producing a reepeating anallogue 
signal representingg the contentts of the mem mory. 
CRT  ‐cathoode ray tube.. 
‐for signal display.
 

By; A.I. Ch
he Ani (Nov20
013) 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.16 Oscilloscope Applications

Figure 2.23: Oscilloscope front panel

Figure 2.24: Oscilloscope screen

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 50
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.16.1 Voltage Measurement

• Peak-to-peak voltage (Vp-p)

.             /
• Peak voltage (Vp)
.         /
• RMS voltage (Vrms)

√ √

2.16.2 Period and Frequency Measurements

• Period (T)
.             /
• Frequency (f)

        

Example:
An oscilloscope is used to observe a waveform as shown in Figure 2.25. If the
volt/div knob is set to 2V/div and time/div knob is set to 2ms, determine:
i) Vp-p and Vrms
ii) Period and frequency of the signal

Figure 2.25
Solution:
  /  

.
√ √

                 

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 51 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.16.3 Phase Difference Measurement

    /

Example:
An oscilloscope is used to observe two types of waveforms as shown in Figure
2.26. If the volt/div knob is set to 2V/div and time/div knob is set to 2ms,
determine the phase difference between these signals.

Figure 2.26

Solution:
     

    .  
  , .

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 52 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.16.4 Rise Time, Fall Time and Pulse Width Measurement

• Rise time, Tr : Time required for the leading edge of the pulse to raise
from 10% to 90% of the pulse amplitude.
• Fall time, Tf : Time required for the trailing edge of the pulse to fall from
90% to 10% of the pulse amplitude.
• Pulse width: Time measured from 50% of leading edge to 50% of the
trailing edge of the pulse amplitude.

Figure 2.27: Rise time, fall time and pulse width

Example:
An oscilloscope is used to observe a waveform as shown in Figure 2.27. If the
volt/div knob is set to 10V/div and time/div knob is set to 5ms, determine:
i) Rise time
ii) Fall time
iii) Pulse width
Solution:
     
  
 

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 53 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

2.16.5 Frequency and Phase Measurement using Lissajous Pattern

• When two signals are applied simultaneously to an oscilloscope without

internal sweep (time base generator is switch off - also known as XY mode),
a Lissajous pattern will be produced.

Oscilloscope

Unknown Known
Frequency Frequency
V H

Figure 2.28: Basic circuit to produce Lissajous pattern

Case 1 - X:Y ratio frequency is 1:1

• Refer to Figure 2.29, the phase difference between two signals can be
calculated as follows:

Figure 2.29

Figure 2.30: Example of Lissajous patterns

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 54 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Case 2 – X ≠ Y
• The frequency can be determined by applying the signal of unknown
frequency to one of the plate ( X or Y ) and signal of known frequency to
another plate.
      ,      
      ,      

                                                                                                         

Example:
If 1kHz signal is applied to the vertical deflection plates to produce a Lissajous
pattern as shown in Figure 2.31, determine the unknown frequency that applied
to the horizontal deflection plates.

Figure 2.31
Solution:
Given Fv = 1kHz. From the Lissajous pattern,

   .

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 55 
 CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Figure 2.32: Lissajous pattern

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 56 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

Review Questions:

1. Sketch the basic construction of a cathode ray tube (CRT) and label each section of the
tube. Explain briefly the operation of the CRT.

2. The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is the most versatile tool for the development of electronic
circuits and systems. It allows the amplitude of electrical signals to be displayed as a
function of time. Draw a diagram of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) and label all
major parts. Explain briefly these following parts:
i) Time base / sweep generator
ii) Cathode ray tube (CRT)
iii) Vertical amplifier
iv) Delay line

3. An electrostatic deflected cathode ray tube (CRT) has a final anode voltage of 500V,
parallel deflecting plates of 1.5 cm long and 5 mm apart. If the screen is 15 cm from the
center of deflecting plates, calculate:
i) The deflection sensitivity of the tube
ii) Accelerating anode voltage if the deflection factor is 34.3V/cm

4. Figure Q4 shows the waveform displayed on the screen of the oscilloscope. If the vertical
knob is set to 5mV/div and horizontal knob is set to 2.5ms/div, calculate:
i) The peak-to-peak voltage ( Vp− p ) and period of waveform A
ii) The rms value ( Vrms ) and frequency of waveform B
iii) The phase difference between waveform A and B
iv) If both waveform A and waveform B are applied to the input terminals of an
oscilloscope operating in X-Y mode, sketch the pattern that will be observed on
the screen

Figure Q4

5. The trace of two signals on the screen of a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an ellipse.
The slope of the major axis is positive. The maximum horizontal value is 3.2 cm and the
point where the ellipse crosses the horizontal axis is 2.8 cm. The ellipse is symmetrical
about the origin.
i) Draw the pictorial ellipse.
ii) Determine the phase different between the two signals.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 57 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

6. With the aid of a diagram explain how voltage and frequency measurements are made
using an oscilloscope.
7. An oscilloscope with Volt/div knob and Time/div knob is set to 5mV/div and 20ms/div
respectively, is used to measure an input signal. Figure Q7 shows the displayed
waveform. Calculate:
i) The voltage Vp-p for the signal
ii) The pulse width for the signal
iii) The period of the signal
iv) The frequency for the signal
v) Number of cycle displayed

Figure Q7

8. Figure Q8 shows an experiment conducted by a student to determine the frequency

generated by signal generator B. Signal generator A is set to 10 kHz and applied to the
vertical deflection plates while signal generator B is applied to the horizontal deflection
plates of the oscilloscope. If the oscilloscope is set to X-Y mode, draw the output pattern
on the oscilloscope if:
i) Signal generator B is set to 30kHz
ii) Signal generator B is set to 10kHz and 450 phase difference from signal
generator A

Figure Q8

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 58
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018
Chapter 2 – Measuring Instruments

9. Given distance between the deflection plates is 8mm, distance from the center of
deflection plate to the screen of CRT tube is 50cm, length of deflection plate is 1.2cm,
and accelerating voltage is 1800V.
Determine
i) The deflection sensitivity
ii) Deflection factor
iii) The deflection on the screen when deflection voltage is 2000 volts.

10. An oscilloscope is used to observe the output from a frequency generator whose
frequency dial is set at 50 kHz producing 12.73Vrms. If the volt/div knob is 5 volt/div and
the time/div knob is 5µsec/div.
i) How many divisions vertically will the signals peak-to-peak amplitude occupy?
ii) How many complete cycles of the signal can be seen on the screen?
iii) Sketch the output display
11. When two signals having the same frequency are measured on the oscilloscope, their
phase difference is given as sin-1 0.79. The pulse delay between the signals is 0.6
divisions. The time scale of the oscilloscope is 100µs/division and the voltage scale is
1V/division, Determine:
i) The degree per division, and
ii) The frequency of the signal.

12. A sine wave signal of unknown frequency is connected to the horizontal input terminal of
an Oscilloscope. If the vertical input terminal is connected with a 200Hz voltage, find the
unknown frequency for each case of the screen patterns as shown in Figure Q12.

(i) (ii) (iii)

Figure Q12

13. With the aid of a sketch, explain how voltage, frequency and phase difference
measurement are made using oscilloscope.

14. An oscilloscope was set to the X-Y mode and the output display obtained is as shown in
Figure Q14
i) Sketch and describe briefly the input signals applied to obtain such an output
ii) If the maximum horizontal deflection is 5.0cm and the X-axis intercept is 3.0cm,
determine the phase difference between the two signals.

Figure Q14

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 59
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

CHAPTER 3 – BRIDGES

3.1. Introduction

• A bridge consists of four impedance arms forming a closed circuit, a

voltage source and a current detector arranged as in Figure 3.1.
• Bridges can be classified into two types:
i) DC Bridge
ii) AC Bridge
• DC bridges are used for accurate measurement of resistance while ac
bridges are used to measure inductance and capacitance.

Figure 3.1: A bridge circuit

3.2. Wheatstone Bridge

• Wheatstone bridge is the most accurate method for measuring resistance

and is popular for laboratory used.
• It consists of 4 resistors, a dc voltage source and a galvanometer arranged
as shown in Figure 3.1
• The galvanometer is used to detect the current flow from point A to B.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 60 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Figure 3.2: Basic circuit diagram for a Wheatstone bridge

• A bridge is said to be in balance condition (null condition) if there is no

current flows through the galvanometer ( Ig = 0).
       

Example:
Refer to Figure 3.2. If Vin = 5V, R1 = 10kΩ, R2 = 15kΩ and R3 = 40kΩ, determine
the value of Rx if the bridge is in balance condition.

Solution:

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 61 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

• A bridge is said to be unbalance condition if there is current flows through

the galvanometer ( Ig ≠ 0).
• The amount of current flowing through the galvanometer can be determined
using Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
• Refer to Figure 3.3

Figure 3.3

// //

Then, Ig can be determined as:

Where Rg is the internal resistance of the galvanometer.

The total deflection of the galvanometer, D can be determined as follows:

Where S is the sensitivity of the galvanometer

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 62 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
An unbalance Wheatstone bridge is given as in Figure 3.4. Given Vin = 6V, R1 =
1kΩ, R2 = 2.5kΩ and R3 = 3.5kΩ, Rx = 10kΩ and the internal resistance of the
galvanometer Rg = 300Ω. Calculate:
i) The amount current of current flow through the meter.
ii) The deflection of the galvanometer if its sensitivity is 10mm/µA.

Figure 3.4

Solution:

    

.
.
. .

. .
.
. .

So the current through the galvanometer, Ig

.
.
.

     . .
μ

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 63 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.3. Applications of Wheatstone Bridge

• Wheatstone bridge can be used to locate fault in cables and as a bridge

controlled circuit.

3.3.1. Locate Fault in Cables

• There are 2 test methods of locating the cable fault using Wheatstone
bridge
o Murray loop test
o Varley loop test

3.3.1.1. Murray Loop Test

• Figure 3.5 shows a test set-up for Murray loop test.

Figure 3.5: The Murray loop test to locate ground fault

• The defective cable of length Lb is connected at its cable terminal to a
healthy cable of length La.
• In balance condition:

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 64 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Since Ra, Rb and RX are cable resistances,

If both conductors consist of the same material and cross sectional area,

In a multicore cable the healthy conductor has the same length and same

cross sectional area, so that La = Lb. Therefore:

Example:
A Murray loop test as shown in Figure 3.6 consists of two conductors of the
same material and same cross sectional area. Both cables are connected at the
cable terminal located 5280m from the test set. If the bridge is balanced with R1
= 100Ω and R2 = 300Ω, find the distance from the ground fault to the test set.

Figure 3.6

Solution:

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 65 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.3.1.2. Varley Loop Test

• The most accurate method for locating ground fault and short circuits in
cable.
• It is essentially a modification of the Murray loop test.
• Figure 3.7 show the test set-up for Varley loop test.

Figure 3.7: The Varley loop test to locate ground fault

• First the switch s is set to position a. By adjusting R3 to balance the bridge,

  

  ………… 3.1

• Then the switch s is set to position b. By adjusting R3 to rebalance the

bridge,

  

  ………… 3.2

• The value of in Equation 3.2 can be obtained from Equation 3.1.

• The value of R3 when the switch at position a is difference compare to R3

when the switch at position b.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 66 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
The Varley loop test as shown in Figure 3.8 consists of a defective conductor
and a healthy conductor connected at the cable terminal located 30km from the
test set. Both cables have a resistance of 0.05Ω/km. Given R1 = 1k Ω and R2 =
2k Ω When the switch is in position a, the bridge is balanced when resistor R3
is adjusted to 100Ω. When the switch is in position b, the bridge is rebalanced
when the resistor R3 is adjusted to 99Ω. Determine the distance from the
ground fault to the test set.

Figure 3.8

Solution:

At position a

At position b

Since the cable has a resistance of 0.05Ω/km, so the distance from the test set,

.
.
. .

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 67 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.3.2. Bridge Controlled Circuit

• Passive transducer such as strain gauge, thermistor and photo resistor

cannot produce output voltage.
• However, when these transducers are used as one arm of the Wheatstone
bridge, a change in their sensitive parameter (force, temperature, light)
produces a change in their resistance.
• This will cause the Wheatstone bridge to be unbalanced hence producing
an output voltage.
• When the bridge is used in a control circuit, the output voltage is called an
error signal as shown in Figure 3.9.
• In most cases, the chance in resistance is small hence the error signal
produced also too small. This error signal will be amplified before it is
being used for control purpose.

Figure 3.9: Bridge controlled circuit

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 68 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
Figure 3.10(a) shows an automatic temperature control system and Figure
3.10(b) shows the relationship between resistance R and temperature. Given
that resistor R1 = R2 = R3 = 4kΩ.
i. What is the purpose of the component R in the circuit.
ii. Determine the value of R and the temperature when the bridge is in
balance condition.
iii. Find the value of Iin when the temperature changes to 80 oC.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3.10

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 69 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Solution:
i. R acts as a sensor which a chance in temperature will change in their
resistance.
ii. In balance condition:

iii. From graph, when temperature changes to 80 oC, R = 5kΩ.

So the current Iin

.
.
.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 70 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Notes on Software for Simulating Bridge Circuit 

Qucs is an integrated circuit simulator which means you are able to setup a circuit with a graphical user 
interface  (GUI)  and  simulate  the  large‐signal,  small‐signal  and  noise  behavior  of  the  circuit.  After  that 
simulation has finished you can view the simulation results on a presentation page or window. 

Qucs is an open source software. http://qucs.sourceforge.net/ 

Please refer “Qucs Sofware ‐ Quick Tutorial.pdf” for a brief tutorial. 

Bridge Control Circuit Practice by Using Qucs Software 

 
Figure 1 QUCS Software Based Simulation 

 
Figure 2 Relationship between R and Temperature 

By: A.I. CheAni (Feb2018) 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

   

Figure 1 shows an automatic temperature control system and Figure 2 shows the relationship between 
resistance R and temperature. 

By using the QUCS software, find the value of Voltage A, Voltage B, Voltage PR1 and Current PR2 for 
Temperature at 0°, 20°, 40°, 60° and 80° C.  

By: A.I. CheAni (Feb2018) 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.4. AC Bridges

• An ac bridge consists of four impedances, an ac source and an ac current

detector as shown in Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11

Table 3.1: Impedance and associated terms

Schematic
Parameter Z Formula
Representation

R Z=R

R in series with L

R in series with C

R in parallel with C

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 71 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

• The ac current detector can be a pair of headphones, vibration

galvanometer or tuneable amplifier detector. Figure 3.12 shows how a pair
of headphone can be used as a current detector.

Figure 3.12: Using a pair of headphone for current detector

• AC bridge can be used to measure impedance, inductance, capacitance,

quality factor, dissipation factor, phase shifting, providing feedback paths
for oscillators and amplifier, filtering out undesirable signals and
measuring frequency.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 72 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.4.1 Capacitance Comparison Bridge

R1 R2

AC
AC Source Detector

R3 RX

C3 CX

Figure 3.13: Capacitance Comparison Bridge

• Also known as similar angle bridge.

• Refer to Figure 3.13:

• The general equation for balance is:

Real part: Imaginary part:

• Application: used to measure unknown capacitance CX with reference to a

standard capacitor.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 73 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:

A capacitance comparison bridge (similar angle bridge) as shown in Figure

3.13 is used to measure a capacitive impedance at a frequency of 2kHz. The

bridge constants at balance are C3 = 100µF, R1 = 10kΩ, R2 = 50kΩ and R3 =

100kΩ. Find the equivalent series circuit of the unknown impedance.

Solution:

μ μ

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 74 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.4.2 Inductance Comparison Bridge

R1 R2

AC
AC Source Detector

R3 RX

L3 LX

Figure 3.14: Inductance Comparison Bridge

• Refer to Figure 3.14:

• The general equation for balance is:

Real part: Imaginary part:

• Application: used to measure unknown inductance LX with reference to a

standard inductor.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 75 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.4.3 Maxwell’s Bridge

C1
R2
R1
AC
AC Source Detector

R3 RX

LX

Figure 3.15: Maxwell’s Bridge

• Refer to Figure 3.15:

• The general equation for balance is:

Real part: Imaginary part:

• Application: used to measure unknown inductance LX

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 76 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
A Maxwell bridge as shown in Figure 3.15 is used to measure an inductive
impedance. The bridge constants at balanced are:
C1 = 0.01µF, R1 = 470kΩ, R2 = 5.1kΩ and R3 = 100kΩ.
Find the equivalent series circuit of the unknown impedance.

Solution:
.
.

. . .

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 77 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.4.4 Hay’s Bridge

R1
C1 R2

AC
AC Source Detector

R3 RX

LX

Figure 3.16: Hay’s Bridge

• Also known as opposite angle bridge

• Refer to Figure 3.16:

• The general equation for balance is:

Real part: Imaginary part:

Substituting RX (from imaginary part) into real part:

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 78 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Substituting LX into imaginary part:

• Application: used to measure unknown inductance LX

Example:

Refer to Figure 3.16. Find the series equivalent inductance and resistance of

the network that causes an opposite angle (Hay bridge) to null with the

following bridges arms:

                                              

Solution:

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 79 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3.4.5 Wien’s
W Bridg
ge

Figure 3.1
17: Wien’s B ridge

 Refer
R to Figure 3.17:

Z1  R1
Z 2  R2
1 1
Z3  
1 Y3
 jC3
R3
j
Z 4  R4 
C 4
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

 The general equation for balance is:

Z1 Z 4  Z 2 Z 3
Z2
Z1 Z 4 
Y3
 Z 2  Z1 Z 4Y3
 j  1 
R2  R1  R4    jC3 
 C 4  R3 
 jR  1 
R2   R1 R4  1   jC3 
 C 4  R3 
RR jR1 j 2R1C3 
R2   1 4  jR1 R4 C3   
 R3 R3C 4 C 4 
RR RC  R1  
R2   1 4  1 3  j  R1 R4 C3  
 R3 C4  R3C 4  

Real part: Imaginary part:

R1
0  R1 R4 C3 
R3C 4
R1 R4 R1C3 R1
R2   R1 R4 C3 
R3 C4 R3C 4
R C  1
R2   4  3  R1       R4 C3 
 R3 C 4  R3C 4
R R C 1 
 2  4 3 2  ,f 
R1 R3 C 4 R4 R3C 4 C3 2
1
f 
2 R4 R3C 4 C3

 Application: accurate measurement of capacitor or audio-frequency measurement

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
E
An
A AC bridge
e has the following consttant:
Arm AB
A – resistan
nce of 1kΩ.
Arm AD
A – unknow
wn resistor.
Arm BC
B – capacittor of 0.5µF in parallel w
with 800Ω ressistance.
Arm CD
C – capacittor of 1µF in series with 400Ω resisttance.
Determine
D the
e value of frequency wh
hen the bridg
ge is balance
ed and the u
unknown
re
esistance.

Solution:
S

1
f 
2 R4 R3C 4 C3
 
1
f   0.398
8kHz
2 800(400)(0.5 )(1 )

From real parrt equation of:

o
R1 R4 R1C3
R2  
R3 C4
 
1k (400) 1k (0.5 )
R2    1k
800 1
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Review Questions:
1. What type of bridge that is best suited for measurement of high-Q and low-Q
components?

2. Wheatstone bridge is widely used in measuring instruments and control circuits. It

operates on both balance and unbalance condition. With the aid of a diagram, derive the
equations for:
i) Balance condition
ii) Unbalance condition

3. A Murray loop test method is used to locate faults in cables by using Wheatstone bridge.
The test set-up as shown in Figure Q3consists of a defective conductor and a healthy
conductor with a resistance of 0.5Ω per km. Both cables are connected 5 km from the
cable terminal. The bridge is balanced when R1 is 500Ω and R2 is 700Ω.
i) Derive the expression for Rx
ii) Calculate the distance from ground fault to the test set

Figure Q3

4. A Similar-angle bridge is used for measuring the impedance of a capacitive circuit at a

frequency of 2 kHz and has the configuration as shown in Figure Q4.
i) Obtain the bridge balance condition for Rx and Cx
ii) Find the equivalent series circuit of the unknown impedance if C3 = 100 μF, R1 =
15 kΩ, R2 = 100 kΩ and R3 = 50 kΩ

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 82 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Figure Q4

5. State the characteristic of direct current (dc) and alternating current (ac) bridges. Name
one example of each.

6. Given the Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure Q6 with R 4 = 1.5kΩ, R 2 = 4.5kΩ, R 3

= 5kΩ, Vin = 10V and internal resistance of galvanometer R G = 500Ω.
i) What are the criteria for balance of a Wheatstone bridge?
ii) Calculate the value R1 of when the bridge is in a balance condition
iii) Derive the equations in a detail steps to determine the current that flow through
the galvanometer when the bridges become unbalance.
iv) State two examples application of Wheatsone Bridge.

R1 R2

Vin
RG
R3 R4

Figure Q6

7. An AC bridge in the Figure Q7 is balanced at 1 kHz and has the following components:
Arm AB - capacitor of 0.5µF in parallel with 1k resistance
Arm AD - resistance of 2 kΩ
Arm BC - capacitor of 0.5μF
Arm CD - unknown capacitor Cx and resistance Rx in series
i) Sketch and label the components
ii) Name the type of the bridge
iii) Show that the equation for the unknown arms is in balance condition are:

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 83 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

C1 R1
Rx = R 2 and C x = C3
C3 R2
iv) Determine the unknown capacitance Cx and resistance Rx
v) Do the balance condition in this AC bridge depend on frequency

Galvono Z2
Z1
meter

AC B C

Z3 Z4

D
Figure Q7

8. Figure Q8 shows a Wheatstone bridge supplied by a dc excitation source Vdc. The

resistance of the rheostat is given as Ra = mRT (where RT is the total resistance of the
rheostat, and 0 ≤ m ≤ 1). A null indicator G is used to detect the current flow between
points C and D, while the resistance (Rx) to be determined is connected between points B
and C.

i) If the bridge is balanced, prove that:

ii) Say Rx is determined based on the null indication of G when the bridge is in balanced
condition. Is the accuracy of the resistance measurement affected by the accuracy of
the null indicator? Explain your answer briefly.

iii) Determine whether the bridge can be brought (by adjusting the rheostat) into balance
if R1 = 60k , R2 = 45k , RT = 50k , and Rx = 40k .

iv) Given R1 = 60kΩ, R2 = 45kΩ, RT = 50kΩ, m = 0.4, VCD = 857mV, and Ig = 23.76µA,
calculate the resistance Rx if the internal resistances of the null detector and the dc
excitation source are Rg = 350Ω and Rdc = 0Ω respectively.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 84
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Figure Q8

9. State the application of direct current (dc) and alternating current (ac) bridges. Name one
example of each bridge.

10. Figure Q10 shows a type of a.c bridge.

i) Determine the type of a.c bridge
ii) State one application of the a.c bridge
iii) Given R = 3.1kΩ C1 = 5.2μF; R2 = 25kΩ; f = 2.5 kHz; R4 = 100 kΩ. Find
equivalent parallel resistance, R3 and capacitance, C3 that cause the bridge to
null.

Figure Q10

11. Locating the ground faults and short circuits in a multi conductor cable is done by
Varley loop test as in Figure Q11.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 85
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Figure Q11
The circuit component values are:
R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 5 Ω
R3 = 16 Ω when switch at position a and 7 Ω when switch at position b.
Both good and defect cables are the same length and have resistance values of 0.4
Ω/km. Calculate the resistance of each cable and the distance of the ground faults from
the test set.

12. Consider the Maxwell bridge that has the configuration as shown in Figure Q12 and is in
balance condition.
i) Determine the equation for the unknown series resistance R X and inductance L X
ii) R X and L X if the bridge with supply frequency of 2kHz is balanced
Find the value of
when R1 = 47 kΩ, R2 = 5kΩ, R3 = 10kΩ and C1 = 0.01μF .

Figure Q12

13. Describe the condition that cause a bridge circuit to be at balance and derive the
expression for the balance equation of the circuit. (Show your derivation base on circuit
diagram)

14. In Figure 14(a) bridge can be used to control the circuit.

i) What is the purpose of R in the circuit.

ii) Determine the value of R and the temperature when the bridge is in balance
condition: Refer to Figure Q14(b)
iii) Find the value of Iin, when temperature changes to 60˚C.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 86
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Figure Q14(a)

Figure Q14(b)

(6 marks)

15. Consider the a.c. bridge that has the configuration as shown in Figure Q15.
i) Name the type and state the function of this bridge.
ii) Derive the equation for the unknown arms,
iii) Find the value of Rx and Cx, when the bridge is in balance condition, given R1 =
10 kΩ , R2 = 50 kΩ , R3 =100 kΩ and C3 =100μF.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 87
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Figure Q15

16. Figure 16 shows an impedance bridge powered by a 1kHz ac source Vac. A null detector
is connected between points C and D. The configuration of the bridge arms is as follows:

Arms Description
Consists of a calibrated capacitor C1 in parallel with a variable
AC
resistor R1
BC Consists of a variable resistor R2
AD Consists of a resistor R3
Consists of an inductive component (which can be modeled as an
BD inductor Lx connected in series with a resistor Rx) with unknown
impedance Zx

i) Name the type of the bridge.

ii) If the bridge is in balanced condition, derive the equation for determining the unknown
impedance Zx.
iii) Given C1 = 0.01µF, R1 = 470kΩ, R2 = 100kΩ, R3 = 5.1kΩ, find the resistance Rx and
inductance Lx of the unknown inductive component.
iv) If the frequency of the excitation ac source is increased to 10kHz, how would the
results in (iii) be affected?

Figure Q16

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 88 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

1
OPTICS

1.0 Light : An electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are waves which are capable of traveling through a vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves are produced by a vibrating electric charge and as such, they
consist of both an electric and a magnetic component

Electromagnetic waves exist with an enormous range of frequencies. This continuous

range of frequencies is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.

Figure 1.1 The range of electromagnetic waves

In Figure 1.1 above shows the electromagnetic spectrum and its various regions. The
longer wavelength, lower frequency regions are located on the far left of the spectrum
and the shorter wavelength, higher frequency regions are on the far right. Two very
narrow regions with the spectrum are the visible light region and the X-ray region.

Since this narrow band of wavelengths is the means by which humans see, we refer to it
as the visible light spectrum, a small spectrum of the range of frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation. This visible light region consists of a spectrum of
wavelengths, which range from approximately 700 nanometers (abbreviated nm) to
approximately 400 nm; that would be 7 x 10-7 m to 4 x 10-7 m, and known as
ROYGBIV.

Figure 1.2 Visible light spectrum

Each individual wavelength within the spectrum of visible light wavelengths is

representative of a particular color. That is, when light of that particular wavelength
produces the colors red (R), orange (O), yellow (Y), green (G), blue (B), indigo (I), and
violet (V).

PHY 193 Engineering Physics II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

2 OPTICS

The color of the objects which we see are largely due to the way those objects interact
with light and ultimately reflect or transmit it to our eyes. When visible light strikes an
object and a specific frequency becomes absorbed, and other frequency becomes
reflected or transmitted to our eyes will contribute to the color appearance of that object.
So the color is not in the object itself, but in the light which strikes the object.

1.1 Reflection

The fundamental law which governs the reflection of light is called the law of reflection.
Whether the light be reflecting off a rough surface or a smooth surface, a curved surface
or a planar surface, the light ray follows the law of reflection.

The law of reflection states that

When a light ray reflects off a surface, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

θi = angle of incident ray

θr = angle of reflected ray

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

3 OPTICS

1.1.1 Plane mirrors

The image form by plane mirror shown below

Its image has:

 Same size
 Opposite direction
 Virtual

Example 1.1

A porcelain vase is placed 0.3 m in front of a plane mirror. A man looks into the mirror
from 2.0 m in front of it. How far away from the man is the image of the vase?

Solution

For a plane mirror, a point source and its image are at the same distance from the mirror
(on opposite side) and both lie on the same normal line.

Since the vase is 0.3 m in front of the mirror, the image will be 0.3 m behind the mirror.
If the man is looking straight into the mirror, the distance to the image will be the
distance from him to the mirror plus the distance from the mirror to the image.

The distance from the man to the image is 2.00 m + 0.3 m = 2.30 m.

1.1.2 Spherical mirrors

A) Concave mirrors

Spherical mirrors can be thought of as a portion of a sphere which was sliced away and
then silvered on one of the sides to form a reflecting surface. The two types of spherical
mirrors are concave mirrors and convex mirrors.

Figure 1.3 Concave mirrors

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

4 OPTICS

Point A is the center of the spherical segment or vertex and a line drawn from C to A is
called the principle axis of the mirror. Midway between the vertex and the center of
curvature is a point known as the focal point; the focal point is denoted by the letter F in
Figure 1.3.

The distance from the vertex to the center is known as the radius of curvature
(abbreviated by “R”). The radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere from which the
mirror was cut.

Principal rays for concave mirrors

Object (1)
(2)
(3)

C F
(4)

Figure 1.4
Based on Figure 1.4
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected through the focal point F
2. A ray incident on the vertex of the mirror reflects at an equal angle to the axis
3. A ray along the direction from the focal point to the mirror is reflected parallel to
the principle axis
4. A ray along a radius is reflected back upon itself

B) Convex mirrors

A convex mirror curves away from the viewer; its center of curvature is behind the
mirror (Figure 1.5).

Viewer

A
F C

Figure 1.5 Convex mirrors

An extended radius drawn from the center of curvature through the vertex (A) – the
center of the surface of the mirror – is the principle axis of the mirror.

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

5 OPTICS

The mirror has a focal point (F) which is located along the principle axis, midway
between the mirror’s surface and the center of curvature.

The center of curvature (C) and the focal point are located on the side of the mirror
opposite the object – behind the mirror and such a mirror is said to have a negative focal
length value.

Principle rays for convex mirrors

1. A ray parallel to the principle axis is reflected as if it came from a focal point

Figure 1.6

2. A ray along a radius is reflected back upon itself

3. A ray directed toward the focal point is reflected parallel to the principle axis

1.1.3 Image formed by mirrors

The characteristics of the image can be determined by using a ray diagram and
calculation method.

A) Ray Diagram for Mirrors

1. Draw one ray parallel to the principal axis and the second ray passes exactly
through the focal point on the way to the mirror as in Figure 1.7a.

Object

C F

Figure 1.7a

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

6 OPTICS

2. The first incident ray will pass through the focal point upon reflection and the
second ray will travel parallel to the principle axis upon reflection as shown in
Figure 1.7b.

Object

C F

Figure 1.7b

3. The intersection of the two reflected rays as shown in Figure 1.7c is the image
point of the top of the object.

Object

C F
Image of the
top object

Figure 1.7c

4. The goal of a ray diagram is to determine the location, size, orientation and type
of image which is formed by the concave mirror

Object

C F
Complete Image

Figure 1.7d

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

7 OPTICS

1.1.4 Images formed at different points:

Concave mirrors

Table 1.1 The Formation of Images and Characteristics for Concave Mirrors

Object location Image location Image characteristics

Object  Real
Before C  Inverted
 Diminished

C F
Image

Between C and F

At C  Real
Object
 Inverted
 Same size

C F

Image

At C

 Real
Between C and F Object
 Inverted
 Magnified

C F

Image

Before C

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

8 OPTICS

Object
At F

-
C F

Image not formed

 Virtual
In front of F Object  Upright/erect
Virtual  Magnified
Image

C F

Behind the mirror

Convex mirrors

Table 1.2 The Formation of Images and Characteristics for Convex Mirrors

Object location Image location Image characteristics

 Virtual
For every case Object  Upright/erect
Image
 Diminished

Between vertex and F

(behind the mirror)

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

9 OPTICS

The formula for the spherical mirrors :

Mirror equation:
1 2 1 1
  
f R u v

Magnification equation:
hi v
m 
ho u

Where f = focal points

R = radius of curvature
v = image distance
u = object distance
hi = height of image
ho = height of object

The magnitude of m is the ratio of the image size to the object size
 m = image size
object size

If 0 < m < 1 – the image is smaller than the object (diminished)

 m > 1 – the image is bigger than the object (enlarged/magnified)
m  1 – the image is same size

Front or Back or
real side virtual side

u and v positive u and v negative

Incident light

Reflected light

Concave or
Convex mirrors
Figure 1.8 A diagram describing the signs of u and v for convex and concave mirrors.

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

10 OPTICS

Table 1.3 Sign Conventions for Mirrors

Quantity Symbol + -
Focal length f Concave Convex
Image distance v Real Virtual
Image height hi Upright Inverted
Magnification m Upright Inverted
Virtual Real

Example 1.2

1. A 4.0-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm from a concave mirror having
a focal length of 15.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.

Solution
ho  4 cm, u  45.7 cm, f  15.2 cm
1 1 1 hi v
  
f u v ho u
1 1 1 hi 22.78
  
15.2 45.7 v 4 45.7
v  22.78 cm ( real ) hi  1.99 cm (inverted )

2. A 4.0-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 35.5 cm from a convex mirror having
a focal length of 12.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.

Solution
ho  4 cm, u  35.5 cm, f  12.2 cm
1 1 1 hi v
  
f u v ho u
1 1 1 hi ( 9.08)
   
12.2 35.5 v 4 35.5
v  9.08 cm (virtual ) hi  1.02 cm (upright )

Exercise 1.1

A 4.0-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 8.3 cm from a concave mirror having a
focal length of 15.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.
(Answer : v = -18.3cm , hi = +8.8 cm )

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

11 OPTICS

TUTORIAL 1.1

1. Find the position and height of the image formed by a concave spherical mirror with
a radius of curvature of 0.40m when a 0.10m tall bottle stands 0.15m in front of the
mirror.
(Answer : -0.60 m , 0.40 m)

2. Find the position and height of the image formed by a convex spherical mirror with a
radius of curvature of 0.40m when a 0.10m tall bottle stands 0.15m in front of the
mirror.
(Answer : -0.086 m , 0.057 m)

3. When Fatimah stands 1.5 m in front of a mirror, her upright image is three times her
height. Find the radius of curvature of the mirror.
(Answer : 4.5 m)

4. Where should an object be placed, with reference to a concave spherical mirror of

radius 180 cm, to form a real image having half its linear dimension?
(Answer : 2.7 m from mirror )

5. An actor is applying make-up using a concave make-up mirror with a focal length of
0.20m.
(a) If the actor sees his eye to be twice its actual size, how far is his eye from the
mirror if the image is virtual?
(b) How far from the mirror should the actor’s eye be to produce a real image
that is twice the size of the eye itself?
(Answer : 0.1 m , 30 cm)

6. How far must a girl stand in front of concave spherical mirror of radius 120 cm to
see an erect image of her face four time its natural size.
(Answer : 45 cm from mirror )

7. What type of spherical mirror must be used, and what must be its radius, in order to
give an erect image one-fifth (1/5) as an object placed 15cm in front of it?
(Answer : -7.5 cm , convex mirror )

8. A spherical shaving mirror produces an erect image that is magnified by a factor of

2.0 when a man's face is 25 cm away from the mirror. Determine the radius of
curvature of this mirror.
(Answer : 100 cm)

9. A 1.5 cm high diamond ring is placed 20 cm from a convex mirror with radius of
curvature 30 cm. Determine the position of the image? State the image either real or
virtual? APR 2009
(Answer : -8.57 cm, virtual)

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

12 OPTICS

1.2 REFRACTION

Definition of refraction
Refraction is the bending of the path of a light wave as it passes across the boundary
separating two media. Refraction is caused by the change in speed experienced by a
wave when it changes medium.

The speed of an electromagnetic wave depends upon the optical density of that material.
The optical density of a medium is not the same as its physical density.
The physical density of a material refers to the mass/volume ratio. The optical density of
a material relates to the sluggish tendency of the atoms of a material to maintain the
absorbed energy of an electromagnetic wave in the form of vibrating electrons before
reemitting it as a new electromagnetic disturbance. The more optically dense which a
material is, the slower that a wave will move through the material.

One indicator of the optical density of a material is the index of refraction, n value of
the material.

The index of refraction value of a material is a number which indicates the number of
times slower that a light wave would be in that material than it is in a vacuum. A vacuum
is given an n value of 1.0000. The n values of other materials are found from the
following equation:

c
n
v

Where n = index of refraction of a medium

v = velocity of ray in the medium
c = velocity of light (3 x 108 ms-1)
Table 1.4 lists the index of refraction values for a variety of medium. The materials listed
at the top of the table are those through which light travels fastest; these are the least
optically dense materials. The materials listed at the bottom of the table are those through
which light travels slowest; these are the most optically dense materials.

So as the index of refraction value increases, the optical density increases, and the
speed of light in that material decreases.

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

13 OPTICS

Table 1.4 : Index of Refraction

Material Index of Refraction

Vacuum 1.0000
Air 1.0003
Ice 1.31
Water 1.333
Ethyl Alcohol 1.36
Plexiglas 1.51
Crown Glass 1.52
Light Flint Glass 1.58
Zircon 1.923
Diamond 2.417
Rutile 2.907
Gallium phosphide 3.50

Snell’s Law

When a light ray is transmitted into a new medium, the relationship between the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction is given by the following equation

n i sin  i  n r sin  r

Where θ i = angle of incidence

θ r = angle of refraction
ni and nr values represent the indices of the medium which incidence ray going through
and refracted respectively.

Example 1.3

A light ray strikes an air/water surface at an angle of 46o with respect to the normal. The
refractive index of water is 1.33. Find the angle of refraction when the direction of ray is
a) from air to water b) from water to air.

Solution

a) The incident ray is in air, θ1 = 46o, n1 = 1.00 and n2 = 1.33. From Snell’s Law,

sin  2 
n1 sin 1 1.00  sin 46

o

 0.54

n2 1.33

 2  sin 1  0.54   33o

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

14 OPTICS

b) The incident ray is in water, θ 1 = 46o, n1 = 1.33 and n2 = 1.00. From Snell’s Law,

n sin 1 1.33 sin 46

sin  2  1 
 o

 0.96
n2 1.00

 2  sin 1  0.96   74o

Exercise 1.2

1. A ray of light in air is approaching the boundary with water at an angle of 52o.
Determine the angle of refraction of the light ray.
(Answer : 36.30)

2. A ray of light in air is approaching the layer of crown glass at an angle of 42o.
Determine the angle of refraction of the light ray upon entering the crown glass and
upon leaving the crown glass.
(Answer : 26.120 , 420 )

1.2.1 Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection (TIR) is the phenomenon which involves the reflection of all
the incident light off the boundary. TIR only takes place when both of the following two
conditions are met:

 the light is in the more dense medium ( n  ) and approaching the less dense
medium ( n  )

 the angle of incidence is greater than the so-called critical angle ( i   c )

Figure 1.9

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

15 OPTICS

According to Snell’s Law, if a ray is transmitted from a slower medium into a faster
medium, the refracted ray bends away from the normal (Figure1.9 ray b).

That is, the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence. As the angle of
incidence is increased, the angle of refraction eventually reaches 90o (Figure 1.9 ray c).

At 90o, the refracted ray is parallel to the surface. It isn’t transmitted into the faster
medium; it just moves along the surface. The angle of incidence for which the angle of
refraction is 90o is called the critical angle  c for the boundary between the two
media  c .

If the angle of incidence is greater than  c , there cannot be a transmitted ray; if there is
no ray transmitted into the faster medium, all the light must be reflected from the
boundary (Figure 1.9 ray d). This is called total internal reflection.

Critical angle :
angle of incidence which provides an angle of refraction of 90o.
ni sin c  nr sin 90o
n
sin  c  r
ni

Exercise 1.3

1. Calculate the critical angle for the crown glass-air boundary

2. Calculate the critical angle for the diamond-air boundary

3. A ray of light in air is approaching a triangular piece of crown glass at an angle of

0.00 degrees (as shown in the diagram below). Perform the necessary calculations in
order to trace the path of the light ray as it enters and leaving a glass.

(i) (ii)

450 600

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

16 OPTICS

TUTORIAL 1.2

1. The speed of light in a certain glass is 1.91 x 108 m/s. What is the refractive index of the
glass.
(Answer : 1.57)

2. As is show in Figure 1.10, a ray of light in medium 1 strikes a medium 2 at an incidence

angle of 38o. Determine the angles of the reflected and refracted rays.
(Answer : 380 , 52.9o)

Figure 1.10

3. A beam of light is traveling in glass to the glass–oil boundary with angle of incidence θ as
shown in Figure 1.11.
(a) Find critical angle for light emerging from glass to oil.
(b) Find Refracting angle in oil if θ = 400
(c) Draw the light travel when it was incidence with θ = 750
(Answer : 72.50 , 42.40)

Oil (n = 1.45)

Glass (n = 1.52)


Figure 1.11

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

17 OPTICS

4. A layer of oil (n=1.45) floats on water (n=1.33). A ray of light shines onto the oil from the air
with the angle as shown in Figure 1.12. Find the angle of refraction for the ray makes in the
water.
(Answer : 28.90)

500

air oil water

Figure 1.12

5. A layer of oil (n = 1.45 ) floats on an unknown liquid. A ray of light shines from the oil into
the unknown liquid. The angles of incidence and refraction are, respectively, 650 and 530.
What is the index of refraction of unknown liquid?
(Answer : 1.64 )

6. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. Find the critical angle for light passing from
diamond to air. If the diamond is surrounded by water ( n= 1.33 ), what is the critical angle of
diamond in the water.
(Answer : 24.40 , 33.30)

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

18 OPTICS

7. A monochromatic light strikes in the glass to a AB surface as shown in Figure 1.13. Find the
θ angle that the ray light emerges to the air.
(Answer : 58.7 )

Figure 1.13

8. A monochromatic light source is put on the bottom of a beaker filled with an unknown liquid.
Two ray of light from the source are travel to the liquid layer as shown in Figure 1.14. Find
the refractive index for the liquid and the angle of θ.
(Answer : 1.41 , 45.10 )

Figure 1.14

Refer from: PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

19 OPTICS

9. A beam of light is incident from air on the surface of liquid. The angle of incidence is 36o
and the angle of refraction inside the liquid is 25o. Find
(a) the refractive index of the liquid
(b) the critical angle of the liquid with respect to the air
(Answer : 1.39, 46o) APR 2009

10. A beam of light is propagating through diamond (n1 = 2.42) and strikes a diamond-air
interface at an angle of incidence of 28o. Determine whether the part of beam enters the air or
it will be totally reflected at the interface. OCT 2008

PHY 193 Physics For Engineering II UiTM Pulau Pinang

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

CHAPTER 4 – ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

4.1. Introduction

• Transducer : Any device that converts one form of energy into another form
of energy
• Example Microphone : Sound Æ Electric
Speaker : Electrical Æ Sound
Generator : Mechanical motion Æ Electrical signal
i) There are two types of transducers:
i) Electrical transducer: converts the input measurand into an
electrical voltage / current.
ii) Mechanical transducer: converts the input measurand into a
mechanical energy.
ii) Advantages of electrical transducers:
i) Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.
ii) Mass-inertia effects are minimized.
iii) Effects of friction are minimized
iv) The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance
from the sensing medium.
v) The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the
indicating or controlling units
vi) The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any
combination with outputs of similar transducers or control signal

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 89 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

4.2. Classification of Electrical Transducers

• Electrical transducers can be classified into two types:

i) Active transducer: generates electrical signal directly in response to
physical parameter. It does not require external power source for its
operation.
Example: thermocouple, piezo electric sensor and photo voltaic
cells.

Electrical
Measurand Active output
transducer

ii) Passive transducer: requires external power source to operate.

Example: strain gauge, thermistor and photo resistor.

Measurand Electrical
Passive transducer
output

External power

4.3. Selecting a Transducer

The following should be considered while selecting a transducer:

i) Operating range – chosen to maintain range requirements and good
resolution.
ii) Sensitivity – Chosen to allow sufficient output
iii) Environmental compatibility – Temperature range, corrosive fluids,
pressure, shock, interaction, size
iv) Accuracy – Repeatability and calibration errors as well as errors
expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli.
v) Usage and ruggedness – Ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical
intensities vs size and weight.
vi) Electrical parameters – Length and type of cable required, signal to
noise ration when combined with amplifiers, and frequency response
limitations.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 90 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

4.4. Potentiometer

• A potentiometer is an electromechanical device containing a resistance

element that is contacted by a movable slider as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1

• The motion of the movable slider may be translatory or rotational.

• Consider a potentiometer as in Figure 4.2. The output voltage of the

potentiometer, VO depends on the position of the movable slider and is
given by:
R2
VO = VS
R1 + R 2

Where R1+ R2 is the total potentiometer resistance

R1
VS
R2 VO

Figure 4.2

M Khusairi Osman Page 91

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 30 cm is applied to the circuit
of the Figure 4.3. The total resistance of the potentiometer is 5k Ω . The applied
voltage VS is 5V. Calculate the output voltage when the wiper is 9cm from B

A
R1
VS
R2 VO

B
Figure 4.3

Solution:
Total resistance RT = R1 + R2 = 5k Ω

Total length = LR1 + LR2 = 30cm

If R2 is 9cm from B
LR2 9
∴ R2 = × RP = × 5kΩ = 1500Ω
LR1 + LR2 9 + 21

And
R1 = 5k Ω − 1500k Ω =3500k Ω
Using voltage divider rule:
R2 1500
VO = VS = × 5 = 1.5V
R1 + R 2 3500 + 1500

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 92 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
A potentiometer transducer with a shaft stroke of 8.0cm is used in circuit as
shown in the Figure 4.4. The applied voltage is 10V. The total resistance of
potentiometer R1 and R2 is 6 kΩ. The total resistance of the potentiometer R3
and R4 is 4 kΩ. The initial position to be used as a reference point is set such
that R1 is 4.5 cm and R3 is 3.5 cm of the shaft stroke length (from point A).
i. Calculate the values of R1, R3 and VE at initial position
ii. Calculate the displacements of potentiometer R3 and R4 in the
case that VE =0.Then identify the direction of the displacement

R1 R3
Vin
10V VE
R2 R4

Figure 4.4

Solution:
i) R1= 4.5cm x 6000Ω = 3375Ω R3= 3.5cm x 4000Ω = 1750Ω
8cm 8cm
R2= 6000-3375=2625Ω R4= 4000-1750=2250Ω

⎡ R2 R4 ⎤ ⎡ 2625 2250 ⎤
VE = VTH = ⎢ − ⎥ × Vin = ⎢ − ⎥ × 10 = 1.25V
⎣ R1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4 ⎦ ⎣ 3375 + 2625 1750 + 2250 ⎦

⎡ R2 R 4NEW ⎤
ii) VE = 0 = ⎢ − ⎥ × Vin
⎣ R 1 + R 2 R 3NEW + R 4NEW ⎦
but R 3NEW + R 4NEW = 4000 Ω ,
⎡ 2625 R 4NEW ⎤
so ⎢ 6000 − 4000 ⎥ × 10 = 0
⎣ ⎦
2625 × 4000
R 4NEW = = 1750 Ω
6000
1750
Length of R4NEW = × 8cm = 3.5cm
4000

∴Potentiometer R3 and R4 moves 1cm towards point B

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 93 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Exercise

A displacement transducer with a shaft of 2.0mm is used in the circuit as

shown in Figure 4.5. The total resistance of the potentiometer R1 and R2 is
5000Ω and the applied voltage is 5.0V. The total resistance of the potentiometer
R3 and R4 is also 5000Ω.The initial position to be used as reference point is set
such that R1 = R2 (i.e. when the shaft is at mid-stroke). Initially, potentiometer R3
and R4 is adjusted so that the bridge is balanced (i.e. VE = 0). Assuming the
shaft of the potentiometer R3 and R4 will be moved 0.5mm towards A, what is
the value of VE?

Figure 4.5

M Khusairi Osman Page 94

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

• Potentiometer senses displacement by means of sensing shaft, which is

mechanically connected to the point or objects whose displacement, is to be
measured.
• Example: Petrol-tank level indicator
In this case, potentiometer is used to indicate/sense the petrol level in a tank
as shown in Figure 4.6. The output signal (voltage) is proportional to the
petrol level.

Figure 4.6: Petrol tank level indicator using potentiometer

Table 4.1: Advantages and disadvantages of potentiometer

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Require a large force to move their

Cheap and simple to operate
sliding contact
Sliding contact can be contaminated,
Useful for measurement of large
wear out, misaligned and generate
amplitudes of displacement
noise
Electrical efficiency is very high and
provide sufficient output to permit
control operations without further
amplification

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 95 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

4.5. Capacitive Transducer

• A capacitor consists of two parallel plates separated by an air space or by a

dieletric (insulating material) as shown Figure 4.7.
• The capacitance of the pair of plates is measure of the amount of charge
that can be transferred before a certain voltage is reached. If the
capacitance is large, more charge is needed to establish a given voltage
difference

Plate 1
Dieletric
material

Plate 2

Figure 4.7: The basic construction of capacitor

Figure 4.8: Capacitive sensor

• The equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capasitor is given by:-

kε0 A
C= (Farad)
d

Where:-
k= dielectric constant of the material in the gap (vacuum = 1).
Єo = the permittivity of free space (8.854 X10-12 F/m).
A=plate area.
d= the separation between plate.

M Khusairi Osman Page 96

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

 
         

A
movable plate

d
fixed plate

Figure 4.9

• Refer to Figure 4.9, the capasitive transducer works on the principle of

changing of capacitance which may caused by:
o Change in overlapping area

o Change in distance d between plate

o Change in dielectric constant

• Advantages :
1. Required extremely small forces to operate them and hence are very
useful for use in small systems.
2. Extremely sensitive.
3. A good frequency response as high as 50kHz and useful for dynamic
studies.
4. High input impedance therefore the loading effects are minimum.
5. The force requirements is very small and therefore require small power
to operates them
• Disadvantages:
1. The metallic parts of the transducer must be insulated from each other
in order to reduce the effects of stray capacitance, the frames must be
earthen.
2. The output impedance of the capacitive transducers tends to be high on
account of their small capacitance value this leads to loading effects.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 97 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

• Uses of Capacitive Transducer

1. It can be used for measurement of both linear and angular
displacements.
2. It can be used for measurement of force and pressure. The force and
pressure to be measured are first converted to displacement which
caused a change in capacitance.
3. It can be used for measurement of humidity in gases since the dielectric
constant of gases changes with change in humidity thereby producing a
change in capacitance.
4. It is commonly used in conjunction with mechanical modifiers for
measurement of volume, density, liquid level, weight and etc.

Figure 4.10: Capacitive sensor is used to detect the presence of boxes on the
conveyor belt

M Khusairi Osman Page 98

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:

A capacitive transducer is used for the measurement of linear displacement, X,

as shown in Figure 4.11. The parallel plate has a dimension of 5.0cm X 5.0cm
and is separated by a distance of 1.0cm. The space between the plates is filled
with a dielectric material of 1.0cm thick, which has a dielectric constant of 4.0.
If the dielectric constant for air is 1.0cm, determine the value of the
capacitance when x is equal to:
(i) 0.0cm
(ii) 2.0cm

Figure 4.11

Solution
(i) When x = 0.0cm
. . .
.  
.

(ii) When X = 2.0cm

. . . . . .
. .

. . .  

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 99 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Exercise:

Figure 4.12 shows a capacitive transducer used for measurement of linear

displacement, x. the parallel plates have a dimension of (4.0 cm x 4.0cm) and
separated by a distance of 10 mm. the space between plates is filled with a
dielectric material with constant of 3.0.
If the dielectric constant for air is 1.0, determine the value of the capacitance
when x is equal to:
i) 0.0 cm
ii) 2.0 cm
iii) 4.0 cm
What is the effect of capacitance when the displacement of dielectric is
increased? Given ε 0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m.

Figure 4.12

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 100 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

4.6. Thermocouple

• Thermocouple is a type of thermal transducer.

• It consists of a pair of wire made of different metals that joined together at
one end as shown in Figure 4.13.
• When there is a temperature difference between the two ends of wire, a
voltage will be produced between the two wires – Seeback effect.

Figure 4.13: Basic thermocouple connection

Table 4.2: Characteristics of some thermocouples

Temperature Sensitivity
Type Thermocouples material
range (0C) (µV / oC)
J Iron + Constantant -180 to +850 45 - 55
K Chromel + Alumel -200 to +1300 40 - 55
S Platinum-Platinum / 10% Rhodium 0 to +1400 5 - 12
T Copper + Constantant -180 to +400 20 - 60
*Constantant = copper/nickel, chromel = nickel/chromium, alumel = nickel/alumunium

• The magnitude of voltage depends on :

i) the materials used for the wires (Refer to Table 4.2).
ii) the temperature difference between the joined ends and the other
ends.
• The voltage of the thermocouple is given as:

V = c(T1 − T2 ) + k(T12 − T22 )

Where c and k = constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 = ‘hot’ junction temperature
T2 = ‘cold’ or ‘reference’ junction temperature

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 101 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

• Normally the cold / reference temperature is set to 0oC as shown in Figure

4.14.

Figure 4.14: Cold junction compensation

Example:
During experiment with a copper-constantant thermocouple, it was found that
c = 3.75 × 10−2 mV / 0 C and k = 4.50 × 10−5 mV / 0 C2 . If T1 = 1000 C and T2 is kept in
ice bath, compute the voltage produced by the thermocouple.

Solution:
E = c(T1 − T2 ) + k(T12 − T22 )

= 3.75 × 10−2 (100 − 0) + 4.50 × 10−5 (1002 − 02 ) = 4.20mV

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 102 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

• Thermocouple tables give the relationship between the voltage for a

particular type of thermocouple and the measured temperature when the
reference junction is at a particular reference temperature.

Example:
A type J thermocouple is used to measure a process conducted on a furnace
having a temperature of 545.5°C. If the cold junction (reference junction) is at
20°C, obtain the voltage generated at the output of the thermocouple.

Solution:
The measured temperature Tm at reference temperature = 0oC
. .
Tm lies between lower temperature TL = 525oC and upper temperature TH =
530oC.
Refer to Thermocouple Table, the lower voltage VL and upper voltage VH can be
determined as follows:

. . .
.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 103 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Thermocouple Tables
The following tables give the output voltage of several thermocouple (TC) types over a
range of temperature in 5°C increments. In each case, the TC reference temperature is
0°C. The first-named material will be the positive terminal, as iron-constantan; the iron
will be the positive lead when the reference temperature is lower than the
measurement. The temperature is in °C and the output is mV. Each column is in 5°C
increments from the temperature of that row.

TYPE J: IRON-CONSTANTAN

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

-150 -6.50 -6.66 -6.82 -6.97 -7.12 -7.27 -7.40 -7.54 -7.66 -7.78
-100 -4.63 -4.83 -5.03 -5.23 -5.42 -5.61 -5.80 -5.98 -6.16 -6.33
-50 -2.43 -2.66 -2.89 -3.12 -3.34 -3.56 -3.78 -4.00 -4.21 -4.42
-0 0.00 -0.25 -0.50 -0.75 -1.00 -1.24 -1.48 -1.72 -1.96 -2.20
+0 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.76 1.02 1.28 1.54 1.80 2.06 2.32
50 2.58 2.85 3.11 3.38 3.65 3.92 4.19 4.46 4.73 5.00
100 5.27 5.54 5.81 6.08 6.36 6.63 6.90 7.18 7.45 7.73
150 8.00 8.28 8.56 8.84 9.11 9.39 9.67 9.95 10.22 10.50
200 10.78 11.06 11.34 11.62 11.89 12.17 12.45 12.73 13.01 13.28
250 13.56 13.84 14.12 14.39 14.67 14.94 15.22 15.50 15.77 16.05
300 16.33 16.60 16.88 17.15 17.43 17.71 17.98 18.26 18.54 18.81
350 19.09 19.37 19.64 19.92 20.20 20.47 20.75 21.02 21.30 21.57
400 21.85 22.13 22.40 22.68 22.95 23.23 23.50 23.78 24.06 24.33
450 24.61 24.88 25.16 25.44 25.72 25.99 26.27 26.55 26.83 27.11
500 27.39 27.67 27.95 28.23 28.52 28.80 29.08 29.37 29.65 29.94
550 30.22 30.51 30.80 31.08 31.37 31.66 31.95 32.24 32.53 32.82
600 33.11 33.41 33.70 33.99 34.29 34.58 34.88 35.18 35.48 35.78
650 36.08 36.38 36.69 36.99 37.30 37.60 37.91 38.22 38.53 38.84
700 39.15 39.47 39.78 40.10 40.41 40.73 41.05 41.36 41.68 42.00

M Khusairi Osman Page 104

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

TYPE K: CHROMEL-ALUMEL

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
-150 -4.81 -4.92 -5.03 -5.14 -5.24 -5.34 -5.43 -5.52 -5.60 -5.68
-100 -3.49 -3.64 -3.78 -3.92 -4.06 -4.19 -4.32 -4.45 -4.58 -4.70
-50 -1.86 -2.03 -2.20 -2.37 -2.54 -2.71 -2.87 -3.03 -3.19 -3.34
-0 0.00 -0.19 -0.39 -0.58 -0.77 -0.95 -1.14 -1.32 -1.50 -1.68
+0 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.61 1.81
50 2.02 2.23 2.43 2.64 2.85 3.05 3.26 3.47 3.68 3.89
100 4.10 4.31 4.51 4.72 4.92 5.13 5.33 5.53 5.73 5.93
150 6.13 6.33 6.53 6.73 6.93 7.13 7.33 7.53 7.73 7.93
200 8.13 8.33 8.54 8.74 8.94 9.14 9.34 9.54 9.75 9.95
250 10.16 10.36 10.57 10.77 10.98 11.18 11.39 11.59 11.80 12.01
300 12.21 12.42 12.63 12.83 13.04 13.25 13.46 13.67 13.88 14.09
350 14.29 14.50 14.71 14.92 15.13 15.34 15.55 15.76 15.98 16.19
400 16.40 16.61 16.82 17.03 17.24 17.46 17.67 17.88 18.09 18.30
450 18.51 18.73 18.94 19.15 19.36 19.58 19.79 20.01 20.22 20.43
500 20.65 20.86 21.07 21.28 21.50 21.71 21.92 22.14 22.35 22.56
550 22.78 22.99 23.20 23.42 23.63 23.84 24.06 24.27 24.49 24.70
600 24.91 25.12 25.34 25.55 25.76 25.98 26.19 26.40 26.61 26.82
650 27.03 27.24 27.45 27.66 27.87 28.08 28.29 28.50 28.72 28.93
700 29.14 29.35 29.56 29.77 29.97 30.18 30.39 30.60 30.81 31.02
750 31.23 31.44 31.65 31.85 32.06 32.27 32.48 32.68 32.89 33.09
800 33.30 33.50 33.71 33.91 34.12 34.32 34.53 34.73 34.93 35.14
850 35.34 35.54 35.75 35.95 36.15 36.35 36.55 36.76 39.% 37.16
900 37.36 37.56 37.76 37.96 38.16 38.36 38.56 38.76 38.95 39.15
950 39.35 39.55 39.75 39.94 40.14 40.34 40.53 40.73 40.92 41.12
1000 41.31 41.51 41.70 41.90 42.09 42.29 42.48 42.67 42.87 43.06
1050 43.25 43.44 43.63 43.83 44.02 44.21 44.40 44.59 44.78 44.97
1100 45.16 45.35 45.54 45.73 45.92 46.11 46.29 46.48 46.67 46.85
1150 47.04 47.23 47.41 47.60 47.78 47.97 48.15 48.34 48.52 48.70
1200 48.89 49.07 49.25 49.43 49.62 49.80 49.98 50.16 50.34 50.52
1250 50.69 50.87 51.05 51.23 51.41 51.58 51.76 51.94 52.11 52.29
1300 52.46 52.64 52.81 52.99 53.16 53.34 53.51 53.68 53.85 54.03
1350 54.20 54.37 54.54 54.71 54.88

M Khusairi Osman Page 105

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

TYPE S: PLATINUM-PLATINUM/10%RHODIUM

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
+0 0.000 0.028 0.056 0.084 0.113 0.143 0.173 0.204 0.235 0.266
50 0.299 0.331 0.364 0.397 0.431 0.466 0.500 0.535 0.571 0.607
100 0.643 0.680 0.717 0.754 0.792 0.830 0.869 0.907 0.946 0.986
150 1.025 1.065 1.166 1.146 1.187 1.228 1.269 1.311 1.352 1.394
200 1.436 1.479 1.521 1,564 1.607 1.650 1.693 1.736 1.780 1.824
250 1.868 1.912 1.956 2.001 2.045 2.090 2.135 2.180 2.225 2.271
300 2.316 2.362 2.408 2.453 2.499 2.546 2.592 2.638 2.685 2.731
350 2.778 2.825 2.872 2.919 2.966 3.014 3.061 3.108 3.156 3.203
400 3.251 3.299 3.347 3.394 3.442 3.490 3.539 3.587 3.635 3.683
450 3.732 3.780 3.829 3.878 3.926 3.975 4.024 4.073 4.122 4.171
500 4.221 4.270 4.319 4.369 4.419 4.468 4.518 4.568 4.618 4.668
550 4.718 4.768 4.818 4.869 4.919 4.970 5.020 5.071 5.122 5.173
600 5.224 5.275 5.326 5.377 5.429 5.480 5.532 5.583 5.635 5.686
650 5.738 5.790 5.842 5.894 5.946 5.998 6.050 6.102 6.155 6.207
700 6.260 6.312 6.365 6.418 6.471 6.524 6.577 6.630 6.683 6.737
750 6,790 6.844 6.897 6.951 7.005 7.058 7.112 7,166 7.220 7.275
800 7.329 7.383 7.438 7.492 7.547 7.602 7.656 7.711 7.766 7.821
850 7.876 7.932 7.987 8.042 8.098 8.153 8.209 8.265 8.320 8.376
900 8.432 8.488 8.545 8.601 8.657 8.714 8.770 8.827 8.883 8.940
950 8.997 9.054 9.111 9.168 9.225 9.282 9.340 9.397 9.455 9.512
1000 9.570 9.628 9.686 9.744 9.802 9.860 9.918 9.976 10.035 10.093
1050 10.152 10.210 10.269 10.328 10.387 10.446 10.505 10.564 10.623 10.682
1100 10.741 10.801 10.860 10.919 10.979 11.038 11.098 11.157 11,217 11.277
1150 11.336 11.396 11.456 11.516 11.575 11.635 11.695 11.755 11.815 11.875
1200 11.935 11.995 12.055 12.115 12.175 12.236 12.296 12.356 12.416 12.476
1250 12.536 12.597 12.657 12.717 12.777 12.837 12.897 12.957 13.018 13.078
1300 13.138 13.198 13.258 13.318 13.378 13.438 13.498 13.558 13.618 13.678
1350 13.738 13.798 13.858 13.918 13.978 14.038 14.098 14.157 14.217 14.277
1400 14.337 14.397 14.457 14.516 14.576 14.636 14.696 14.755 14.815 14.875
1450 14.935 14.994 15.054 15.113 15.173 15.233 15.292 15.352 15.411 15.471
1500 15.530 15.590 15.649 15.709 15.768 15.827 15.887 15.946 16.006 16.065
1550 16.124 16.183 16.243 16.302 16.361 16.420 16.479 16.538 16.597 16.657
1600 16.716 16.775 16.834 16.893 16.952 17.010 17.069 17.128 17.187 17.246
1650 17.305 17.363 17.422 17.481 17.539 17.598 17.657 17.715 17.774 17.832
1700 17.891 17.949 18.008 18.066 18.124 18.183 18.241 18.299 18.358 18.416
1750 18.474 18.532 18.590 18.648

M Khusairi Osman Page 106

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

4.7. Thermistor

• Thermistors (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-metallic resistors

(semiconductor material) made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides
such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
• Thermistor is a type of resistance thermometer. It uses the change in the
electrical resistance to determine the temperature.
• Thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) - resistance
decrease as temperature rises as shown in Figure 4.15.

Figure 4.15: Resistance vs. temperature graph of a thermistor

Table 4.3: Advantages and disadvantages of a thermistor

Advantages Disadvantages
Non-linearity in resistance vs.
Small size, low cost
temperature characteristics
Fast response over narrow
Unsuitable for wide range temperature
temperature range
Need a very low excitation current to
Good sensitivity
avoid self-heating

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 107 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
The circuit of Figure 4.16(a) is to be used for temperature measurement. The
thermistor is a 4k Ω type. The resistance vs. temperature graph for the
thermistor is as shown in Figure 4.16(b). The meter is a 50mA meter with a
resistance of 3 Ω . Resistor Rc is set to 17 Ω and supply Vt = 15V. What will be
the meter reading:
i) at 500 F .
ii) at 2500 F .

Solution
i. At T= 500 F , R t = 7kΩ
Vt
I=
Rm + R t + Rc
15
= = 2.14mA
3 + 7k + 17

ii. At T= 2500 F , R t = 200Ω

Vt
I=
Rm + R t + Rc
15
= = 68.18mA
3 + 200 + 17

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 108 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
In an experiment, a thermistor is found to have a resistance of 10kΩ at ice point
(0°C) and 250Ω at 100C°. The temperature-resistance characteristic of the
thermistor is exponential type and is given by:

where,
R = resistance at measured temperature T in Kelvin.
RO = resistance at ice temperature, TO in Kelvin.
β = constant.
i) Determine the value of the constant β for the thermistor material.
ii) Using the β in (i), determine the new temperature if the resistance
decreases from 250Ω to 150Ω.
iii) From the results obtained in (i) and (ii), deduce the characteristic of the
thermistor.

Solution:

T(Kelvin) = T(0 C) + 273

i) At To = 0°C or 273K, Ro = 10kΩ. ii) When R = 150Ω

At T= 100°C or 373K, R = 250Ω. .  

 
.

 
.
.
 
.
   
  .
.
.

.      

iii) Thermistor works in a way that its resistance decreases as their

temperature increases.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 109 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
A thermistor resistance of 3.9k Ω at the ice point ( 00 C ) and 794 Ω at 500 C . The
resistance temperature relationship is given by:
β
R = αR oT
where R = resistance at temperature T (K)
Ro = resistance at icepoint (273K)
α,β = constant
i) Calculate the constant α and β.
ii) Calculate the range of resistance to be measured in the case of
temperature variation from 400C - 1000C
Solution:

i) At T = 0oC or 273K, R = Ro = 3.9kΩ

. .   … … … .

At T = 50oC or 323K, R = 794Ω

.   … … … .
Equation (2) ÷ (1)
   
.
.

    .
.
.
Substitute . in Equation (1)
.
. .
  .
ii) When T = 40oC or 313K
.
. . . Ω

When T = 100oC or 373K

.
. . . Ω

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 110 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

4.8. Strain gauge

• The strain gauge is a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical
resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by force on wires.

Figure 4.17: Strain gauge

• It is used for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force and
displacement.
• A bonded strain gauge consists of a fine wire looped back and forth on a
mounting plate which is usually cemented to the member undergoing
stress as shown in Figure 4.18.

Figure 4.18: Bonded strain gauge

M Khusairi Osman Page 111

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

• Strain gauge is generally uses as one arm of a bridge is shown in the

Figure 4.20. This method is capable to measure the change in resistance
when the wire is under strain.

Figure 4.20: Strain gauge used as one arm of a bridge

• In some cases, strain gauges are used in pairs (active gauge and dummy
gauge) to provide temperature compensation as in Figure 4.21. However,
only the active gauge will respond to stress.
• The dummy gauge is mounted in an insensitive orientation to provide some
compensation for temperature effects.

Figure 4.21: Strain gauge with temperature compensation

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 112 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

• Stress: force per unit area

               

• Strain: fractional change in length (elongation).

∆

where ∆L = elongation and L = initial length

• Modulus of elasticity / Young Modulus, E can be defined as:

                          

Figure 4.22: Effect of applied stress to a rod

Table 4.4: Modulus of elasticity for different type of materials

Material Modulus (N/m2)

Aluminum 6.89 x 1010

Copper 11.73 X 1010
Steel 20.70 X 1010
Polyethylene (plastic) 3.45 x 108

• Refer to Figure 4.22, a tensile stress tends to elongated the wire, increase
its length and decrease its cross sectional area. The combined effect will

increase the resistance of the strain gauge  

• The strain will cause:

i) The change in length ∆L
ii) The change in gauge resistance ∆R
• Gauge Factor (GF):
∆ ∆
∆

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 113 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example:
A resistant strain with a gauge factor of 2 is fastened to a steel member, which
is subjected to a strain of 1 x 10-6. If the original resistance value of the gauge
is 130 Ω , calculate the change in resistance.

Solution:
Given GF = 2, Strain = 1 x 10-6, R = 130 Ω
∆

∴ ∆R = GF × Strain × R = (2)(1× 10−6 )(130) = 2.6 × 10−4 Ω

Example:
A round steel bar with 0.02m in diameter and 0.40m in length, is subjected to a
tensile force of 33000N as shown in Figure 4.23. Calculate the elongation, ∆L in
meters. (Given modulus of elasticity, E = 2 x 1010 N/m2)

Figure 4.23
Solution:
2 2
⎛ d⎞ ⎛ 0.02 ⎞
Area, A = π ⎜ ⎟ = Π ⎜ −4
⎟ = 3.1416 × 10 m
2

2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
F 33000
Stress = = = 105.04 × 106 N 2
A 3.1416 × 10−4 m

Stress Stress
E= =
Strain ∆L
L
Stress × L (105.04 × 106 )(0.4)
∴ ∆L = = = 2.1008 × 10 −3 m
E 2 × 1010

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 114 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Example
A metallic strain gauge has a resistance of 120Ω and a gauge factor of 2. It is
installed on an aluminium structure which has a yield point of 0.2x109Nm-2 and
Young’ Modulus of 68.7x109Nm-2. Determine the change in resistance of the
gauge that would be caused by loading the material to yield point.

Solution:
Given R = 120 Ω , GF = 2, Stress = 0.2x109Nm-2, E = 68.7x109Nm-2
Stress Stress 0.2 × 109
E= ⇒ Strain = = = 2.91 × 10 −3
Strain E 68.7 × 109
∆R
GF= R ⇒ ∆R = GF × Strain × R = (2)(2.91× 10−3 )(120) = 0.6984Ω
Strain

Example:
A strain gauge with GF=2.13 and RA = 120 Ω is used in the bridge of Figure
4.24. The bridge resistor R1 = R2 = 120 Ω and the dummy gauge has RD = 120 Ω .
If a strain of 1000 μm / m is applied, find the bridge offset voltage if VS = 10V

Figure 4.24

Solution:

∆ . .

. .

.
  .
.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 115 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Review Questions:

1. Define transducer.

2. List and explain the classification of transducers.

3. Give two applications of transducers and give 4 advantage of electrical transducer.

4. State four (4) factors to be considered in the selection of a transducer.

5. Give two advantages of potentiometers. Figure Q5 shows the potentiometer transducer,

maximum length of shaft stroke is about 5 inches. The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 8 kΩ. the applied voltage Vt is 20 V. When the wiper is about 1.4 inches
from B, what is the value of the output voltage? Then the new output value, Vo, measured
15V, what is the new location of W? (How many inches from A)

Figure Q5

6. A resistive transducer with a shaft stroke of 10cm is used in the circuit as shown in Figure
Q6. It is given that total resistance of potentiometer R1 and R2 is 8kΩ while the total
resistance of potentiometer R3 and R4 is 6kΩ. The voltage being applied to the circuit is
10V. The initial position to be used as reference point is set such that R 1 is 5.5cm from A
and R 3 is 4.5cm from A of the shaft stroke length.
i) Calculate the values of R1, R3 and Ve at initial position.
ii) Calculate the displacement of potentiometer R3 and R4 in the case that Ve = 0V
and identify the direction of the displacement.

Figure Q6

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 116 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

7. Elaborate three parameters that affect a capacitive transducer by showing the simple
diagram of its characteristic curve.

8. A capacitive transducer is used for measuring linear displacement, x as shown in Figure

Q8. The parallel metal plate has a dimension of 6 cm x 5cm and is separated by a
distance of 0.1cm. The space between the metal plates is filled with a dielectric material
−12
of 0.1cm thick and has a dielectric constant of 2.5. Given that ε 0 = 8.854 × 10 F/m ,
and the dielectric constant of air is 1, determine the value of the capacitance when x is :
i) 0mm
ii) 30mm
iii) 60mm

Figure Q8

9. With the aid of a diagram, explain the principle operation of a thermocouple.

10. What is the difference between a thermocouple and thermistor

11. In a measurement process conducted on a furnace having a temperature of 600.6°C, a

type S thermocouple was used. What is the voltage generated at the output of the
thermocouple if its cold junction (reference junction) was recorded as 40°C?
(Note : Use thermocouple table as in Appendix)

12. Thermocouple is a thermal transducer that converts thermal energy to electrical energy.
In a measurement process conducted on a furnace having a temperature of 1055 °C, a
type S thermocouple was used. Calculate the voltage generated at the output of the
thermocouple if its cold junction (reference junction) was recorded as 38.5°C?
(Note : Use thermocouple table as in Appendix)

13. A thermistor resistance of 3.9 kΩ at the ice point (0˚C) and 794 Ω at 50 ˚C. The
resistance temperature relationship is given by:
β
R T = αR 0 T

Where
RT : resistance at temperature T (in Kelvin)
Ro : resistance at ice point (in Kelvin)
α, β : constants

i) Find the parameter constants α and β

ii) Determine resistance range to be measured when the temperature is varied from
40˚C to 100˚C.

M. Khusairi Osman  Page 117 
 
CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

14. The circuit of Figure Q14 is to be used for temperature measurement. The thermistor is a
4k Ω type. The meter is a 50mA meter with a resistance of 3Ω, Rc is set to 17Ω and
supply VDC is 15 V. Determine the meter reading at 50° F and at 150° F.

A
RC

VDC
Rt

Figure Q14

15. Define the terms stress, strain and gauge factor

16. Strain gauge transducer with bonded wire in bridge circuit is shown in Figure Q16,
Dummy gauge is not affected by the deformation of the material and it therefore acts like
a passive resistance, with regard to strain measurement.
The value of R1, R2 and dummy gauge, in balance condition has resistance value 130Ω.
A resistance strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is cemented to a steel member, which
is subjected to a strain of 1 x 10-6. Calculate the change in resistance.

R1 R2

Vs
Ve

Active Dummy
Gauge Gauge

Figure Q16

M Khusairi Osman Page 118

CONTENT REVISED ON 09/02/2018

Jadual Perubahan ESE122 Lecture Notes 

No  Date  Item  Reason 

1  11/11/2013  1. Chapter3; Delete 2.1.4  The changes was made due to 
(Deflection of Cathode Ray Beam)  new ESE122 syllabus revised on 
and 2.1.5 (Time Base Generator)  2011. 
2. Chapter 3; Add notes on Digital 
Oscilloscope 
3. Chapter 4: Delete 3.4.5 
(Schering’s Bridge) and replace with Wien’s 
Bridge. 
 
2  9/2/2018  1. Chapter 4: Bridges: Add on Notes on  New ESE122 syllabus revised on 
using QUCS Software in Bridge Control  2017 had change CLO2. 
Circuit.  CLO2: Reproduce basic 
measuring circuit for passive type 
transducer using appropriate 
software (P3). 
 
3  9/2/2018  1. Chapter 5: Transducer: Add on Notes on  New ESE122 syallabus revised on 
Optic Image and Refraction. Refer from  2017. 
notes on PHY193.