which are edited alternately with other shots,

since, for practical purposes, these scenes arc con-

tinu ais. In the final analysis, directional conti-
nuity consists of remaining on the same side of
either moving or static players or vehicles, so that
the established movement or look is maintained
in consecutive shots.

BRIDGING TIME & SPACE

Ordinarily, motion picture continuity should
flow in an uninterrupted sequence of images. It
may not always be practical or desirable to depict
an entire motion picture story in a continuous
manner. This may entail meaningless passages,
which would detract from the story-telling, and
slow down - rather than accelerate — the narra-
tive from introductory opening sccncs. through
developing sequences and on Lo the climax.
Real, by-the-clock, time may be used in a con-
tinuous sequence, However, cut-in or cut-away
shots permit removal or inclusion of action; with-
out the audience realizing that time has been
compressed or expanded. Since motion pictures
are an illusion, no fixed rules can be laic! down for
depicting time or space.
Regardless of how these elements are handled,
the audience should receive the distinct impres-
sion of viewing events in their entirety. Even com-
pilation films should present a continuous picture
whenever a series of consecutive scenes are to be
Player's look may motivate reversing cam- presented. Such an illusion must be properly con-
era. Camera #1 fdrm player, who turns lo veyed, or the story-telling spell may be broken.
look across room. Action axis is draw-n be-
Whenever a lime lapse or a change of locale must
tween player and girl on opposite side of
room. Camera # 2 films reverse shot from be explained, either within a sequence or between
same side of axis — in a similar manner to sequences, various transitional devices may be
opposing angle dose-up. except for udder employed to bridge time or space.
angle.
only to match-cuts, in which the action is continu- TRANSITIONAL DEVICES
ous from shut to shot. It does not apply to scenes PICTORIAL
connected by dissolves or other optical effects: or SOUND
to scenes edited into other scenes occurring else-
where, or to cases where both centerline and par- These methods ma\ be used, individually or in
allel axes are used. Whenever the action is inter- combination, to bridge Lime and space.
rupted editorially or optically, it is possible to
assume that changes may have occurred in the PICTORIAL TRANSITIONS
meantime. Established screen direction should be The simplest method for achieving smooth pic-
preserved in a series of shots - such as a chase - torial transitions is by use of introductory titles;
stating place and or time to set the stage. Place first scene is balanced by a gain in image density
name and calendar time, such as Omaha Beach, in the second scene. Dissolves are used to cover a
June 6. 1944, would introduce a sequence show- time lapse or a change in locale; or to soften a
ing the invasion of Europe by Allied Forces in scene change that would otherwise be abrupt or
World War II- Dateless elapsed time may also be jarring. Consecutive titles are generally dissolved
conveyed with the title: Five Years Later. A m a p so that one blends into the other. Scenes that
may show progress at intervals during a journey, would appear as jump-cuts because of sudden
or location of the event that follows. The scene shifting of the center of interest, may be dissolved.
may open on a place n a m e at port of entry, ah"- Length of dissolves may be varied to match dra-
port or train or bus depot. Or, it may open on a matic tempo.
newspaper, clearly focusing on date. Matched dissolves, in which the two connected
Pictorial transitions may employ any of the scenes arc similar in form, motion or content, may
following optical devices: be utilized to effect a smoother transition: or to
preserve the narrative flow, by making the image
FADES
DISSOLVES
WIPES

FADES
A fade-in, in which a black screen gradually
brightens into an image, is used to begin a story or
sequence. A fade-out, in which the image gradu-
ally darkens to black, is used to end a story or
sequence. Fades may be of any length required to
fit dramatic tempo of the action.
While fades are generally employed in pairs —
fade-out followed by fade-in - this is not a strict
rule. An individual sequence, several sequences,
or a complete picture, may be bracketed by fades.
This will segregate the various narrative units. Dissolve may be used lo cover time lapse
— such as depicted in sequence of Navajo
Sequences separated by fades arc similar to chap-
women carding and spinning wool to he
ters in a book; or acts in a play. Fades between woven into blankets.
sequences occurring in the same locale, indicate a S.int., F a R j , i t w . , j

passage of time, such as from one day to the next,

or weeks or months later. Or. fades may be used
to indicate a switch to another setting. Fades
should be used sparingly, or they mav produce a
choppy or cpisodic effect, which disrupts the nar-
rative flow. Fades should be used only at begin-
ning and end of a picture, unless the subject mat-
ter is divided into distinct time intervals, or nar-
ratively separated in space.

DISSOLVES
A dissolve blends one scene into another. Tech-
nically, a dissolve is a fade-out superimposed upon
a fade-in, so that a loss of image density in the
change less abrupt. Similar forms, such as flowers If the story involves a news event, such as a
and jewels; like motions, such as wheels and pro- trial: the image may be frozen bv a stiil photo-
pellers, similar content, such as a match flame grapher's flash bulb. The frozen f r a m e is then
and a forest fire: are effective combinations. dissolved to the still picture, revealed as part of a
Matched dissolves should not be too tricky. Nor newspaper Story — when the camcra pulls back.
should they draw attention away from the narra-
tive. Unless their images stem from story, matched
WIPES
shots should not he used for transition dissolves.
In their simplest forms, ivipes are moving opti-
Distorted dissolves, in which the blending im- cal effects in which one scene seems to push an-
ages shimmy, ripple, shiver, shake, twist, turn, go other scene off the screen. The wiping motion may
in and out of focus, or are otherwise blurred; may be vertical, horizontal or angular. Demarcation
be employed to denote a sudden switch to a play- between the two scenes may be a distinct line, or
er's subconscious, retrospective, mcntally-unbal- a soft blend. Wipes are also available with circu-
anced, drunken, doped, or other abnormal state of lar. expanding, contracting, swinging, spinning,
mind. Such dissolves, often accompanied bv eerie rolling or twisting motions. Or, they may be
sound, may be used to introduce a flashback. shaped like stars, flames, lightning, keyholes,
A pair of dissolves should generally be used to hearts, spades, diamonds, clubs, ctc.
bracket a flashback, flash forward or other abnor- Wiping patterns may be continuous, or broken
mal condition. A return dissolve may not be re- up into several shapes within the f r a m e — such as
quired in situations where the audience compre- a series of expanding circles which merge to re-
hends the change; or it is desirable to startle or veal the new scene. Wipes are mechanical transi-
shock the viewer. If the same person, or group, tions. Other than the simple vertical, horizontal
tells several stories and always returns to the or angular traveling varieties, wipes arc rarely
same setting, the audience may only need a dis- employed in dramatic films. Wipes were fre-
solve into the story, and will not be confused quently used in early sound pictures, particularly
when the flashback ends and is straight-cut to in musicals. They are now used mainly in trailers,
present narrative. Or, a player describing a weird advertising films and television commercials.
experience, mav be straight-cut to the present with Since wipes require the production of a dupli-
a sudden shock; as if waking from a nightmare! cate negative, or dupe reversal film, their use is
ordinarily limited to 35mm motion pictures. A few
Frozen dissolves, in which both the last f r a m e
16mm labs have available printers which will
of the first scene and the first f r a m e of the second
print simple traveling wipes from "A & B" rolls.
scene are frozen during the dissolve, may denote
If elaborate wipes are required, the picture should
time standing still between scenes A highly pic-
be shot in 3 5 m m , and a 16mm reduction inter-
torial variation of the frozen dissolve may employ
negative made.
matched paintings or drawings. The moving
photographic image is frozen, and dissolves to a
painting or drawing. This in turn, dissolves to MONTAGE TRANSITIONS
another painting or drawing; which then dis- A montage transition is a series of short scenes
solves to a frozen photographic image; which — connected by straight cuts, dissolves or wipes —
then moves and continues with the story. The used to condense time or space. This rapid editing
match between picture and painting or drawing technique may depict portions of the story — when
is accomplished by photographically enlarging the events need not be shown in detail — but must be
film frame, and cither painting or tracing the included for continuity, editorial or narrative pur-
image. Such optical effects must be handled by poses, Since the audience receives the impression
an optical camcra/enlarger set-up, equipped for that a journey, industrial operation, or any
holding precise registration through various steps. lengthy, complex event, is being shown in en-
 Montage depicts series of short scenes compressing time. These representative
shots show design, computing, testing, shipping of space capsules.

tirety — rather than in pieccs — the visual effect is months of time, or miles of space into a few mo-
often psychological. ment on the screen. Some of the scenes may be
The research, design and development of a stock shots or scenes filmed for some other pur-
complicated electronic system; a new missile; or pose ! An engineer could be working on almost any
a giant dam may be depicted in a scries of short project: a conference could suffice for any narra-
scenes of drawings being sketched; blueprints tive purpose: sccnes depicting office work, trans-
being processed: computers working; models be- portation, computing, etc., could serve for m a n y
ing tested; electronic brains flashing data; engi- different subjects.
neers in conference; components being assembled, A short montage may show an expedition trav-
transported to the site and placed in position; and eling to a remote land by modern modes of trans-
finally, views of the completed unit in operation. portation. Upon reaching its destination, the ex-
While some of these individual shots may have pedition may resort to dugout canoes. Then the
little connection with the event, combined they narrative proceeds to tell the story in a straight-
create a cumulative effect of extensive effort. A forward manner. In this case, the montage sets
montage assembled in this m a n n e r may compress the stage for the main event.
 Superimposed images may be used in a mon- etc. - should also be considered in planning a
tage to connect two or more ideas. Circus or con- montage sequence.
cert posters may be changed continuously over
shots of speeding trains. Newspaper headlines HOW T O USE PICTORIAL TRANSITIONS
may spin into focus over a trial sequence, to Pictorial transitions may be used in many novel
show day-to-day developments before reaching the ways. While simple titles announcing time and
final verdict. Ticker tape may move across the place may suffice when introducing a new se-
screen, over scenes of frenzied stock market activ- quence. creative thinking will usually develop
ity. A rising graph line may be laid over scenes of more interesting visual methods. By studying
a n e w product moving off the assembly line, being story, setting, people, props; and looking about
shipped, displayed for sale. Progress reports on for a moving transition stemming from the narra-
tests of new equipment may be moved across the tive, various sequences may be tied together.
screcn against scenes of field trials. The oscillo- The two key shots depicting beginning and end
scopc pattern made by a heartbeat may be super-
imposed over a patient undergoing a heart test.
Several separate shots may be individually po-
sitioned within the frame, in any number of pat-
terns. The f r a m e may be divided into four or more
parts, or a center image may be surrounded by
several others. The shots may change simultane-
ously, or in a round-the-clock manner, to depict
various sporting activities, industrial operations;
or summing up of a test, report or sales cam-
paign. A many-imaged montage may be used for
a title background to introduce the subject. Sev-
eral images may also be combined witirin a single
frame, when important to show what is happen-
ing in several places simultaneously. The cffect of
Cdit &v Al ' W — >
rapid decompression upon a pilot in a test cham-
ber may be shown with instrument readings. Pictorial transitions may coiner time lapse
from start to finish of project — such as
Stock shots are often used in a montage, be- this model of freeway dissolving to com-
cause of budget limitations; or need of depicting plete road complex in operation.
historical, foreign, or other scenes which are im- Catif Div Of H i g h » i r t

possible or impractical to film. If montage shots

are filmed, it is wise to work closely with the film
editor, to establish an over-all tempo for all action
scencs. A metronome may be employed while
shooting, if a precise beat is essential for match-
ing action in all sccnes. A hand may punch a
time clock, punch out a pattern, punch a button
to operate a punch press - all these actions will
convey greater impact if punched to a definite beat.
Subject movement, or camera movement—whether
pan. tilt or dolly — should be similar or contrasting
throughout a series of montage shots, for most
effective results. Many other factors — camcra
angles, lighting, camera speed, editing pattern,
of a particular interval arc most important. A
dinner party may be dissolved from soup to nuts.
A baby's toddling steps may dissolve to a man's
sturdy stride. A miniature airplane model dis-
solves to the a d u a l full-size aircraft. A roaring
fire dissolves to dying embers. A tiny flame be-
comes a raging forest fire. A few raindrops falling
into a puddle may dissolve to a roaring flood.
Raw material can become the finished product.
Whatever may be consumed or changed by time,
may be filmed to covcr elapsed time.
Repetitious action may be removed from a
lengthy industrial process by dissolving highlights
of one repeated operation to those of the next step.
Sjcij Ft
Dissolves arc particularly useful when the entire
processing takes place on a machine — such as a
turret lathe — which requires few changes in
camera angle or image size. Progress of tool cut-
ting metal may be shown at intervals without
jump-cuts, by utilizing dissolves or wipes. Any
repetitious mechanical operation; such as tighten-
ing a series of similar bolts, throwing a number
of switches, or performing other routine tasks,
may all be covcrcd bv dissolving from the begin-
ning to the end of the action. Years of watching
motion pictures, have conditioned audiences into
accepting such time bridges as continuous action.
A person may walk out of his office, and then be
dissolved to the street entrance as he leaves the
building. Or, he may enter an elevator and be
wiped to the desired floor. Any insignificant time
interval may be effectively covered in this manner.
Flashback transitions may employ historical
events to pinpoint the time. Newspaper headlines
SUCH AS: LINDBERGH FLIES ATLANTICI, UN-
COLN ASSASSINATED!, or PROHIBITION RE-
PEALED! - all convey easy-to-recognize periods.
Spacc may be bridged by cutting or dissolving
to signs, names on doors, plaques on buildings,
city names on rail, bus or airport terminals, etc.
The identifying n a m e will immediately inform the
audience of the new locale. A journey may be
dissolved from beginning to end with two simple
shots, showing departure and arrival.
Wipes should be considered whenever screen I nr-.

movement would be enhanced bv pushing one Series of left-to-right vertical wipes may
scene ahead of the next in the direction of travel. depict long journey by train, plane, ship.
This is excellent handling for train shots, because being punched; arriving and departing buses,
the length of the train keeps it moving across the trains, airplanes and ships. These actions may be
screen for a considerable period. A series of shots individual, or superimposed over the traveler's
showing different modes of travel may be continu- face, or over other scenes.
ously wiped. A player may also be wiped as he Well-known symbols may be used to depict
walks, rides or drives f r o m one setting to another. countries or cities. Big Ben is England, or London
Lengthy travel may be depictcd by a montage in particular; the Eiffel Tower is France, or Paris;
of scenes showing spinning car wheels, changing the Statue of Liberty is the United States, or New
odometer figures, thick line moving on a m a p , York; the Coliseum is Italy, or Rome; the Sphinx
passports being stamped, hotel labels being slap- or the Pyramids is Egypt; the Acropolis is Greece,
ped on luggage, travel folders cascading down, or Athens; cable cars denote San Francisco; the
road signs liickcring by, changes of terrain, tickets Liberty Bell says Philadelphia, the Capitol or the
White House is Washington.
Camera movement may also be utilized to
switch from one setting to another. The camera
may tilt up to the sky, dissolve to another sky,
and then tilt down to reveal a new scene. Or, the
tilt may be downward to water or ocean waves,
and upward to the new location.
Through repetition, many pictorial transitional
devices have bccome hackneyed. A fresh photo-
graphic treatment, a novel production technique,
or a new twist by a creative c a m e r a m a n , director
or writer will e n h a n c e the production and stimu-
late continued audience interest.

SOUND TRANSITIONS
Narration may cover a switch in locales, or
WeU-knoum symbols may he used to intro- explain a time change. This would be a sound
duce countries or cities — such as pyramid version of a pictorial title. Newsreel narration
and sphinx for Egypt —
accomplishes this through a series of scenes,

rwft S a n a ft Railway

Acropolis for Greece, or Athens — cable car for San Francisco.

jumping about f r o m place to place. T h e entire practicing a jury address in his office, m a y be
sound track of a compilation film m a y be transi- shown actually delivering his speech, by dissolv-
tional, to cover the lack of pictorial continuity. A ing to a courtroom. Or. he may continue talking
documentary film may use simple narration to link as he walks in his office - out of the picture; and
sequences; moving about in time a n d / o r space. into the picture — in the courtroom. Such transi-
A monologue may move the siory f o r w a r d or tions are best m a d e with close-ups, so that the
backward, to a different time or place. A tape- featured individual fills the f r a m e during the
recorded confession, being played back by the switch from one selling lo another. T h e c a m e r a
police, m a y continue n a r r a t i n g events as the pic- should either cut lo, or move into, a close-up at
ture dissolves to a flashback of the crime being ihe end of the first scene. Then it should pick u p
committed. A shot of an archcologist, reading an the nexi scene with a close-up, and either cut-back
ancient manuscript, m a y dissolve both sound and or pull-back to reveal the new locale. Straight
picture Lo original dictation and writing of the
document. A company executive may read an en-
gineering field report aloud lo his colleagues. As
he continues reading, Lhc picture dissolves to the
activities being described. A scientist m a y imagine
life on earth a t h o u s a n d years f r o m now. T h e pic-
ture may dissolve f o r w a r d in time as he talks.
Picture a n d / o r dialogue may dissolve. T h e per-
son speaking m a y dissolve to another person who
continues the speech. A player's voice m a y be
heard as he writes a letter. Both picture and sound
may dissolve to the recipient reading the letter
aloud. Or. the voice of the original person m a y
continue as the picture dissolves to the recipient
silently reading the letter. A business report may
be used to bridge several persons in different U 5 Air Force
places; by depicting the a n n o u n c e m e n t being dic- Colint-down may be used as sound transi-
laled, and then dissolving to report being read tion, by cutting from control room to track-
aloud by other people in turn, ing stations, with engineer in each speak-
ing one number until "Fire" is reached and
Dissolves are noL always necessary. Dialogue missile is launched.
may activale a sLraighL cuL to another shot, such
as a player exclaiming: "We'd better fly!" and then
cutting to a plane in flight. T h e f o r e m a n of a jury
may declare: "Guilty!" Shots follow of barber,
butcher and baker shouting: "Innocent!" Since
such shots may be located anywhere, dialogue
reactions of various individuals may provide a
dramatic method f o r moving the story across
straight cuts. A missile countdown could include
ten individual shots of engineers in various loca-
tions on range, or even throughout the world,
each counting down until "one" is reached — and
the chief engineer orders: "Fire!"
Monologues m a y bridge an individual player's
movement f r o m one setting to another. A lawyer,
picture cuts, which transport the moving player national airs may be used to introduce a country.
from one setting to another, would have been con- American cities may be identified by popular songs
sidered poor editorial technique a few years ago. s p e c i f y i n g l o c a l e s ; Shuffle Off to Buffalo, Chicago,
With today's faster-paced story-telling, locales can San Francisco a n d Meet Mc in St. Louis. S t a t e s
be switched abruptly without opticals, provided and regions may be identified with California,
the audience comprehends what is happening. Here I Comcl, The Eyes of Texas, Dixie, Okla-
Non-essential action may be skipped, and sig- homa! and similar favorites. Available songs can
nificant highlights shown, by bridging scenes with cover most situations: wars, military groups,
dialogue, narration a n d / o r sound effects. A builder occupations, courtship, marriage, flying, sailing,
discussing blue-prints or model of a new house, motoring, cowboys, etc. A switch to a new setting
could dissolve into actual construction — as he may be quickly established bv including a few bars
continues the description. The scream of an on- ot an appropriate tune. Music bridges simplify
looker at a traffic accident could he blended into identification when a different location is shown,
the wail of an ambulance siren. A highway engi- without need of introductory titles, or other ex-
neer proclaiming: "We'll blast!" could pound his planatory inserts.
fist on a conference table as the picture abruptly Music is also useful for time lapses. Songs such
shows tons of earth exploding! a s It's Three O'CIock In The Morning, m a y be
Telephone conversations p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t used to climax a long evening of dancing or night
means for switching the story to another locale. clubbing; and. the New Year is almost always in-
Radio and television may also be used as sound troduced with Auld Lang Syne. Music of a partic-
transitions. The program may be shown originat- ular period may aid in establishing a flashback.
ing in the studio; then cut to reactions of people John Brown's Body will identify the Civil War, and
listening or watching in their homes, on the Over There! — World War 1. Use of music must
streets, in their cars. Reactions to a presidential always be cleared with copyright owners.
address, stock market reports, or a news flash, Sound effects, unaccompanied or blended with
may switch f r o m one person to another - regard- music a n d / o r dialogue, offer a variety of possi-
less of their locations. bilities for imaginative sound transitions. Success
Familiar songs provide excellent opportunities of a venture, growth of a project, transfer f r o m
for establishing l o c a t i o n . Well-known Irish, one time or place to another, may all be expressed
French, Italian or Russian folk music, or other by sound effects. A gushing oil well rumbles into
a squirting champagne bottle. A splashing water
faucet blends into a waterfall. Typewriter, tele-
type or stock ticker clattering dissolves into a
machine gun firing. Baby birds chirping softly
merge into a baby crying. The ciickcty-clack of a
train becomes a repetitious phrase or slogan. A
h u m a n cry becomes a wailing whistle. Train and
boat whistles suggest travel over land and sea.
Sounds may be faded in or out; dissolves
(blended, segued or merged): or distorted (echo
chamber); m a d e faster or slower, multiplied, com-
bined, etc. Both picture and sound may thus be
similarly treated for special effects or tratisitional
bridges. A distorted dissolve - which introduces a
S j n t l ffl MJ I - J .
flashback — mav be accompanied by distorted
An engineer mat) pound desk, and exclaim music and sound effects. Narration may be dram-
"We'll klast! — followed by explosion.
atized by use of echo chamber.
 It is often better to prepare the audience by
introducing the sound before the picture appears.
Since the ear takes longer than the eye to note
what is transpiring — hearing should be given a
head start. A sound can be heard before its
source is sighted. An ambulance siren can wail
long before the vehicle approaches die camera. A
ship's fog horn can be heard before the vague
outline of the vessel can be discerned in the mist.
Factory din is heard before machines are shown.
Music or sound effects may introduce a flash-
back. The sound may be "heard" by the mind's
ear before the image is recognized. A tinkling
piano may be heard in the distance and gradually Lockbc eel-California Cfl-

brought up to full volume. Then, setting and peo- Directional continuity should be estab-
ple are revealed. French taxi horns may be heard lished and maintained, even on uncontrol-
before: the flashback dissolves to a Paris street lable action — such as aerial flight test —
sccne. A setting may bring back memories in by choice of camera set-ups on correct side
of action axis.
which the sound precedes the images evoked. A
veteran pilot wandering around an airplane grave-
yard may seem to "hear" the roar of airplane centration while filming, and avoidance of pitfalls
engines. This introduces a flashback of a bombing build better continuity — whether shooting from a
mission. Or, an actual sound — such as a train prepared script or off-the-cuff. Good continuity is
whistle - may trigger remembrance of a vacation expected by the audience. By drawing attention to
incident. itself, poor continuity detracts f r o m the narrative.
Nothing should interfere with the illusion through
APPROPRIATE TRANSITIONS which the audience becomes involved in the story.
Pictorial or sound transitions should be han- These sLcps are advisable for better continuity;
dled in keeping with the event being depicted. Learn how to analyze and handle cinematic
Materials on hand will often suggest a transitional time and space, Establish and maintain dynamic
device. Props foreign to the setting should not be and static directional continuity by proper employ-
introduced. A grandfather clock would be out of ment of the action axis. Recognize differences be-
place in a scientific laboratory. Players, story, set- tween controlled and uncontrolled action. Decide
ting, action, available props, should be imagina- when to shoot single or multiple cameras for best
tively blended into an appropriate transition - results. Choose between master scene and triple-
seeming to grow out of the event. Elaborate props, take techniques; or utilize a combination of both,
or false action - staged only to introduce a tran- to fU the filming situation. Overlap and match
sition - should be avoided. Any transition that action from shot to shot, so that it can be edited
attracts undue attention to itself, distracts from in a continuous m a n n e r . Allow the editor suffici-
die story. Transitions should supply logical means ent overlapping footage to facilitate cutting on
to an end; devices for interlocking sequences, cov- action. Film pictorial and sound transitions to
ering time lapses, changes of locale. bridge time and space.
A motion picture is a constantly-changing series
CONCLUSION of images. By keeping the images as close as pos-
Continuity is merely common sense in coordi- sible to real-life action, good continuity should be
nated action. It requires thinking in sequences — assured. Thinking continuously will make thought-
instead of individual shots. Careful planning, con- ful continuity.