CAPITAL

LETTER
-The start of a sentence
-The personal pronoun I
-Titles
-Days, months and public holidays
-Names of people and places
-Languages, nationalities and religions
-Towns and countries

PUNCTUATION
comma , full stop.
We use it: We use it:
-to separate items in a list or a -to mark the end of a sentence
sequence of events
-between adjectives
-between two clauses in a
sentence

exclamation mark ! question mark ?

We use it: We use it:
-to show strong feelings -to mark the end of a question

apostrophe ’ brackets () –
or dash
We use it: We use it:
-to show contractions -to add extra information
SENTENCES’
ORDER
The basic unit of English grammar is the clause:

[An unlucky student almost lost a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000] 

[when he left it in the waiting room of a London station.]

[William Brown inherited the 1698 Stradivarius violin from his mother]

[and had just had it valued by a London dealer at £180,000.]

Clauses are made up of phrases:

[An unlucky student] + [almost lost] + [a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000] 

[when] + [he] + [left] + [it] + [in the waiting room of a London station.]

[William Brown] + [inherited] + [the 1698 Stradivarius violin] + [from his mother]

[and] [had just had it valued] + [by a London dealer] + [at £180,000.]

We can join two or more clauses together to make sentences.

An unlucky student almost lost a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000 when he left it in the
waiting room of a London station.

William Brown inherited the 1698 Stradivarius violin from his mother and had just had it valued by a
London dealer at £180,000.

AFFIRMATIVE OR NEGATIVE SENTENCES

Subject + Verb + Object (indirect, direct) + CManner + CPlace +
CTime
-Time expressions can also come at the beginning of the
sentence
-Frequency adverbs come before the main verb (except to be)
-Sentences always have a subject, it can’t be omitted (except for
the imperative). If we have no other subject, we use there or it
as subject (impersonal sentence)
-There can’t be two negatives in the same sentence

QUESTIONS
-Yes/No Question
Auxiliare + S + V + object + CC ?

-Wh-Question
If Wh isn’t the subject –> Wh + auxiliare + S + V + object +
CC ?
or the object do/does (present)
did (past)

If Wh is the object –> Wh + auxiliare + S + V + CC ?

do/does (present)
did (past)

If Wh is the subject –> Wh + V + object + CC ?

ADJECTIVES
opinion + size + age + shape/style + colour/pattern + origin +
material + NOUN

object puede ser CD O CI

We use there 

• to introduce a new topic:

There has been an accident. I hope no one is hurt.

• with numbers or quantities:

There must have been more than five hundred in the audience.

• to say where something is:
 There are fairies at the bottom of the garden.

• with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of quantity and the to-infinitive:

There is nothing to do in the village.

If we want to show the subject of the to-infinitive we use for:

There is nothing for the children to do in the village.

• with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of quantity and an -ing verb:

There is someone waiting to see you.

We use it to talk about:

• times and dates:

It’s nearly one o’clock.

• weather:

It’s raining.

• to give an opinion about a place:

It’s very cold in here.

• to give an opinion followed by to-infinitive:

It was interesting to meet your brother at last.

• to give an opinion followed by an -ing verb:

It’s great living in Spain.

We use it to talk about ourselves:

• on the telephone:
 Hello. It’s George.

• when people cannot see us:

[Mary knocks on door] It’s me. It’s Mary.

We use it to talk about other people:

• when we point them out for the first time:

Look. It’s Sir Paul McCartney.

• when we cannot see them and we ask them for their name:

[someone knocks on door. We say:] Who is it? 

 PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun

PERSONAL PRONOUN
I - yo
YOU - tu
HE - él
SHE - ella
IT - ello (objeto)
WE - nosotros, nosotras
YOU - vosotros, vosotras
THEY - ellos, ellas

They come before the verb and can’t be omitted. We use them
to avoid repeating names and nouns. . We use subject pronouns as subject of
the verb:

When we are not sure if we are talking about a man or a woman we use they/them.

OBJECT PRONOUNS
me - me, mi
you - te, ti
him - le, lo, él
her - le, la, ella
it - le, lo, él, ella, ello
us - nos, nosotros, nosotras
you - les, los, os, vosotros, vosotras, ustedes
them - les, los, las, ellos, ellas

We use object pronouns:

• as the object of the verb:

 after prepositions:
I saw her in town today.
She is waiting for me.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
each other - se, nos, uno al otro, mutuamente, unos a otros

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
myself - me, yo mismo
yourself - te, se, tú mismo
himself - se, él mismo
herself - se, ella misma
itself - se, a sí mismo
ourselves - nos, nosotros mismos
themselves - se, ellos mismos

We use a reflexive pronoun:

• as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the verb: We do not use a reflexive

pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do for themselves, such as wash,shave, dress:

I am teaching myself to play the piano.

Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
this - este, esta, esto
that - ese, esa, eso, aquel, aquella, aquello
these - estos, estas
those - esos, esas, aquellos, aquellas
(determinantes y pronombres)

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
In affirmative sentences
someone/somebody - alguien
something - alguna cosa/ algo
anyone/anybody - cualquiera
anything - cualquier cosa
nothing - ninguna cosa/ nada
nobody/ no one - ninguna persona/ nadie
everybody/ everyone - todo el mundo/ todas/ todos
not everybody/ not everyone - no todo el mundo/ no todas/ no
todos
everything - todo
not everything - no todo
es pronun? every + noun (singular countable) - cada +
sustantivo

In negative sentences In interrogative and condicional

anyone/anybody - sentences
nadie anyone/anybody - alguien
anything - nada anything - alguna cosa / algo

We use one (singular) and ones (plural) to avoid unnecessary repetition.

See those two girls? Helen is the tall one and Jane is the short one.
Which is your car, the red one or the blue one?
My trousers are torn. I need some new ones.
See those two girls. Helen is the one on the left.
Let’s look at the photographs. The ones you took in Paris.

We often use them after Which ...  in questions:

You can borrow a book. Which one do you want?

There are lots of books here. Which ones are yours?
 ARTICLES
DEFINITE ARTICLE: THE
We use the when it’s clear who/what somebody or something is
(it has
been mentioned before or it’s unique)

We write the article the We don’t write the article the

before this nouns: before this nouns:
geografic names cities, continents
mountain ranges, deserts single mountains
canals, rivers, oceans, seas lakes
islands groups single islands
some countries and regions most regions and countries
power/political positions and individual political/power
organizations people
theatres, cinemas, hotels, roads, streets, parks,
galleries, museums restaurants, shops
specific groups in society
(the poor, the young…)

INDEFINITE ARTICLE
We use a/an when you say who/what somebody or something is
A: before nouns (countable) or adjectives beginning with
consonant
AN: before nouns (countable) or adjectives beginning with vowel
or H

ONE
We use one not to repeat a noun after an adjective:
adj + noun (pl or sing) –> the adj + one (singular)
ones (plural)
Ex. Maria has a shy brother and a stupid brother. The shy one is
my friend.

QUANTIFIERS
Both Ana and Sam - Ana y Sam / Tanto Ana como Sam aff?
Both sad and tired - Tan triste como cansado
Both boys - Ambos chicos
Both of them/ of the boys - Varios de ellos/de los chicos
Neither/ Either of them/ of the boys - Ninguno de ellos/de los
chicos
Either Ana or Sam - Ana o Sam aff
Either Ana or Sam - Ni Ana ni Sam neg
Neither Ana nor Sam - Ni Ana ni Sam aff

Esto no está visto

All + noun (plural or uncontable) - Todos los/las (general)

All the + noun (plural or uncontable) - Todos los/las (específico)
All of them - Todos vosotros
Most + noun - Mucha/o/as/os (general)
Most of + noun - Mucha/o/as/os (específico)
Most of them - Muchos de ellos

Zero quantity
Verb (affirmative) + no + noun - No hay chicos (Ex. There are no
boys)
Verb (negative) + any + noun - No hay chicos (Ex. There aren’t
any boys)
Verb (affirmative) + none - No hay ninguno (Ex. There is none)
None of them - Ninguno de ellos
Too + adj -> demasiado
Not + adj + enough -> no hay suficiente
Not enough + noun -> no hay suficiente
Ex. There isn’t enough sugar in this coffe.

Count nouns (pl) Uncount nouns

Affirmative and Some Some
interrogative Unos, unas, algunos, Un poco de, algo de
(requests and algunas Ex. I have got some money
offers) Ex. There are some shops
Negative Any Any
Ningun, ninguna Nada de
Ex. There aren’t any shops Ex. I haven’t got any money
interrogative Any Any
Unos, unas, algunos, Algo de
algunas Ex. Have you got any money?
Ex. Are there any shops?
Negative and Many Much
interrogative muchos, muchas Mucho, mucha
Ex. There aren’t many Ex. I haven’t got much money
shops
Affirmative A lot of A lot of
muchos, muchas mucho, mucha
Ex. There are a lot of Ex. I have got a lot of money
shops
Affirmative A few A little
algunos, algunas algo de
Ex. There are a few shops Ex. I have got a little money
Affirmative, Too many Too much
negative and demasiados, demasiado
interrogative demasiadas Ex. I haven’t got too much
Ex. There are too many money
shops

CONTABLE / UNCONTABLE
Los sustantivos contables tienen forma de singular y de plural, y
van acompañados de un artículo indefinido o un numeral.
Los sustantivos incontables no tienen forma de plural, y no
pueden ir acompañados de un artículo indefinido o un numeral.
UNCONTABLE CONTABLE
-So much – tanto -
-Little – poco -So many – tantos
-Less – menos, menor cantidad -Few – pocos (en frases aff)
de -Fewer – menor cantidad que
-The least – la menor cantidad -The fewest – la menor
-A large amount of – una gran cantidad de
cantidad de -A large Lumber of – una gran
-A great deal of – mucho/a cantidad de
-Some (en frases afirmativas -A great many – muchísimos
plural) – unos, unas, algunas, -Some (en frases afirmativas) –
algunos un poco de, algo de
-Any (en frases negativas -Any (en frases negativas) –
plural) nada
– ningún, ninguna de
-Any (en preguntas plural) – -Any (en preguntas) – algo de
unos, unas, algunas, algunos
-a piece of
-a bit of

Any – before nouns in neg and interrogative sentences

Some nouns are formed by adding suffixes to certain

verbs, adjectives or other nouns: -ment, -tion/-sion, -er/-
or, -ity, -ship, -ness and -ence/-ance.

QUESTION
WORDS
What? - ¿Qué? ¿Cuál? ¿Cuáles?
Which? - ¿Qué? ¿Cuál? ¿Cuáles?
Where? - ¿Dónde? ¿Adónde?
When? - ¿Cuándo? ¿A qué hora?
Why? - ¿Por qué?
Who? - ¿Quién? ¿Quiénes?
Whose? - ¿De quién? ¿De quiénes?
How? - ¿Cómo?
How much? - ¿Cuánto/a? (with uncountable nouns)
How many? - ¿Cuántos/as? (with countable nouns)
How often? - ¿Con qué frecuencia? ¿Cada cuánto?

NO VISTOS
Whom? - ¿A quién? ¿A quiénes?
What time? - ¿Qué hora? ¿A qué hora?
What kind of? - ¿Qué clase de? ¿Qué tipo de?
How long? - ¿Cuánto tiempo?
How long ago? - ¿Hace cuánto tiempo?
Since when? - ¿Desde cuándo?
What...like? - ¿Cómo?
What...for? - ¿Para qué?
What...about? - (Sugerencias)
Who...for? - ¿Para quién?
Who...with? - ¿Con quién?
Where...from? - ¿De dónde?
How old? - ¿Qué edad? ¿Cuán viejo?
How far? - ¿A qué distancia? ¿Cuán lejos?
What else? - ¿Qué más?
Where else? - ¿Dónde más?
When else? - ¿En qué otra ocasión?
How else? - ¿De qué otra manera?
Who else? - ¿Quién más?
Why else? - ¿Por qué otra razón?

POSSESSIVE
POSSESSIVE ‘S
‘S: we add ‘S after a name or noun to talk about possession
Ex. Tom’s sister
‘: we add ‘ after a plural noun or a noun ending in S to talk about
possession
Ex. My sisters’ bedroom / My boss’ room
OF: we use OF in names of places and things to talk about
possession
Ex. The capital of Cataluña is Barcelona

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
my - mi, mis
your - tu, tus / su, sus (de usted)
his - su, sus (de él)
her - su, sus (de ella)
its - su, sus (de algo)
our - nuestro/a/os/as
your - vuestro/a/os/as / su, sus (de ustedes)
their - su, sus (de ellos/as)

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
mine - (el/la/los/las) mío/a/os/as
yours - (el/la/los/las) tuyo/a/os/as / suyo/a/os/as (de usted)
his - (el/la/los/las) suyo/a/os/as (de él)
hers - (el/la/los/las) suyo/a/os/as (de ella)
its - (el/la/los/las) suyo/a/os/as (de algo)
ours - (el/la/los/las) nuestro/a/os/as
yours - (el/la/los/las) vuestro/a/os/as / suyo/a/os/as (de ustedes)
theirs - (el/la/los/las) suyo/a/os/as (de ellos/as)
We can use a possessive pronoun instead of a noun phrase:
SPELLING RULES
PLURAL NOUNS
-We add –S to the noun
-If the noun ends with consonant+Y, we change –Y for –IES
-If the noun ends with vowel+Y, we add –S
-If the noun ends with –SS, –CH, –SH, –X, –O, we add –ES
-There are some nouns which have an irregular form: child
(children)

3rd PERSON SINGULAR

-We add –S to the verb’s infinitive
-If the verb ends with consonant+Y, we change –Y for –IES
-If the verb ends with vowel+Y, we add –S
-If the verb ends with –SS, –L, –CH, –SH, –X, –O, we add –ES
-There are some verbs which have an irregular form: to have
(has), to be (is)

-ing FORM (continuous)

-We add –ING to the verb’s infinitive
-If the verb ends with –E, we change –E for –ING
-If the verb ends with –IE, we change –IE for –YING
-If the verb ends with –Y, we add –ING
-If the verb ends with vowel+consonant, we duplicate the
consonant and add –ING (except if the consonant is X or W)

PAST SIMPLE/PARTICIPLE (regular

verbs)
-We add –ED to the verb’s infinitive
-If the verb ends with –E, we add –D
-If the verb ends with vowel+Y, we change –Y for –IED
-If the verb ends with vowel+consonant, we duplicate the
consonant and add –ED (except if the consonant is X or W)
 ADJECTIVES
Some adjectives are formed by adding suffixes to certain verbs
and nouns: -ed, -ing, -ful, -less, -ous, -al, -able and -ive. To make
the opposites we add the prefixes: un-, dis-, im- or in-.

COMPARATIVE
We write ‘___ is adj comparative than ___’ to compare things or
people.

-If the adjective has two or more syllables, we add MORE/LESS

before the adjective
-If the adjective is monosyllabic, we add –ER
-If the adjective is monosyllabic and ends with –E, we add –R
-If the adjective is monosyllabic and ends with
vowel+consonant, we duplicate the consonant and add –ER
-If the adjective is monosyllabic and ends with consonant+Y, we
change –Y for –IER
-There are some irregular adjectives: good (better), bad (worse),
far (further)

as + adj/adv + as -> tan + adj/adv + como

Ex. She can cook as well as a professional chef
Not as + adj/adv + as -> no ... tan + adj + como
Ex. My cooking isn’t as good as my mother’s cooking
As much + unc noun + as -> tanto + sust inc + como
Ex. I haven’t got as much money as you
As many + pl noun + as -> tantos/tantas + sust pl + como
Ex. Maria has got as many friends as me
Not be form + as + adj + as - no ser tan adj como
Be form + so + adj + (that) - ser tan adj (que)
Be form + such + a/an + adj + noun (sing) + (that) - ser un sust tan
adj (que)
Be form + such + adj + noun (pl or unc) + (that) - ser sust (plural)
tan adj (que)

SUPERLATIVE
We write ‘___ is the adj superlative (in the place)’ to show that a
thing or person is more superior than the others.
-If the adjective has two or more syllables, we add MOST before
the adjective
-If the adjective is monosyllabic, we add –EST
-If the adjective is monosyllabic and ends with –E, we add –ST
-If the adjective is monosyllabic and ends with
vowel+consonant, we duplicate the consonant and add –EST
-If the adjective is monosyllabic and ends with consonant+Y, we
change –Y for –IEST
-There are some irregular adjectives: good (best), bad (worst),
far (furthest)

Be form + so + adj - ser adj-ísimo

Be form + such + a/an + (adj) + noun - ser un
sust adj-ísimo

So + adj -> tan + adj

Ex. Why are you so happy?
Such + a/an + noun -> tan + sust
Ex. Why are you such a fool?
Such + adj + pl or unc noun -> unos/unas/un/una + sust + tan
+ adj
Ex. He cooks such delicious sauces.
Such + a lot of + pl or unc noun
Ex. She makes such a lot of money.

Adverbs too?
 NOUNS:
GERUNDS AND
INFINITIVES
GERUNDS
-AFTER CERTAIN VERBS:
admit, anticipate, avoid, consider, continue, defer, delay, deny,
dread, detest, enjoy, excuse, fancy, finish, forgive, give up,
imagine, involve, keep, miss, pardon, prevent, postpone,
recommend, resist, risk, stop, suggest, understand

-AFTER CERTAIN EXPRESSIONS:

can’t help, can’t stand, would mind, look forward to, don’t mind,
be used to, get used to, feel like, it’s worth, it isn’t use, it isn’t
good

-AFTER PREPOSITIONS

-AS THE SUBJECT OR OBJECT OF A SENTENCE

TO INFINITIVES
-AFTER CERTAIN VERBS:
afford, agree, appear, arrange, attempt, choose, dare, decide,
determine, expect, fail, help, hesitate, hope, learn, manage,
need, offer, plan, prepare, promise, refuse, regret, seem, swear,
want, wish

-AFTER CERTAIN VERBS we put the infinitive WITHOUT –TO:

hear, make, let, see, feel

-TO EXPRESS PURPOSE

-AFTER SOME ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES

-AFTER VERBS + INDIRECT OBJECT:

advise, allow, ask, beg, encourage, expect, forbid, force, help,
invite, like, permit, persuade, prefer, remind, teach, tell, want,
warn

-AFTER CERTAIN VERBS + QUESTION WORDS

ask, consider, explain, know, tell, show, wonder, find out,
understand
GERUNDS / TO INFINITIVES
-SOME VERBS CAN BE FOLLOWED BY EITHER A GERUND OR AN
INFINITIVE: begin, bother, forbid, intend, propose, start

-Sometimes, the meaning changes slightly, depending on

whether the gerund or the infinitive is used with verbs such as:
love, hate, prefer, like, dislike, permit, allow, detest
Followed by the gerund, the statement is general.
Ex. I like reading
Followed by the infinitive, the statement is more specific.
Ex. I like to read before going to sleep

-The meaning changes greatly depending on whether the

gerund or the infinitive is used with verbs such as: forget, go on,
mean, remember, regret, stop, try, be sorry

stop + gerund - dejar de hacer algo (un hábito)

stop + to infinitive - interrumpir una acción para hacer otra

remember + gerund - recordar algo que ocurrió en el pasado

remember + to infinitive - acordarse de hacer algo

forget + gerund - olvidar algo que ocurrió en el pasado

forget + to infinitive - olvidarse de hacer algo
regret/be sorry + gerund - arrepentirse de algo que ha pasado
regret/be sorry + to infinitive - lamentar hacer algo

try + gerund - probar a hacer algo

try + to infinitive - intentar hacer algo difícil

go on + gerund - continuar haciendo algo

go on + to infinitive - empezar a hacer algo

mean + gerund - querer decir/significar algo

mean + to infinitive - tener la intención de hacer algo

PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS
On – days
In – years, months, the morning
At – hours, the weekend

PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
Se colocan detrás del verbo
up - por/hacia arriba
down - por/hacia abajo
into - dentro de, al, hacia adentro
out of - de, afuera de, fuera de
on / onto - sobre, al
off - de, fuera de
over - sobre, por encima de
under - debajo de, bajo
to - a, hacia
from - de, desde
toward/s - hacia
away from - fuera de, alejándose de
along - a lo largo de, por
across - a través de, cruzando
through - a través de
around - alrededor de, por
by - por, cerca de, junto a
past - más allá de, por delante de
after - después de, detrás de, tras

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
on - sobre, en, encima de
upon - sobre, en, encima de(formal)
in - en, dentro de
at - en
inside - dentro de, en
outside - afuera, fuera, fuera de
above - encima de, sobre, arriba
below - debajo de
over - encima de, sobre
under - debajo de, bajo
beneath/underneath - bajo, debajo de
by - al lado de, junto a
near - cerca de
close to - cerca de
across - a lo ancho de, a través de, al otro lado de
along - a lo largo de
around - alrededor de, cerca de, por
round - alrededor de, en torno a, por
against - contra, en contra de
on top of - encima de, sobre, arriba de
at the bottom of - en la base de, debajo de, en el fondo de
in front of - enfrente de
opposite - enfrente de, frente a
behind - detrás, detrás de
beside - al lado de, junto a
next to - al lado de, junto a
within - dentro de, a menos de
beyond - más allá de
between - entre
among - entre, en medio de
before - delante de, ante
after - después de, tras
throughout - por todo, a través de todo

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
about - aproximadamente, alrededor de
around - aproximadamente, alrededor de
before - antes de
after - después de
during - durante
over - durante
for - durante, por
throughout - durante todo
since - desde
until - hasta
to - para, hacia
past - pasado
between...and... - entre...y...
within - entre, en no más de
from...to / till / until... - desde...hasta...
as from / as of - a partir de
by - para, antes de
beyond - más allá de
on - en (para los días, fechas)
at - a (para la horas, días festivos y ciertas expresiones)
in - en (para meses, estaciones, años, partes del día, largos
periodos y referencia al futuro)
 ADVERBS
FORMACIÓN
-We form adverbs by adding –LY to the adjective
-With adjectives ending in –Y, we change it to –ILY
-Other irregular adjectives: good (well), late (late), early (early),
fast (fast)

Too + adj -> demasiado ajd

Adj + enough -> bastante, suficientemente adj

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Se colocan delante del verbo, excepto en el verbo to be, que
van detrás del verbo. Entre el auxiliar y el verbo
always - siempre
usually - casi siempre /
habitualmente
frequently - frecuentemente
often - normalmente / a
menudo
sometimes - a veces
occasionally - ocasionalmente
rarely - casi nunca
seldom - casi nunca
hardly ever - casi nunca
never - nunca

annually - anualmente
yearly - anualmente
monthly - mensualmente
weekly - semanalmente
daily - diariamente
hourly - a cada hora

every day - todos los días

ever - alguna vez
every month - todos los meses
every year - todos los años
normally - normalmente
regularly – regularmente

once - una vez

twice - dos veces
X times - X veces
once a day - una vez al día
twice a month - dos veces al mes
every other day - cada dos días
from time to time - de vez en cuando
once in a while - de vez en cuando
every now and then - de vez en cuando

ADVERBS OF DEGREE
much - mucho
so much - tanto
too much - demasiado
very little - muy poco
so little - tan poco
too little - demasiado poco

more - más
much more - mucho más
far more - mucho más
less - menos
much less - mucho menos
far less - mucho menos

almost - casi
nearly - casi
barely - apenas
scarcely - apenas
hardly - apenas, casi no
not at all - nada, en absoluto
even - incluso, aún
even more - aún más
even less - aún menos
not even - ni siquiera

partially - parcialmente, a medias

partly - en parte
entirely - enteramente
completely - completamente
absolutely - absolutamente
relatively - relativamente
at least - al menos
at most - como máximo

largely - en gran parte

mostly - en su mayor parte
mainly - principalmente
totally - totalmente
extremely - sumamente
altogether - en total

so - tan
very - muy
too - demasiado
enough - suficiente
just - justo, apenas, sólo
only - sólo, solamente

pretty - bastante
quite - bastante, muy
fairly - bastante
rather - bastante

slightly - ligeramente
a bit - un poco
terribly -
really - realmente
 REPORTED
SPEECH
We use reported speech to tell something that someone has
said.

TENSES
Present simple……………………………..Past simple
Present continuous………………………..Past continuous
Present perfect…………………………….Past perfect
Present perfect continuous……………….Past perfect continuous
Past simple…………………………………Past perfect
Past perfect………………………………...Past perfect
Past perfect continuous…………………...Past perfect continuous
Future……..………………………………..Conditional
Future continuous…………………………Conditional continuous
Shall……………………………………..….Should
Must/have to.………………………….…..Had to
Can………………………………………….Could
May…………………………………………Might
Would………………………………………Would
Could……………………………………….Could
Might………………………………………..Might
Ought……………………………………….Ought
Should……………………………………….Should

EXPRESSIONS
This………………………….That
These………………………..Those
That…………………………That
Those………………………..Those
Here…………………………There
Now…………………………Then
A X ago……………………..The X before/ The previous X
Tonight……………………..That night
Today……………………….That day
Yesterday……………………The day before/ The previous day
Tomorrow………………….The next day/ The following day/ The day
after
Next X………………………The following X/ The X after
Last X………………………..The previous X/ The X before

INTRODUCTORY VERBS

v + object + to/not to + v + prep + gerund

infinitive admitted (to) (admitir)
advised (aconsejar) accused object of (acusar)
asked (pedir) apologised for (disculparse)
begged (rogar) boasted about/of (presumir)
commanded (ordenar) insisted on (insistir)
invited (invitar) blamed somebody for (culpar)
ordered (ordenar) suggested (sugerir)
reminded (recordar) regretted (arrepentirse)
warned (avisar)
forbade (prohibir) v + that
recommended (recomendar) complained (quejarse)
convinced (convencer) denied (negar haber hecho
encouraged (animar) algo)
persuaded (persuadir) explained (explicar)
told (contar) exclaimed/ remarked
(enfatizar)
v + to/not to + infinitive suggested (aconsejar)
agreed (estar de acuerdo / announce (decir)
aceptar) advised (aconsejar)
offered (ofrecerse)
promised (prometer)
refused (rechazar)
threatened (amenazar)

REPORTED STATEMENTS
S1 + V of statement + (that) + S2 + V2 + C2
said
said to + object
told + object
Ex. I’m tired –> He said that he was tired

REPORTED QUESTIONS
S1 + V of question + if +S2 +V2 +C2 (yes/no Q)
asked + (object) Wh +S2 +V2 +C2 (Wh-Q)
inquired
wanted to know
wondered
Ex. Is he a firefighter? –> Maria asked if he was a firefighter
Ex. Where are you? –> Maria asked me where I was
REPORTED ORDERS, REQUESTS AND
INVITATIONS (órdenes, peticiones, consejos)
S1 + V of command/ request/ invitation + object + to/not to V2 +
C2
told asked invite
ordered begged
shouted
demand
warned
Ex. Tidy your room! –> Mum ordered me to tidy my room

REPORTED SUGGESTIONS AND ADVICES

(sugerencias y consejos)
S1 + V of suggestion + that + S2 + V2 + C2
suggested V2 gerund + C2
advised
recommend

Ex. Let’s watch the TV –> He suggested that we watch the TV

Ex. Let’s watch the TV –> He suggested watching the TV
 PASSIVE
VOICE
We use the passive voice when we don’t know who does the
action, when it isn’t the main focus of the sentence or when it’s
unnecessary to say who does the action. If we want to say who
does the action, we use by.

ESTRUCTURE
S + V + CI + CD + CC –> CD (pronoun) + V (be form + Vpast
participle) + CI + by S (obj. pronoun) + CC

S + V + CI + CD + CC –> CI (pronoun) + V (be form + Vpast

participle) + CD + by S (obj. pronoun) + CC

VERB FORM……….…ACTIVE…………….………PASSIVE
Present simple .………….... study ……………………...... is studied
Present cont ……………. is studying …………………. is being
studied
Past simple .….…………... studied ……………………... was studied
Past cont ….…………… was studying ………………. was being
studied
Present perfect ………… has studied ………………… has been
studied
Past perfect …...……….. had studied ……………….. had been
studied
Future (w) .…….……….. will study ………………..… will be studied
Future (gt) …………... is going to study ………….. is going to be
studied
Conditional …………..… would study ………….…... would be
studied
Conditional perfect …… would have studied …...…. would have been
studied
To infinitive ………………. to study …………………... to be studied
Gerund …………………… studying …………………… being studied
Modal ………………..… modal study ………………. modal be
studied
Modal perfect .………. modal perfect studied …….... modal perfect
been studied

SPECIAL VERBS
-make: S + be form + made to + …
-let: S + be form + allowed to + …
-sense verbs: S + be form +Vpast participle + to + …
-have to + verb: S + have to + be + Vpast participle + …
-need to + verb: S + need to + be + Vpast participle + …
-ought to + verb: S + ought to + be + Vpast participle + …

IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
S1 + V1 + that + S2 + V2 + … –> IT + be form+ V1past
participle + that +
+ S 2 + V2 + …
Ex. People think that politicians are corrupted persons –> It is
thought that politicians are corrupted persons (Se piensa que los
políticos son personas corruptas)

S1 + V1 + that + S2 + V2 + … –> S2 + be form + V1past

participle +
to V2infinitive +… (if V2 is present/future)
+ to be + V2gerund +… (if V2 is present cont)
to have + V2past participle +… (if V2 is past, present perfect,
past continuous)
Ex. People think that politicians are corrupted persons –>
Politicians are thought to be corrupted persons (Se piensa que los
políticos son personas corruptas)

CAUSATIVE PASSIVE
We refer to an action that is done for us by someone else. It can
be used in any verbal tense.

S + HAVE/GET form + object + Vpast participle + …

Ex. I had my hair cut (The hairdresser cut my hair)

RELATIVE
CLAUSES
DEFINING
Defining relative clauses contain essential information about the
noun it describes.
Who / that - que (el/la/los/las que) Can be omitted
when
Ex. I talk to a man who is a doctor they aren’t the
subject
Which /that - que (el cual /la cual) of the clause
Ex. I buy the fruit which you recommended me
When / that - cuando/ en el que (can be omitted)
Ex. I never forget when I was 18
Why / that - por el que/ por la que (can be omitted)
Ex. Tell us the reason why you ran away
Where - donde/ en el que/ en la que
Ex. Elche is the city where I live
Whose - cuyo/ cuya/ cuyos/ cuyas
Ex. She’s the girl whose father is a firefighter
What - que cosa / que (it can be used if the noun it describes is
omitted)
Ex. I don’t know what to do

-We can write some sentences using with (con) instead of which
y whose.
Ex. A friend whose brother… –> A friend with a brother who…
Ex. An computer which has… –> An computer with…

-We can write some sentences using whom (con el/la que, de
el/la que) instead of who, with verbs followed by a preposition
(on, to, for, with).
Formal structure: prep + whom + clause
Ex. Maria is a good friend on whom I can depend
Informal structure: (who) + clause + prep
Ex. Maria is a good friend (who) I can depend on

NON-DEFINING
Non-defining relative clauses add extra information about the
noun it describes. Usually the clause is separated from the rest
of the sentence by commas.
Who - que (el/la/los/las que)
Which - que (el cual)
When - cuando/ en el que
Where - donde/ en el que/ en la que
Whose - cuyo / cuya / cuyos/ cuyas

Ex. Maria, who is English, speaks French very well

 MODALS
ESTRUCTURE
S + modal + Vinfinitive + …
Modal + S + Vinfinitive…?
Yes, S + modal. / No, S + modal.
Any modal can’t be conjugated except: be able to, have to,
haven’t to, need to

CAN (poder) Ex. Maria can run very fast

Uses: Ability, Request, High Ex. Can I call you tonight?
possibility, Make Ex. Sports can be exciting to
Suggestions watch
-

BE ABLE TO (ser capaz de) Ex. Maria is able to skate very

Uses: Ability (with effort) well

CAN’T (no poder) Ex. I can’t eat a whole cake

Uses: Inability, Impossibility, myself
Prohibition, Certainty that Ex. I can’t meet you, I’m working
something is impossible Ex. You can’t drive without a
(disbelief), Deduction licence
Ex. You can’t be 40 years old,
you look much younger!

COULD/ COULDN’T Ex. She could run very fast when

(podía/no podia, podrías) she was a child
Uses: Past ability, Polite Ex. Could you help me with the
request, Polite suggestion, homework?
Possibility (40%) Ex. You could do exercise
Ex. Maria could join us at the
cinema

MAY (puede que) Ex. It may rain tomorrow

Uses: Possibility, Polite Ex. May I join this team?
request

MIGHT (podría) Ex. They might win the match

Uses: Possibility, Deduction -

WOULD (conditional) Ex. Would you open the window?

Uses: Formal request, Offer Ex. Would you like something to
drink?

MUST (deber) Ex. You must train for the match

Uses: Obligation, Strong -
necessity, Certainty that Ex. She must be very happy
something is true, because he has won the match.
Probability -

MUSN’T (no se debe) Ex. You musn’t exceed the

Uses: Prohibition speed limit

HAVE TO (tener que) Ex. I have to do my homework

Uses: Obligation, necessity -
DON’T HAVE TO (no tener Ex. I don’t have to get up early
que) tomorrow
Uses: Lack of obligation, -
Lack of necessity

NEED TO (tener que, Ex. You need to do your

necesitar) homework
Uses: Obligation, necessity Ex. You need to practise harder

NEEDN’T TO (no hacer Ex. You needn’t bring anything

falta que, no tener que, no to the party
necesitar) -
Uses: Lack of obligation,
Lack of necessity

SHOULD/ SHOULDN’T/ Ex. You should to improve you

OUGHT TO (debería) pronunciation
Uses: Opinion, advice .

SHALL (podría) Ex. Shall I help you with your

Uses: Offer, suggestion luggage?
-

HAD BETTER/ HAD Ex. You had better go to the

BETTER NOT (es mejor doctor
que, deberías/ no deberías) -
Uses: Advice, Opinion

MODALS
PERFECT
ESTRUCTURE
S + modal perfect + Vpast participle + …
Modal perfect + S + Vpast participle…?
Yes, S + modal perfect. / No, S + modal perfect.
Any modal perfect can’t be conjugated.

MUST HAVE (debe de haber) Ex. Maria has arrived late,

Uses: Certainty that something she must have been in a
was true traffic jam

MAY/ MIGHT HAVE (podría Ex. Maria may/might have

haber) taken the wrong bus
Uses: A guess about a past
action

COULD HAVE (podía haber) Ex. You could have asked the
Uses: Ability to do something doctor before taking the
in the past which in the end medicine
wasn’t done, Advice, -

COULDN’T HAVE (no pudo Ex. Maria couldn’t have gone

haber) to the concert because she
Uses: Certainty that something was doing an exam
did not happen

WOULD HAVE (habría) Ex. Maria would have gone to

Uses: Desire to do something the party but she was too
in the past which in fact could busy
not be done

SHOULD/ SHOULDN’T HAVE/ Ex. You shouldn’t have

OUGHT TO HAVE (debería forgotten about her birthday
haber/ no debería haber) -
Uses: Criticism or regret after
an event, Advice

NEEDN’T HAVE (no Ex. You needn’t have

necesitaba haber) brought anything to my
Uses: An unnecessary past party
action
 WISH
SENTENCES
Wish = If Only (Desearía, Ojalá, Si al menos)

Hypothesis
To talk about things you would like to be different in present or
an impossible situation.

S1 + wish + (that) + S2 + past simple

Ex. Maria wishes that she lived closer to his school
If only + S2 + past simple
Ex. If only I were more responsible

In the wish sentences we write ‘I/He/She/It were’ instead of

‘I/He/She/It was’.

A change
To talk about things we want to happen in the future (hopes).

S1 + wish + S2 + would + infinitive (conditional)

could
Ex. I wish I could pass the exam tomorrow

If only + S + would + infinitive (conditional)

could
Ex. If only the weather would improve

If the subject1 and the subject2 are different, we can’t use

could.
Regret about the past
To talk about things that happened or didn’t happen in the past
and which you now regret

S1 + wish + S2 + past perfect

Ex. Do you wish you had stayed in Ireland longer?
If only + S + past simple
Ex. If only I had known earlier!

TO BE (PRESENT) TO BE (PAST)
AFFIRMATIVE AFFIRMATIVE
I’m / I am I was
You’re / You are You were
He’s / He is He was
She’s / She is She was
It’s / It is It was
We’re / We are We were
You’re / You are You were
They’re / They are They were

NEGATIVE NEGATIVE
I’m not / I am not I wasn’t / I was not
You aren’t / You are not You weren’t / You were not
He isn’t / He is not He wasn’t / He was not
She isn’t / She is not She wasn’t / She was not
It isn’t / It is not It wasn’t / It was not
We aren’t / We are not We weren’t / We were not
You aren’t / You are not You weren’t / You were not
They aren’t / They are not They weren’t / The were not

INTERROGATIVE INTERROGATIVE
Am I…? Was I…?
Are you…? Were you…?
Is he…? Was he…?
Is she…? Was she…?
Is it…? Was it…?
Are we…? Were we…?
Are you…? Were you…?
Are they…? Were they…?

SHORT ANSWERS SHORT ANSWERS

Yes, I am. / No, I’m not. Yes, I was. / No, I wasn’t.
Yes, you are. / No, you aren’t. Yes, you were. / No, you
Yes, he is. / No, he isn’t. weren’t.
Yes, she is. / No, she isn’t. Yes, he was. / No, he wasn’t.
Yes, it is. / No, it isn’t. Yes, she was. / No, she wasn’t.
Yes, we are. / No, we aren’t. Yes, it was. / No, it wasn’t.
Yes, you are. / No, you aren’t. Yes, we were. / No, we weren’t.
Yes, they are. / No, they Yes, you were. / No, you
aren’t. weren’t.
Yes, they were. / No, they
weren’t.

VERBO SER/ ESTAR/ TENER

(edades y sensaciones)
VERBO TENER (posesión y
aspecto físico)
TO HAVE GOT (only present) TO HAVE
AFFIRMATIVE AFFIRMATIVE
I’ve got / I have got I have
You’ve got / You have got You have
He’s got / He has got He has
She’s got / She has got She has
It’s got / It has got It has
We’ve got / We have got We have
You’ve got / You have got You have
They’ve got / They have got They have

NEGATIVE NEGATIVE
I haven’t got / I have not got I don’t have/ I do not have
You haven’t got / You are not You don’t have /You do not have
got He doesn’t have /He does not
He hasn’t got / He is not got have
She hasn’t got / She is not got She doesn’t have /She does not
It hasn’t got / It is not got have
We haven’t got / We are not got It doesn’t have/ It does not have
You haven’t got / You are not We don’t have/ We do not have
got You don’t have/ You do not have
They haven’t got / They are not They don’t have/ They do not
got have

INTERROGATIVE INTERROGATIVE
Have I got…? Do I have…?
Have you got…? Do you have…?
Has he got…? Does he have…?
Has she got…? Does she have…?
Has it got…? Does it have…?
Have we got…? Do we have…?
Have you got…? Do you have…?
Have they got…? Do they have…?

SHORT ANSWERS SHORT ANSWERS

Yes, I have. / No, I haven’t. Yes, I do./ No, I don’t.
Yes, you have. / No, you Yes, you do./ No, you don’t.
haven’t. Yes, he does./ No he doesn’t.
Yes, he has. / No, he hasn’t. Yes, she does./ No she doesn’t.
Yes, she has. / No, she hasn’t. Yes, it does./ No it doesn’t.
Yes, it has. / No, it hasn’t. Yes, we do./ No, we don’t.
Yes, we have. / No, we haven’t. Yes, you do./ No, you don’t.
Yes, you have. / No, you Yes, they do./ No, they don’t.
haven’t.
Yes, they have. / No, they
haven’t.

VERBO HABER
THERE + TO BE (cantidad) TO HAVE (auxiliar)

Present singular AFFIRMATIVE

There is - Hay I/You have
There isn’t - No hay He/She/It has
Is there…? - Hay…? We/You/They have

Present plural NEGATIVE

There are - Hay I/You haven’t
There aren’t - No hay He/She/It hasn’t
Are there…? - Hay…? We/You/They haven’t

Past singular INTERROGATIVE

There was – Había/Hubo Have I/you…?
There wasn’t - No había/ No Has he/she/it…?
hubo Have we/you/they…?
Was there…? – Había/Hubo…?
SHORT ANSWERS
Past plural Yes, I /you have.
There were – Había/Hubo No, I /you haven’t.
There weren’t - No había/ No Yes, he/she/it has.
hubo No, he/she/it hasn’t.
Were there…? – Había/Hubo…? Yes, we/you/they have.
No, we/you/they haven’t.
VERBO IR
The verb TO GO has two past participles: been and gone, but
they have different meaning.
Ex. Maria has been to Bilbao –> She went to Bilbao and has
come back
(Maria ha estado en Bilbao)
Ex. Maria has gone to Bilbao –> She went to Bilbao and she’s
still there
(Maria (se) ha ido a Bilbao)

VERBO QUERER
want + to infinitive - Querer hacer algo
want + object + to infinitive - Querer que alguien haga algo
Ex. I want you to go to school (Yo quiero que tú vayas al colegio)

VERBO SOLER
USED TO/ DIDN’T USE TO + infinitive - Solía/ no solía
(affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences)
WOULD + infinitive - Solía (affirmative sentences)

VERBO ACOSTUMBRARSE
BE USED TO + gerund - Estar acostumbrado a
GET USED TO + gerund - Acostumbrarse a

STATIVE VERBS
There are some verbs which show state instead of action. These
verbs are hardly ever used in a continuous form and express:
-Feelings and preferences: dislike, like, love, prefer, hate, want,
need, hope
-Thoughts and opinions: understand, know, remember, believe,
forget, think, guess
-Senses: feel, hear, see, smell, sound, taste, touch
-Prices and measures: cost, weigh, measure
-Possession: own, belong, have
There are other verbs which can show both state and action:
think.

CONDITIONALS
Conditional sentences have two clauses: the conditional
clause (starting with if) and the main clause. There are
four types of conditionals (zero, first, second and third)
according to the degree of probability that they express
and whether they are talking about the future, present or
past.
the order of the two clauses is flexible, but you must
remember to use a comma after the conditional clause
when it comes first.

IF = even if (incluso si), when (cuando), as long as (siempre y

cuando), if only (si solo), unless (a menos que, a no ser que, si
no), providing that (dado que), as soon as (tan pronto como),
until (hasta que), before (antes de que)
Even if (aún cuando) We use even if to emphasize the
condition in the present / future or past.

•As long as / providing (that) / provided (that) (siempre

que, con tal que) These phrases mean “only … if” . We
often use them with the first and second conditionals.

•Unless (a menos que) We can express negative

conditions with unless, which means “if … not”. It always
refers to the conditional clause and not the main clause in
the sentence.

1st CONDITIONAL: possibility

To talk about a possible or probably situation and its result (si
estudio, aprobaré)

•To talk about possible or probable future events. e.g. : If

I finish the project soon, I will go to the cinema with you.
•To make promises and give warning e.g. : If you keep
behaving like this, I’ll punish you. (warning) I’ll let you go
to the party if you pass the exam. (promise)

zero
• To refer to an event or situation that is always true. e.g :
Life is more difficult if you are poor.
• To give commands e.g. : If you find a bargain,
IF + present simple, future simple
IF + present simple, present simple (zero)
IF + present simple, modal
IF + present simple, may/might + base form
IF + present simple, imperative (zero)
IF + present simple, going to
IF + present continuous, present continuous
IF + present perfect, present perfect

2nd CONDITIONAL: hypothesis,

improbable
To talk about an imaginary or hypothetical (imaginary and
improbable) situation in the present (si estudiara, aprobaría)

IF + past simple, would + base form (conditional)

IF + past simple, could + base form
IF + past simple, might + base form
imperative

In the 2nd condicional we write ‘I/He/She/It were’ instead of

‘I/He/She/It was’.

We usually use were, not was, in the first and third

persons in written and formal spoken English, although we
can still use was in informal and spoken English.

3rd CONDITIONAL: impossibility-regret

To talk about an impossible or improbably situation and its result
(si hubiera estudiado, habría aprobado)

We use the third conditional to talk about hypothetical

past events (events which did not happen).
IF + past perfect, would + have + past participle
(conditional perfect)
IF + past perfect, could + have + past participle
IF + past perfect, might + have + past participle

MIXED CONDITIONALS
Use :
Mixed conditional sentences combine two different
types of conditional forms. They are used when the
time reference in the if clause is different from the
time reference in the main clause. They are usually
a combination of second and third conditionals, but
other combinations are possible.
e.g. : If Peter hadn’t broken into a house, he
wouldn’t be in prisson now.
(third conditional if clause + second conditional
main clause)
If John weren’t so shy, he would have asked Susan
out.
(second conditional if clause + third conditional
main clause)