EME2066 Measurement and Instrumentation

CHAPTER 1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

1.0 Introduction
- Many important theories in science and engineering
have come from experiments.

- To collect useful data from experiment, engineers

need to know how to measure the important
physical variables (such as flow rate, temperature
etc…) and what is the suitable instrument to use.

- In order to get the best result, engineers need to

know the governing principles of measurement
instruments.

Definition of terms
 Measurement – comparison between an unknown
quantity and a predefined standard
 Measurand – the unknown quantity to be measured.

 Instrument -Physical device used to determine the

measurand numerically.

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1.1Gneralized measurement system

Most measurement systems may be divided into three
stages:
1. A detector-transducer stage
- Detects the physical variable and performs
mechanical/electrical transformation to convert
the signal into more useful form.
2. Intermediate stage
- Modifies the direct signal by amplification,
filtering, or other means so that a desirable output
is available.
3. Final or terminating stage
- Indicate, record, or control the variable being
measured. The output may also be digital or
analog.

Fig.1.1 Schematic of the generalized measurement system

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For example, in a bourdon-tube pressure gage (Figure

1.2)

A pressure meter.
The deflecting torque is
produced by the gas
pressure which expanses
the Bourdon tube. The
pointer is deflected by a
simple mechanical gear
system.

Fig.1.2. Bourdon-tube pressure gage as the generalized measurement system.

The first stage (detector-transducer stage):

- The bourdon tube converts the pressure signal
into mechanical signal (displacement of the tube)

The second stage (Intermediate stage):

- Amplifies the mechanical signal (small
displacement of the tube into bigger revolution of
a gear) using a gearing system.

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The third stage (Final or terminating stage):

- Calibrate the dial and pointer according to a
known pressure input.

1.2 Basic Concept of Dynamic Measurement

1.2.1 Static vs Dynamic measurement
Static measurement
- the input/output relationship is independent of the
rate of change of the input. (the input quantity does
not change with time)

Dynamic measurement
- input/output relationship depends on the rate of
change of the input.
- The measurement process for dynamic
measurement is much more difficult compared
to the static measurement.
The measurement system under dynamics conditions
(transient) maybe described in terms of a general
variable x(t) written in differential equation:
dnx d n1 x dx
an n  an1 n1  ...  a1  a0 x  F (t ) (1.1)
dt dt dt

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1.2.2.Zero Order System

The zero order system may be express as
a0 x  F (t ) (1.2)
-A zero order system is a system whose behaviour is
independent of the time-dependent characteristics of
storage or inertia.
-The response of Zero order system is instantaneous
response
1.2.3 First Order System
The first order of the system may be express as
a1 dx F (t )
x (1.3)
a 0 dt a0

A first order system is a system characterised as

having time-dependent storage or dissipative ability
but having no inertia.
If (1.3) is solved for the case of a sudden step input
F(t) = A at time zero, then
F(t) = 0 at t = 0 and
F(t) = A for t >0
along with the initial condition x = x0 at t = 0.
The solution to (1.3) is

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A  A  t
x(t )    x0  e τ where  = a1/a0 (1.4)
a0  a0 

the first term of the right steady state response

the second term of the righttransient response
Designating the steady state value as x, (1.4) can be
written in dimensionless form as
x(t )  x t
e τ
x0  x (1.5)

t
τ
The term e represents the error in achieving the
steady-state value, x =A/ao.
The rise time is defined as the time required to
achieve a response of 90% of the step input.
For a first order system subjected to harmonic input
with: -
Initial condition x = x0 at t = 0 and
F(t)= A sin t for t > 0
a1 dx F (t )
The solution of a dt  x  is
0 a0
A
x(t )  Ce
t
τ 
a0

sin ωt  tan 1 ωt 
1  ωτ   2
1
2
(1.6)

where  = a1/a0 is the time constant.

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The phase shift angle  is defined as

φ(ω)   tan 1 ωt (1.7)

The time delay Δt of the steady state response is
defined by
φω
t  (1.8)
ω
A first order system will respond to a harmonic input
in a harmonic fashion with the same frequency, but
with a phase shift and reduced amplitude. The larger
the time constant, the greater the phase lag and
amplitude decrease.

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Example 1.1
A certain thermometer has a time constant of 15s and
an initial temperature of 20oC. It is suddenly exposed
to a temperature of 100oC. Determine the rise time,
i.e., the time to attain 90% of the steady-state value,
and the temperature at this time.

Solution
The thermometer is a first order system,
T0 = 20oC = temperature at t = 0
T = 100oC= temperature at steady state
 =15s = time constant
for the 90% rise time
t
e τ  0.1
ln (0.1) = -t/15
t = 34.54s
T (t )  100
 0.1
20  100
T(t)= 92oC

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Example 1.2
Suppose the thermometer in example 1.1 was
subjected to a very slow harmonic disturbance having
a frequency of 0.01Hz. The time constant is still 15s.
What is the time delay in the response of the
thermometer and how much does the steady state
amplitude response decrease?

Solution
 = 0.01Hz = 0.06283 rad/s
 = 15s
=(0.06283)(15) = 0.9425
the phase angle is
()= - tan-1(0.9425) =-43.3o= -0.756 rad
so the time delay is
φ(ω)  0.756
t    12.03s
ω 0.06283
The amplitude response decreases according to
1 1
  0.7277
1  ωτ  
2
1
2
1  0.9425 
2
1
2

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1.2.4 Second Order System

A second order system would be governed by
a2 d 2 x a1 dx F (t )
2
 x (1.9)
a0 dt a0 dt a0

A second order system is a system whose behaviour

includes time-dependent inertia.
Examples of second order system are Pressure and
Acceleration transducers.

Fig. 1.3: Simple spring-mass damper system

Another example of second order system is a simple

spring –mass damper system showed in Fig 1.3. In the
spring mass damper system,
x1(t) is the input displacement variable; x2(t) is the
output displacement.
Assume that the damping force is proportional to
velocity, from the Newton’s second law of motion;
 dx1 dx2  d 2 x2
k x1  x2   c  m 2 (1.10)
 dt dt  dt

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Rearranging the equation;

d 2 x2 dx2 dx
m c  kx2  c 1  kx1 (1.11)
dt 2 dt dt
Spring-mass damper system subjected to a force input

Fig.1.4 Spring mass damper system subjected to a force input

A force F (t)=F0 cos 1t is impressed on the spring

mass system shown in Fig 1.4, the displacement of the
mass x(t) need to be determined.
The differential equation for the system is

d 2x dx
m 2  c  kx  F0 cos 1t (1.12)
dt dt
The solution of the equation (1.12) is
 F0  cos t   
 k 
 
1
x 1
 2
 2
 1    2 c  1 
2 2 (1.13)
1 
       c    
  n
   c  n  

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where
2  c / cc  1 / n 
  tan 1
1   1 / n 
2

k
ωn 
m

cc  2 mk

 is called the phase angle, n is the natural

frequency and cc is called the critical damping
coefficient.
x0 is the amplitude of the motion given by

 F0 
 k
x0   
1
 2 2 2 2
  ω1    c  ω1  
1   ω    2 c  ω  
  n     c  n  
(1.14)

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The ratio of output to input amplitude x0/(F0/k) is

shown in Figure 1.5, to show the frequency response
of the system.
The phase angle  is plotted in Fig 1.6 to show the
phase-shift characteristics.

Fig 1.5 Frequency response of the system in Fig 1.4

Fig 1.6 Phase-shift characteristics of the system in Fig 1.4

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The rise time for a second order system is defined as

the time to attain a value of 90% of a step input. It
may be reduced by reducing the damping ratio for
values c/cc below about 0.7.

The ringing frequency 

ωr  ωn 1  c / cc  
2 1/ 2
and
the rise time are showed in Fig 1.7. The response
time is the time taken for the system to settle within
 10% of the steady-state value.

Fig 1.7 Effect of rise time and ringing on output response to a step input

In order for a system to have a good response, it must

respond to all frequencies within the range of
application identically so that the ratio of output to
input amplitude remains the same over the frequency
range desired (Linear frequency response).

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Further discussion of the second order system, higher order system and dynamic system
response/transient respond will be discussed in Control Engineering
.

1.2.5 Distortion
As a result of frequency response characteristics of a
system, distortion happens in the signal. Distortion is
the variation of a signal from its true form. The
distortion may result from either poor frequency
response or poor phase shift response.

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1.3 Analysis of Experimental Data

The data from the experimental measurement need to
be analysed in order to obtain the useful information.
In order to get a good result, experimentalists need to
know the validity of the data.

 True value - almost impossible to obtain in practice

 Measured value – value indicated by an instrument
or result estimated from a number of quantities
measured.
 It should be followed by uncertainty in
measurement.
Example:
l = (1.5  0.1) cm
 Nominal value – value of the quantity specified by
the manufacturer
It is normally followed by a tolerance
specification
Example: R= 10 k  10 %
Nominal value = 10 k; Uncertainty is  10 %
It means the value of resistance lies anywhere
between 9 k and 11k.

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 Static error
The difference between the measured value and
the true value of the quantity
 A  Am  At (1.15.1)
error measured value truevalue

 Relative static error

δA
εr  (1.15.2)
At
1.3.1 Types of experimental errors
1.3.1.1 Gross Errors
 Refer to errors due to human mistake in reading
instruments and recording and calculating
measurement results.
 Example 1: read the temperature as 31.5oC while
the actual reading may be 21.5oC
 Example 2: read 25.8oC and record as 28.5oC
 Prevention of the error: Read and record carefully,
take several readings, look at the set of readings
and discard readings which can be identified as
those caused by
gross error similar to those in the examples
mentioned above.

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1.3.1.2.Systematic Errors/ Bias Errors

a) Instrument errors
i) Due to inherent shortcomings of instruments
 Inherent due to their mechanical structure.
 May be due to construction, manufacturing
limitations, calibration, etc.
 e.g., If the spring (used for producing controlling
torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has
become weak, the instrument will always read high.
 Methods of overcoming the error
- re-calibrate the instrument carefully, as often as
may be required (by comparison with an instrument
of higher accuracy).
- Apply correction factors after determining the
instrument errors

ii) Due to misuse of instrument

 e.g. : failure to adjust the zero of instruments

iii) Due to loading effect of instruments

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 Loading effect causes inaccuracy of

measurement, even if there is no error in the
instrument readings
 This error can be minimised by using an
appropriate instrument i.e., using a voltmeter
which has a relatively high resistance compared to
the load resistance.

(b) Environmental Errors

Example: effects of temperature, pressure, humidity,
dust, vibrations or external magnetic or electrostatic
fields. These affect Reproducibility and Repeatability.
Method of overcome these errors:
i) Keeping the conditions as nearly constant as
possible.
E.g.: temperature can be kept constant by keeping the
equipment in a temperature-controlled enclosure.
ii) Use equipment that is immune to these effects

Example: variations of resistance with temperature

can be minimized by using resistance materials which
have a very low resistance temperature co-efficient

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iii) Employ techniques that eliminate the effects of

disturbances
Example: effect of humidity & dust can be entirely
eliminated by hermetically sealing the equipment

iv) Apply computed correction

(c) Observational Errors

i) Parallax error
ii) Reaction time

1.4 Uncertainty Analysis

In experimental measurement occurs some
uncertainty, for example:
a certain pressure reading might be expressed as
p= 100 kPa  1 kPa .
The ‘’ notation represents the uncertainty.

If a function R depends on several independent

variables (x1, x2, x3, …, xn),
R=R(x1, x2, x3,…,xn) (1.16)

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then the uncertainty of the function R, wR is

1
 R  2
 R 
2
 R 
2
 R 
2
 2

wR   w1    w2    w3   ....   wn  
 x1   x2   x3   xn  

(1.17)

where w1, w2, w3, …, wn be the uncertainties in the

independent variable.

Uncertainties for product functions

in some cases, the function is in the form of product
function;
R= x1 a1x2 a2…xn an (1.16b)
and
R
 x1a1 x2 a2 (ai x1ai 1 )...xn an
xi (1.18)

dividing by R from (1.16b):

1 R ai
 (1.19)
R xi xi

inserting into (1.17) gives

1
wR   a i wxi 
2
 2

  
 x 
  (1.20)
R 
  i  


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 this is the uncertainty for product function.

Uncertainties for additive functions

For function in the form of additive function, R will
be expressed as
R  a1 x1  a2 x2  ...  an xn   ai xi (1.21)
and
R
 ai (1.22)
xi

The uncertainty of additive function can be expressed

1

  R  
 a w  
2 2
2 
wR   
1
 wxi   
2 2
as: 
i i (1.23)
 
 xi   


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Example 1.3
The resistance of a certain size of copper wire is given

as R  R0 1  αT  20 where R0 = 6   0.3

percent is the resistance at 20oC,  =0.004oC-1  1
percent is the temperature coefficient of resistance,
and the temperature of the wire is T = 30  1oC.
Calculate the resistance of the wire and it’s
uncertainly.
Solution
The nominal resistance is R  (6)1  0.004(30  20)  6.24 
R
 1  α(T  20)  1  (0.004)(30  20)  1.04
R0

R
 R0 (T  20)
α
R
 R0 α  (6)(0.004)  0.024
T
wR0  (6)(0.003)  0.018 

wα  (0.004)(0.01)  4 10 5 o C1

wT  1o C
The uncertainty in the resistance is


WR  1.04 0.018  (60) (4  10 )  (0.024) (1)
2 2 2 5 2 2 2

1
2
 0.0305Ω or 0.49%

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Example 1.4:
The two resistors R and Rs are connected in series as
shown in the Fig 1.8. The voltage drops across each
resistor are measured as
E  10V  0.1V(1%)  E=10 ; wE = 0.1
Es  1.2V  0.005V(0.467%)  Es = 1.2; wEs=0.005

along with a value of RS  0.0066   1 / 4%

 RS  0.0066 ; wRs  0.0025(0066)

Determine the power dissipated in resistor R and its

uncertainty

Fig 1.8 Resisitors in series

Solution

The power dissipated in resistor R is P =EI

The current through both resistors is I=Es/R, so that
EE s
P = E 1
.Es 1
.Rs-1
Rs

The nominal value of the power is therefore

P= (10)(1.2)/(0.0066)=1818.2W

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wP  aE wE   aEs wEs 
2 2 2
  aRs wRs 
2

        
P  E   Es   Rs  

1
 2  0.1  2 2  0.005 
2
 2

 1    1    (1) 0.0025   0.0111

2 2

  10   1.2  

Then wp=(0.0111)(1818.2)= 20.18 W

1.5 Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data
When a set of readings is taken from an experiment,
the individual readings will vary from each other. If
each reading is denoted by xi, and there are n
readings, the arithmetic mean is
1 n
x m   xi (1.24)
n i 1
The deviation di for each reading is defined by
d i  xi  xm (1.25)
the standard deviation or root-mean-square deviation
is defined by
1 n 2
σ     xi  x m   (1.26)
 n i 1 
and the square of the standard deviation is called
variance.

Further reading: EXAMPLE 3.7, page 64, Experimental Methods for Engineers, J.P. Holman

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1.6 Method of Least Squares

Suppose we have a set of x (x1, x2, x3 …xn). The sum of
the squares of their deviations from some mean value
is
n
S    xi  x m  (1.27)
2

i 1

and the mean value xm is

1 n
xm   xi
n i 1
(1.28)

To minimize S with respect to the mean value xm,

S  n 
 0  2  ( xi  nxm )  (1.29)
xm  i 1 

where n is the number of observations.

In experiment that involved of two variables x

and y, an equation is used to express their
relationship. However, to get the best function from
the scatter data is not easy. The least squares method
can use to obtain a better function.

For the equation y= ax + b

To minimize the quantity
n
S    yi  (axi  b)
2
(130)
i 1

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Setting the derivatives with respect to a and b equal to

zero;
nb  a xi   yi (1.31)

b xi  a xi   xi yi
2
(1.32)
Solving 1.31 and 1.32 gives

n xi yi   xi  yi 
a
n xi 2   xi 
2 (1.33)

 yi  xi 2   xi yi  xi 
b
n xi 2   xi  (1.34)
2

Designating the computed value of y as ŷ ,

yˆ  ax  b
and the standard error of estimate of y for the data is
1 1
   yi  yˆ i    yi  axi  b2 
2 2 2

Standard error =  n  2    n  2  (1.35)

   

Further reading: The method of least square in higher order polynomial, page 92,
Experimental Methods for Engineers, J.P. Holman

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1.7 Regression Analysis

To consider the experimental uncertainties for xi and
yi, the following should be taken note of;
1) If the values of xi and yi are taken as the data and
the value of x on the fitted curve is obtained for
a given value of y, then there is a presumption
that the uncertainty in x is large compared with
that in y. (regression of x on y)
2) If the values of xi and yi are taken as the data and
value of y on the fitted curve is obtained for a
given value of x, the presumption is that the
uncertainty in y dominates. (regression of y on x)
3) If the uncertainly in xi and yi are believed to be of
approximately equal magnitude, a special
averaging technique must be used.

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Example 1.5
From the following data obtain y as a linear function
of x using the method of least squares.
yi xi
1.2 1.0
2.0 1.6
2.4 3.4
3.5 4.0
3.5 5.2
yi=12.6 xi=15.2

Solution
To get a equation in the form of y=mx +c.
yi xi xiyi xi2
1.2 1.0 1.2 1.0
2.0 1.6 3.2 2.56
2.4 3.4 8.16 11.56
3.5 4.0 14.0 16.0
3.5 5.2 18.2 27.04
yi=12.6 xi=15.2 xiyi=44.76 xi2=58.16

n xi yi   xi  yi 
then a   0.540
n xi   xi 
2 2

 yi  xi 2    xi yi  xi 
b  0.879
n xi   xi 
and 2 2

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Thus, the equation is

y = 0.540 x + 0.879

1.8 Equation and Numbering

It is important to have a right concept to write an
equation. For an example:
Y=MX + C
Where M and C are the constants. X and Y are the
variables.
X always refers as the input/ changes to the system.
(Always put on the right side of the equation.)
where as, Y always refers as the result/effect that
cause by the changing of the X. (Always put on the
left side of the equation and also always as a single
term)
# The same principles apply in plotting a scientific
graph. X-axis is always taken for the independent
variable (cause) and Y-axis is chosen for the
dependent variable (result or effect).

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1.9 Graphical Analysis of Data

The raw data obtained from an experiment need to be
plotted into a graph for further analysis. Therefore,
curve-plotting technique is important in order to give
a good understanding of the experimental results. The
plotting methods for different type of functions are
shown in Table 1.4.

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If properly plotted, it can reveal the following potent

summary of many aspects (qualitative information) of
an experiment:
- the quantities being investigated
- the number and range of values obtained
- gaps in measurement
- a trend between x and y quantities
- values that conflict the trend shown by majority of
data
- Extent of uncertainty in the values(sometimes
indicated by error bars)
To construct a good graph, we should ensure that:
- A caption describing the graph is included
- Axes are clearly labelled( and the label
includes the unit of measurement)
- The scales of each axis are chosen so that
plotting, if done by hand, is made easy so that
values can be read easily from the graph
- The graph is large enough to allow for the
efficient extraction of information ‘by eye’
- Plotted values are clearly marked

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Table 1.4 Methods of plotting various functions to obtain straight lines

Further reading: page 108-109, Experimental Methods for Engineers, J.P. Holman

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Choice of graph format

To present the experimental data, several graph
formats can be used; they are x-y graphs, bar charts,
column charts, pie charts etc. However, the x-y graph
is the most frequently used format in engineering.
The variations of x-y graph are shown in the Figure
1.8.

References:
1. J. P. Holman, “Experimental Methods for
Engineers”, McGraw-Hill International Edition.
2. E.O. Doebelin, “Measurement Systems:
Application and Design”, McGraw-Hill
International Edition.

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Fig 1.8. Choices of x-y graph formats.

a) with data marker, no connecting line
b) with data marker, joined by smooth curve
c) without data marker, joined by smooth curve
d) with data marker, joined by straight line
e) without data marker, joined by straight line
f) with data marker, joined by correlation curve

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1.10 General Considerations in Experimental Data

Analysis:
1. Examine the data for consistency and eliminate bad data.
Data should follow commonsense consistency; the data that do not
appear proper should be eliminated. If very many points fall in
the category of “inconsistent”, the entire data gathering
procedure should be investigated for gross mistakes or
miscalculation.
2. Perform a statistical analysis of data wherever
appropriate.
A statistical analysis (estimation of standard deviation etc.) is
appropriate when measurements are repeated several times. If the
uncertainty of data is to be prescribed by statistical analysis, a
calculation should be performed using t-distribution if the
number of data points is small and normal distribution, if the
number of data points is large enough. This may be used to
determine the levels of confidence and levels of significance. The
number of data points to be obtained may be determined for
different levels of significance.
3. Estimate the uncertainties in the results.
These calculations will have to be performed in advance, to know
the influence of different variables by the time the final results are
obtained.
4. Anticipate the results from theory.
Careful review of the theory appropriate to the subject should be
made before trying to obtain correlations of the experimental
data in order to get information that will indicate the trends the

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result may take. This would help fruitful interpretation of the data
and the choice of suitable graphical form for presentation of data.
5. Correlate the data.
The data must be validated in terms of physical theories or o the
basis of previous research work in the field. Certainly, the results
of the experiments should be analysed to show how they confirm to
or differ from previous investigations or standards that may be
employed for such measurements.

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Tutorial 1
2. A thermometer has a time constant of 10s and behaves as
a first order system. It is initially at a temperature 30oC
and then suddenly subjected to a surrounding
temperature of 120oC. Calculate the 90% rise time and
the time to attain 99% of the steady-state temperature.
Draw a graph showing the variation of temperature with
time and indicate the salient points.
(23.03 ; 43.17 s)
thermometer = 10s

To = 30C T = 120C
t

For the 90% rise time, e 
 0.1 [1 – 0.9 = 0.1]

t
 t
e 10
 0.1    ln 0.1  2.303
10
 t  23.03s

Time to attain 99% of the steady-state temp.:

T  T 0.99120  120 
t

t
 e e
 10
To  T 30  120
t
 t
e 10
 0.01333    ln 0.01333  4.318
10
 t  43.18s

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8. Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series and

parallel. The values of the resistances are:
R1=100.0  0.1 R2=50.0  0.03
Calculate the uncertainty in the combined resistance for
both the series and the parallel arrangements.
(0.1044 , 0.01735)
R1 = 100.0  0.1 R2 = 50.00  0.03
Series connection: RT = R1 + R2
R1 = 0.1 R2 = 0.03

2 2
 R   R 
RT   T R1    T R2 
 R1   R2 

 1 0.12  1 0.032

 0.1044

R1 R2
RT 
Parallel connection:
R1  R2
RT R1  R2 R2  R1 R2 R22
 
R1 R1  R2 2
R1  R2 2
RT R1  R2 R1  R1 R2 R12
 
R2 R1  R2 2 R1  R2 2
2 2
 R   R 
 RT   T  R1    T  R2 
 R1   R2 
2 2
 R22   R12 
   R1     R2 
 R1  R2    R1  R2 
2 2

2 2
 2500   10000 
   0.1    0.03
 22500   22500 
 0.01735

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10*.The following heat transfer data points are expected to

follow a functional form of N = aRb
Obtain values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ from a graphical analysis
and also by the method of least squares.
R 12 20 30 40 100 300 400 1000 3000
N 2 2.5 3 3.3 5.3 10 11 17 30

(a=0.5557; b=0.497)
N = aR 
b
log N = log a + b log R
y = c +m x
x = log R ; y = log N ; c = log a ; m=b
2
Ri Ni Xi Yi XiYi Xi
1 12 2 1.079 0.3010 0.3248 1.1642
2 20 2.5 1.301 0.3979 0.5177 1.6926
3 30 3 1.477 0.4771 0.7047 2.1815
4 40 3.3 1.602 0.5185 0.8306 2.5664
5 100 5.3 2 0.7243 1.4486 4.0
6 300 10 2.477 1 2.477 6.1355
7 400 11 2.602 1.0414 2.71 6.7704
8 1000 17 3 1.2304 3.6912 9
9 3000 30 3.477 1.4771 5.1359 12.09
n=9 =19.015 =7.1677 =17.8299 =45.6006

n  X iYi   X i  Yi 
M 
n  X i2   X i 
2


9 17.8299  19.015  7.1677   16.047  136.294
9  45.6  19.0152 410.4  361.57
 0.4894
 Yi  X i2    X iYi  X i 
C 
n  X i2   X i 
2


7.1677  45.6  17.8299 19.05  326.85  339.66
48.83 48.83
 0.26237
b = m = 0.4894 ; c = log a = -0.26237  a = 0.54655
 The equation, N = 0.54655R
0.4894

*a & b can also be found by plotting the curve on ‘log vs. Log graph sheet

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