PHYSICS – MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

MAGNETISM

Magnetic and Non- Magnetic Materials

A magnetic material is one that is capable of being magnetized (i.e. it is attracted to by a magnet). This implies that when a
magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it will be affected by the magnetic field. Examples: iron, nickel, and cobalt.

A non-magnetic material is one that is not capable of being magnetized (i.e. it is not attracted by a magnet). This implies that
when a non-magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it will be not be affected by the magnetic field.

The Domain Theory of Magnetism

It is suggested that magnetism is caused by moving charges. As an electron orbits an atomic nucleus, a loop of electric current
is produced. This results in the formation of a tiny magnet dipole. If as many electrons orbit one way, as the opposite way, the
magnetic dipole effects are opposite and they cancel each other out. This explains why most substances appear non-magnetic.

In substances like iron however, groups of atoms have their magnetic dipoles align together in ‘domains’. Within each domain,
the magnetism due to each of the atoms adds up to produce a large magnetic effect. When more domains are aligned in one
direction than in another, the material as a whole will behave as a magnet. Substances in which this happens are called
ferromagnetic materials.

How does a magnet attract an unmagnetized object?

The magnet realigns the domains in the unmagnetized iron nail in the same direction as the magnet
forming an opposite magnetic pole in the nail nearest the magnet, so they attract. This is called
magnetic induction. If soft iron is placed in a magnetic field, the domains readily line up in the direction of the field. The
soft iron becomes a strong magnet since most of the domains are aligned in the direction of the magnetizing field. When the
magnetic field is removed, the thermal energy within the iron is enough to cause the atomic dipoles to vibrate so that the
domains are oriented once more in random directions. The soft iron therefore loses the net magnetism it has gained.

A. BAKSH
 PHYSICS – MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials

A material is said to be magnetically hard if it is difficult to change its domain structure. Such substances are hard to magnetize
and they are also difficult to demagnetize. Because they tend to retain whatever magnetism they have, they are often used in
making permanent magnets. Powerful permanent magnets are usually made from alloys such as steel (carbon and iron), alnico
(Al, Ni, Co) and magnadur (oxides of iron and barium).

Magnetically soft materials are magnetized very readily and also lose their magnetism very easily. Materials like soft iron and
mumetal (nickel and iron) are used for making temporary magnets.

Magnetic Poles

A pole is that part of a magnet where the magnetism appears to be concentrated.

If a bar magnet is dipped in iron filings, most of the iron filings are attracted to the ends of the magnet. This shows that the
poles are situated to the ends.

The law of magnetism states that like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

When suspended horizontally, near the earth’s surface, a bar magnet settles in an approximately north-south direction. The
end of the magnet that points north is called the north-seeking pole or the N-Pole and the end pointing south is the south
seeking pole or S-Pole. Because a bar magnet has two poles, it is sometimes referred to as a magnetic dipole.

If a bar magnet is broken in two pieces, iron filings are attracted to both ends of each piece. Like the original magnet, each
piece has two poles. When the pieces are suspended horizontally, each settles in a north-south direction, so each piece has a
N-pole and an S-pole. In other words, each piece is a magnetic dipole.

Magnetic Forces

Experiments have shown that when magnets exert forces on each other:

1. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract

2. The force decreases as the distance between the magnets increases and vice versa.

A magnetic field is a region around a magnet in which a magnetic force acts.

The magnetic field around a magnet is the region in which forces act on other magnets and on magnetic materials by inducing
magnetism in them.

We define the direction of a magnetic field at a particular place as being the direction of the force it produces on a free
magnetic north pole. A magnetic field line indicates the direction of the magnetic force acting on an N- Pole.

Mapping Magnetic fields

Methods:

1. Iron filings
2. Plotting compass

A. BAKSH
 PHYSICS – MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism

In 1819, Danish Scientist Hans Oersted set up an experiment to show that magnetism had nothing to do with electricity.
Surprisingly, the experiment proved the opposite- current electricity and magnetism were inseparable. Whenever an electric
current flowed along a wire, there was a magnetic field around the wire.

Direction of the Magnetic field around a wire carrying a current

Experiments have shown that the direction of the magnetic field due to a current-carrying conductor can be predicted by
applying the right-hand grip rule which states that:

If a wire is gipped with the right hand so that the thumb points in the direction of the (conventional) current; the fingers then
curl in the direction of the magnetic field.

Maxwell’s Screw Rule (Right Hand Screw Rule) also gives the direction of the magnetic field due to a current. It states that:

If the forward direction of travel of a corkscrew is the same as the direction of the current, then the direction in which the
corkscrew is being turned gives the direction of the magnetic field.

In diagrams, we use dots and crosses to represent the directions of fields, or current at right angles to the page. A dot (.)
indicates the direction coming out of the page at right angles. A cross (x or +) indicates a direction into the page at right angles.
Dots or crosses with circles around them are used for currents and without circles are used for magnetic fields.

Uses of Electromagnets

Electromagnetic relay- When small current flows in a coil wrapped around a soft iron core, the coil becomes a powerful
electromagnet. The electromagnet attracts a pivoted soft-iron armature, which in turn, pushes the springy contacts together.
The terminals of the springy contacts are connected to a separate circuit. The contacts act as a switch to open and close this
separate circuit.

Relays are often used to switch on circuits carrying large currents.

In a motor car starter circuit, a small current of about 1 A activates the relay coil at switch on. The electromagnet produced
attracts the iron plunger towards the open relay contacts. The relay contacts are bridged, in turn, switching on the starter
motor circuit which draws over 60 A of current.

Relay switching is used because it is far safer to directly operate a switch controlling 1 A than one controlling 60 A.

Electromagnets are also used in electric bells. When the switch in the bell circuit is closed, the electromagnet attracts the soft
iron armature and the iron strikes the bell. The contact is broken at P, causing the coil to lose its electromagnetism. The spring
then pulls the armature back to its original position and makes contact with P, now closing the circuit again. The cycle is
automatically repeated, so the armature and hammer move to and fro. The hammer repeatedly hits the bell as long as the
switch remains closed.

Very powerful electromagnets are used for lifting scrap iron

A. BAKSH
 PHYSICS – MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetic Force

We have seen that a magnetic field exists around a current carrying conductor. Therefore, if such a conductor is brought near
to a magnet or placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force. The two magnetic fields interact and this interaction shows
itself in the electromagnetic force.

In the apparatus shown, a smooth thick wire, W, is free to roll along two smooth, conducting rails. It is placed between the N
pole and S pol of a curved magnet. When the current Is switched on in the circuit, wire W, itself has a magnetic field. The wire
W interacts with that of the magnet and wire W moves to the left. The wire moves because it experiences an electromagnetic
force towards the left.

Fleming’s Left Hand (Motor) Rule

States that, if the First finger is pointed in the direction of the Field (of the magnet), and the second finger is pointed in the
direction of the conventional current, the thump will show the direction of the motion produced.

Experiments show that, if the current carrying wire is placed parallel to the magnetic field, the wire does not move. Therefore,
no electromagnetic force is experienced when the current is parallel to the magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux Pattern

Magnetic flux is a quantity related to the strength of the magnetic field. The stronger the field, the larger the amount of
magnetic flux in a given area.

Thus, where magnetic lines of force are close together, the magnetic flux is greater.

The strength of a magnetic field in a region can be represented as the magnetic flux per unit area (called flux density) in that
region.

A. BAKSH
 PHYSICS – MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Factors affecting the force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

The size of the electromagnetic force depends on three factors:

1. The size of the current- if a large current is used at switch-on, the wire moves faster than if a smaller current is used
at the same magnetic field strength for the same wire
2. The size of the magnetic field- The more powerful the magnet used the faster the wire will move at the same
current and length of wire
3. The length of the conductor that ins in the field- a wire twice the length also moves faster at the same current and
magnetic field strength

Application of the Electromagnetic Force

The simple D.C motor

Induced Electromotive force

Experiments

In one of Faraday’s experiment, a coil of copper wire wrapped around a paper tube was connected to a sensitive
galvanometer. When a magnet was thrust into the coil, the galvanometer needle showed a momentary deflection. When the
magnet was pulled out of the coil, the needle again showed a momentary deflection, this time in the opposite direction. No
deflection was observed if the magnet was kept stationary outside or inside the coil. The deflection of the galvanometer
needle showed that electric current had been induced in the copper wire. An electromotive force must have been induced in
the copper wire resulting in a current.

The size of the induced current depends on:

- The number of turns in the coil

- The area of the coil
- The strength of the magnet
- The speed at which the magnet was thrust into (or pulled out of) the coil.

Magnetic Flux and Induced e.m.f

Magnetic flux is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing through an area perpendicular to the field lines.

There is no flux through a coil whose plane is parallel to the magnetic field and there is maximum flux through the face of a coil
whose plane is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

The amount of flux passing through the face of the coil is called the flux ‘linking’ the coil. Faraday concluded that an e.m.f is
induced whenever there is a change in the flux linking the coil. Faraday’s aw f electromagnetism states that:

The size of the e.m.f induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the circuit.

A. BAKSH
 PHYSICS – MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Factors affecting the size of an induced e.m.f

The size of the average e.m.f induced in a coil can be made larger by:

1. Increasing the number of turns of the coil

2. Increasing the surface area of the coil, to allow as much flux as possible through the coil
3. Increasing the magnetic flux (by using a more powerful magnet or electromagnet, or by placing a soft-iron core in
the coil)
4. Causing a more rapid change of the flux through the coil (by moving the magnet or the coil more quickly towards or
away from each other)

Electromagnetic Induction in a Straight Wire

Faraday found that when a straight wire cuts across magnetic lines of flux, an e.m.f is also induced in the wire. Fleming’s right
hand (generator) rule can be used to predict the direction of the induced current.

Fleming’s Right hand (Generator) Rule states that:

If the thumb gives the direction of motion of the wire, and the first finger gives the direction of the magnetic field, then the
second finger will give the direction of the induced (conventional) Current.

Application of Electromagnetic Induction

The A.C Generator (Alternator)

Transformers

Transformers transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another by electromagnetic induction between two coils. This
phenomenon in which an e.m.f is induced in a coil by flux change from another coil became known as mutual induction.
Transformers change both voltages and currents, increasing one while decreasing the other proportionally.

The Principle of the Transformer

If a continuously changing e.m.f is applied to a primary coil, the current in the coil and therefore the magnetic flux it produces,
will also change continuously. An induced e.m.f will be produced in a nearby secondary coil, through the process of mutual
induction as the continually changing flux from the primary coil cuts across the secondary coil. If there are no energy losses
between the primary and secondary coils, it can be shown that:

V p Np
=
V s Ns

A transformer is therefore able to change a given alternating input voltage to a higher or lower voltage. A step-up transformer
increases the given alternating input voltage whiles a step-down transformer decreases the given alternating input voltage.

Why do we use A.C for transferring electrical energy?

A. BAKSH
 PHYSICS – MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

In power transmission- The power lost in the resistance of the transmission line is directly proportional to the square of the
current flowing through it. Therefore, it is useful to minimize the amount of current flowing through the line. This is done by
stepping up the voltage. For a fixed power, high voltage results in lower current through the power line and lower current
means lower power line losses. Using transformers, it is easy to boost AC voltage to these high levels and then reverse the
process at the consumer end.

DC voltage does not work in a transformer so it is not very straightforward to step-up or step-down the voltage for DC
electricity. For power loads, it is typically done through inversion to AC- stepping up/down using a transformer -and
rectification back to DC.

Reducing Power Losses in Transformers

There are four ways in which power can be wasted in a transformer. To make a transformer as efficient as possible these must
be reduced as much as possible within given size and cost limits. Some general points about transformers are:

a) Well-designed transformers are very efficient, usually better than 99% efficient.
b) Large transformers used in the distribution of electricity handle many hundreds of kilowatts of power. Even if
only1% of this is wasted, a lot of heat is produced. Such transformers are oiled cooled.
c) Many transformers have more than one secondary coil. Each coil, with a different number of turns, can provide
different voltages for various components in a circuit.

Cause of power loss in a transformer Design features which reduce the power loss
Heating effect of the current in the copper wires of the coils: Thick copper wire of low resistance is used, particularly for
lost power in each coil = I2R, where R is the resistance of the the coil carrying the high current at low voltage, the cost of
wire in each coil the copper wire and the size and weight of the transformer
limit the gauge of wire that can be used
Heating effects of eddy currents induced in the iron core: The iron core is laminated, cutting across the path of any
Lost power = I2R, where R is the resistance of the closed loop induced eddy currents; the high resistance between the
in the iron core where eddy currents flow laminations greatly reduces the eddy currents and also the
heat they would produce
Energy is used in the process of magnetizing the iron core and The iron core is made of very soft iron, which is very easily
reversing this magnetization every time the current reverses, magnetized and demagnetized by the magnetic field of the
also heats the iron core primary coil
Some of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary coil The core is designed for maximum linkages between the
do not link with the secondary coil, reducing the e.m.f primary and secondary coils; common method is to wind the
induced in the secondary coil secondary coil on top of the primary coil, the iron core must
always form a closed loop.

A. BAKSH