18EES101J_

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Unit-5
ADS
 1 Number systems, Binary codes, Binary arithmetic
Boolean algebra, laws and theorems,
2 Simplification of Boolean expression
3 Logic Gates and Operations
SOP and POS Expressions (Minterm and
4 Maxterm)
5 Introduction to K-Map
6 Two, Three Variables K-Map
Principle and Block diagram of a Communication
7 System
8 Amplitude Modulation
9 Frequency Modulation
10 Phase Modulation
11 Demodulation
10/14/2018 Slide 1-1
 Introduction
• Four types of number systems will be discussed in
relation to digital technology
– Decimal numbers
– Binary numbers
– Octal Numbers
– Hexadecimal numbers
– We will also discuss BCD (binary coded decimal) which a binary
code used to represent decimal numbers
• Digital systems (computers) implement the binary
system
• Humans operate, count and perceive numerical
quantities using the decimal system
• The octal and hexadecimal systems are used as short
form notations for conveying binary values

10/14/2018 Slide 7-2

Decimal Numbers
• base 10

• has 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

• Two or more digits are used to express quantities greater

than 9, and the position of each digit within the number
tells you the magnitude it represents.

• The various positions relative to the decimal point carry

weights that can be expressed as powers of 10.
Example: 9708210 or 97082
Note : All valid digits must be smaller than the base number, 10
For decimal number, the base 10 can be omitted.
 Example

312.875

Pos Wt
0 100
3 x 102 1 x 101 2 x 100 8 x 10-1 7 x 10-2 5 x 10-3 1 101
2 102
-1 10-1
300 + 10 + 2 + 0.8 + 0.07 + 0.005 -2 10-2
-3 10-3

312.875
10/14/2018 Slide 7-4
 Binary Numbers
• Base 2 number system
• Has 2 digit symbols (bits): 0, 1
• The position of each 1 or 0 digit within a multi-bit number
indicates its positional weight or value within the number
• The weight structure of a binary number is:
2n-1 …. 23 22 21 20 . 2-1 2-2 2-3 …. 2-n
where n is the position num from the binary point
Example: 101100112 where each digit is < 2
– In digital systems, the fractional portion is represented as a
separate integer component. We will therefore not look fractional
binary number

10/14/2018 Slide 7-5

 Example
Binary number 1100112
Pos Wt
0 20
1 x 25 0 x 24 0 x 23 0 x 22 1 x 21 1 x 20 1 21
2 22
3 23
32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1 4 24
5 25

And its decimal equivalent is 5110

10/14/2018 Additional Slide Slide 7-6
 BCD (8421 code)
• Each digit of a decimal number is Dec Binary
represented by its 4-bit binary equivalent
0 0000
• Only the codes 0000 to 1001 are needed to 1 0001
encode a decimal number. The codes 1010 2 0010
to 1111 are invalid BCD codes
3 0011
• The BCD code is also called an 8421 code, 4 0100
referring to the numerical weight of each bit 5 0101
position of the 4-bit code 6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

10/14/2018 Slide 7-7

 BCD  Decimal Conversion
Convert the following decimal numbers to BCD
a) 2 6 5 910 = 0010 0110 0101 1001

= 0010011001011001BCD

b) 9 8 5 4 6 110 = 1001 1000 0101 0100 0110 0001

= 100110000101010001100001BCD
Convert 100001100011BCD to deciaml

c) 1000 0110 0011BCD = 8 6 310

= 86310

10/14/2018 Slide 7-8

 Octal Numbers
• Base 8 number system
• Has 8 digits for representing numerical values
– Use the same 1st eight symbols in the decimal system
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
• For numerical values above 7, begin next column and
starts over from 0
– 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20
• How do we different between decimal 354 and octal 354
or between decimal, octal or binary 101
– Use a appropriate subscript
– 35410, 3548, 10110, 1018, 1012

10/14/2018 Slide 7-10

 Hexadecimal Numbers
• Base ______16 number system
• Has ___16 digits for representing numerical values
– Use the same 10 symbols in the decimal system and
the 1st 6 alphabets a to f (or upper case A to F)
– 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
• For numerical values above 1510, begin next column and
start over from 0
– 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, 10, 11, 12 …
• Use a subscript 16 to indicate a hexadecimal number
– 17A2B16, 1253F4A16 , 45316

10/14/2018 Slide 7-11

 Conversion between systems
• In design and programming of digital systems including
microcomputer systems, one needs to be conversant
with conversion between the different number systems
– Decimal  Binary
– Decimal  Octal
– Decimal  Hexadecimal
– Binary  Octal
– Binary  Hexadecimal
• All numerical data or codes must be in binary before
storing them into memories of digital systems or
computers

10/14/2018 Slide 7-12

 Supplementary notes

Conversion Between Systems

• In programming, the conversion is done by the assembler
or compiler
– One still needs to appreciate the conversion process
for correct and effective handling of program data
– For example, for a high-level programming language
statement
x = 258;
the compiler converts 25810 to 1000000102
– Why then the need for the user to be familiar with the
conversion process?
• Among other reasons, the user needs to know that memory
register allocated to hold data must be of sufficient size
• In the above example, x must be more the 8 bits

10/14/2018 Additional Slide – Skip? Slide 7-13

 Number System Conversion

Students are expected to know how to convert from one number system to another as shown below.
Below shows the example of 61 (decimal) that can be expressed in different number system.

1111012 758 3D16

6110
0110 0001BCD
 Decimal  Binary
1. Sum-of-weights method
– Determine the set of binary weights whose sum is
equal to the decimal number

Example: 2310 = 16 + 7 = 16 + 4 + 2 + 1 (no 8)

Binary weights: 24 23 22 21 20
Dec. equivalents: 16 8 4 2 1

Bin. Equivalent: 1 0 1 1 1
2310 = 101112

10/14/2018 Slide 7-15

 Decimal  Binary
2. Repeated Division-by-2 method
– The result or quotient of a division by 2 is the
quantity of groups of 2’s, and the remainder is a
single unit that cannot be paired
– The remainder of the 1st division is the value of the
least significant bit (LSB) or bit-0
– The quotient from the 1st division (number of 2s) is
divided by 2 next
• The remainder from the 2nd division is the value for the 2nd
significant bit or bit-1
– Division be 2 is continued until the quotient is zero
• The remainder from the last division is the MSB

10/14/2018 Slide 7-16

 Example using method 2
Convert 2310 to binary

23  2 = 11 remainder 1 LSB
11  2 = 5 remainder 1
5  2 = 2 remainder 1
2  2 = 1 remainder 0
1  2 = 0 remainder 1 MSB

2310 = 101112

10/14/2018 Slide 7-17

 Decimal → Octal
8
Procedure: Repeated division by ________

Convert 41310 to octal

413  8 = 51 remainder 5 5 LSDigit
51  8 = 6 remainder 3 3
6  8 = 0 remainder 6 6 MSD

41310 = 6358

10/14/2018 Slide 7-18

 Decimal → Hexadecimal

16
Procedure: Repeated division by _______

Convert 65010 to hexadecimal

650  16 = 40 remainder 1010 A LSDigit
40  16 = 2 remainder 8 8
2  16 = 0 remainder 2 2 MSD
65010 = 28A16

10/14/2018 Slide 7-19

 Binary  Decimal
• Sum-of-weights method
– Add the weights of all bits that are 1 and discard the
weights of all bits that are 0

Example: Convert 10012 to decimal

Weights: 23 22 21 20
Binary no: 1 0 0 1

Sum of 23 20
1001 = 8 + 1 = 910
Example: 1101012 = 25+24+22+20 = 32+16+4+1 = 5310
10/14/2018 Slide 7-20
 More examples Bin  Dec
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

111111112 = 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 25510

111111112 = 1000000002 – 12 = 25610 – 1 = 25510

111111002 = 111111112 – 112 = 25510 – 310 = 25210

11111111112 = 210 – 1 = 102410 – 1 = 102310

10/14/2018 Additional Slide – Skip? Slide 7-21

 Octal → Decimal

Convert 62358 to decimal

Procedure: Sum of weights

62358 = 6 x 83 + 2 x 82 + 3 x 81 + 5 x 80
= (6x512) + (2x64) + (3x8) + (5x1)
= 3072 + 128 + 24 + 5 = 322910

10/14/2018 Slide 7-22

 Hexadecimal → Decimal
Convert AE516 to decimal

Procedure: Sum of weights

AE516 = A x 162 + E x 161 + 5 x 160

= (10x256) + (14x16) + (5x1)
= 2560 + 224 + 5 = 278910

Another method is to convert hexadecimal to binary

and then convert from binary to decimal

10/14/2018 Slide 7-23

 Octal  Binary
• Each octal digit has its corresponding
Octal Bin
3-bit binary value
0 000
Convert 7518 to binary 1 001
2 010
7 5 1 3 011
4 100
5 101
111 101 001 6 110
7 111
Hence, 7518 = 1111010012
011 001101000
Convert to binary: 31508 = ________________
110011010002
________________
10/14/2018 Slide 7-24
 Hexadecimal  Binary
• Just as in the octal system, each hex digit Hex Bin
has its equivalent 4-bit binary 0 0000
--- ---
Convert A2F116 to binary
9 1001
A 2 F 1 A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
1010 0010 1111 0001
E 1110
Hence, A2F116 = 10100010111100012 F 1111

1101 1001 1111 1100

Convert to binary: D 9 F C = ____________________
11011001111111002
= ____________________
10/14/2018 Slide 7-25
 Binary  Octal
• Group binary number in groups of 3 bits starting from
the right-most bit (LSB)
• Convert each 3-bit group to its octal equivalent

Convert 1001101011112 to octal

100 110 101 111

4 6 5 7
Hence, 1001101011112 = 46578
12358
Convert to octal: 10100111012 = ________________

10/14/2018 Slide 7-26

 Binary  Hexadecimal
• Group binary number in groups of 4 bits starting from
the right-most bit (LSB)
• Convert each 4-bit group to its hex equivalent

Convert 1001101011112 to hexadecimal Bin Hex

1010 A
1001 1010 1111 1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
9 A F 1110 E
Hence, 1001101011112 = 9AF16 1111 F

29D16
Convert to hex: 10100111012 = ________________

10/14/2018 Slide 7-27

 Food for thought
a) Convert 100011BCD to binary. 1. Start from rightmost 4 bits to
identify the decimal units digit
from the BCD code
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1BCD = 2 310
2. Get the decimal tens digit from
the next 4-bit BCD to the left
2310 = 16 + 7 = 1 0 1 1 1 3. Repeat to identify the hundreds,
thousands, digit, etc if any
4. Convert the decimal to binary

b) Convert 1001112 to BCD. 1. Convert binary to decimal

2. Then encode the decimal
value in BCD
1 0 0 1 1 1 = 32 + 7 = 3910

= 0011 1001BCD

10/14/2018 Slide 7-28

 Binary Addition
• Basic rules of adding binary digits

0 0 1 1
+0 +1 +0 +1
00 01 01 10
Example: 11010 + 1011
Carry 1010
11010
+ 1011
1001 0 1

10/14/2018 Slide 7-29

 Binary Subtraction
• Basic rules of subtracting binary digits

0 1 1 0
-0 -0 -1 -1
0 1 0 1 borrow 1
Example: 11010 - 1011

Borrow
2102
110 210
1 1 0 1 0
- 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

10/14/2018 Slide 7-30

 Binary Multiplication
• Basic rules for multiplying binary digits:
0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1

• Example: 112
x 112

11 Partial products
+ 11
10012
10/14/2018 Slide 7-31
 Binary Division

• Division follows the same procedure as division in

decimal.

• Example:
10
11 110
11
000

10/14/2018 Slide 7-32

 Boolean Algebra and Logic Simplification
• Boolean Algebra
– is the mathematics of digital system
– is essential to the study and analysis of logic circuits
• Variable
– is a symbol used to represent a logical quantity
– may have a value of 0 or 1
• Complement
– is the inverse of a variable and is indicated by a bar
over the variable
• Literal
– is a variable or the complement of a variable.

10/14/2018 Slide 3-33

 Drawing of Logic Circuits
Example 1: Draw the logic circuit for
X  ABC  DE  AC There are 5 variables
A, B, C, D and E

A
B
ABC
B

C
AC
X
D
DE
E

10/14/2018 Slide 3-34

 Exercise
Draw the circuit represented by the following expressions
Invert of AND
(a) Y  D.(B  C)  NAND (b) Z  (A  B).C  D
???
A B C D Invert Invert
of ANDof OR
BC  NAND  NOR

D
Y

AB
(A  B).C

10/14/2018 Slide 3-35

Drawing of Logic Circuits
• Example 1: Draw the logic circuit for X=ABC  ABC  ABC

A B C Place all the inputs here

ABC

ABC
X

ABC
 Determining SOP (Sum-of-Products)
Expression from a Truth Table
• Logic simplification methods (discussed later) often
requires that logic expressions be in a Sum-of-Products
form (SOP)
• Determine the binary values of the input variables for
which the output is “1”. g3n4e9s
• Convert each binary value to the corresponding product
term by replacing each “1” with the corresponding
variable and each “0” with the complement of the
corresponding variable.
Example: 1010 = ABCD
• Logically add (“OR”) the product terms.

10/14/2018 Slide 3-37

Example: Find the SOP expression for X from the given truth table.

A B C X SOP:
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 X  ABC  ABC  ABC
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
10/14/2018 Refer to Slide 3-4 for the logic circuit of X. Slide 3-38
 Exercise
• Find the SOP expression for output Y
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 Y= ABC
OR 0 1 0 1 Y= ABC
0 1 1 0
OR 1 0 0 1 Y= ABC
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
OR 1 1 1 1 Y= ABC

Y=ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC
10/14/2018 Slide 3-39
 More Exercises
• Draw the truth tables for the (a) XOR and (b) XNOR
gates and derive the SOP expression for the gates

A B X
X = A + B = AB+AB
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

X = A + B = AB+AB
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

10/14/2018 Slide 3-40

 Example: For the input waveforms shown below, determine
the SOP expression. Also construct the truth table of X.
1 1 1 1 1 1
A A B C X
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
Inputs B 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
C 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1

Output 1 1 0 0
X
1 1 1 1
ABC A BC A BC ABC
A BC ABC
X  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC X  ABC  ABC  ABC
10/14/2018 Slide 3-41
 Boolean Algebraic Laws
• Commutative Laws
A+B=B+A
A.B=B.A
• Associative Laws
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C
A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C = A . B . C
• Distributive Laws
A . (B + C) = A.B + A.C

A + (B . C) = (A+B) .(A+C) Additional information

10/14/2018 Slide 3-42

 Boolean Identities
1 A+0= A 8 A.A= 0

2 A+1= 1 9 A= A

3 A.0= 0 10 A + AB = A+B
4 A.1= A
5 A+A= A
6 A+A= 1

7 A.A= A

* Additional Information
10/14/2018 Slide 3-43
 Deriving some of the Identities
• A + AB = A . (1 + B) + A.B
= (A + A) . (A + B)
= 1 . (A + B)
=A+B

10/14/2018 Slide 3-44

Example 1
A+AB
= A ( 1+B)
=A
 Deriving some of the Identities
Example 2
• (A + B).(A + C) = [(A + B) . A] + [(A + B) . C]
= (A + AB) + (AC + BC)
= A(1 + B) + AC + BC
= A + AC + BC
= A(1 + C) + BC
= A + BC

10/14/2018 Slide 3-46

 • Example: Simplify the expression [AB(C+BD)+AB]C.
Solution:
[ AB(C  BD)  AB]C  [ ABC  ABBD  AB]C
 [ ABC  A.0
0.D  AB]C
 [ ABC  AB]C
 [ ABCC  ABC]
 [ ABC  ABC]
 BC[ A 1
 A]
 BC

10/14/2018 Slide 3-47

 Exercises
• Simplify the following Boolean expressions:
1. A.B + A.(B + C) + B.(B + C) Use distributive law

2. A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C

3. (A + B.C).(A + B.C)
1. AB + AB + AC + BB + BC = AB + AC + B + BC
= B(A+1) + AC + BC
= B + AC + BC
= B(1+C) + AC
= B + AC

2. BC(A+A)+AB(C+C)+ABC = BC+AB+ABC
= BC+B(A+AC)
= BC+B(A+C)
= AB+BC+BC
10/14/2018 Slide 3-48
 Exercises
• Simplify the following Boolean expressions:
1. A.B + A.(B + C) + B.(B + C)
2. A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C
3. (A + B.C).(A + B.C) = (A+BC)A + (A+BC)BC
= AA+ABC+ABC+BCBC

= A+AB(C+C)+0

= A+AB

= A(1+B)

=A

10/14/2018 Slide 3-49

 Supplementary

More exercises
A.(A+B) = (A . A) + (A . B)
=A+A.B
= A . (1 + B)
=A

Answer: A

A.(A+B) =
= (A . A) + (A . B)
=0+A.B
= AB

Answer: AB
 DeMorgan’s Theorem
• INVERT of an AND product term of variables is equal to
the OR sum of the INVERTS of the variables

X.Y= X + Y

• INVERT of an OR sum term of variables is equal to the

product of the INVERTS of the variables

X+Y= X . Y

COMPLEMENT  INVERT

10/14/2018 Slide 3-51

 Gate Equivalence
• Gate Equivalence and Corresponding Truth Table
Illustrating DeMorgan’s Theorems

A.B= A + B implies

A A
Y
B B

A B A.B A+B
A
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 B
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0

10/14/2018 Slide 3-52

 Gate Equivalence
A+B= A . B implies

A A
B B

A B A+B A.B

0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0

10/14/2018 Slide 3-53

 • DeMorgan’s theorem can be extended to
more that 2 variables Additional
Information
XYZ = X + Y + Z

P+Q+R = P Q R

• Example: Using DeMorgan’s theorem,

simplify the following expression

(A + C) + (B + D) = A C + B D
= AC+BD

10/14/2018 Slide 3-54

 • Example: Simplify the following expression
ABCD + ABCD + ABCD

ABCD + ABCD + ABCD = AB(CD+CD)+ABCD

= AB(1)+ABCD
= AB+ABCD

= AB+CD

10/14/2018 Slide 3-55

 More Exercises
W = A + BC = A BC = A(B+C) = A(B+C)

X = (A + B)(B + C) = (A+B)+(B+C)
= (A+B)+(BC) = A+B(1+C) = A+B

Y = (M + N)(M + N) = (M+N)+(M+N) = (MN)+(MN)

10/14/2018 Slide 3-56

 One more exercise

• Exercise: Simplify the following expressions

A B + CD A = (AB + CD)+A
= (AB + CD)+A
= AB +C+D+A
= A(B+1)+C+D
= A+C+D

10/14/2018 Slide 3-57

 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
1. Simplify the following logic circuit, by finding and
simplifying the output expression, and
2. Construct the 3-input truth table for the logic circuit
using the Boolean expression

A A+B

Y
B
B A+B (B+C)

C B+C

10/14/2018 Slide 3-58

 Simplify the expression Construct the Truth Table

Y = (A + B) . (B + C) A B C Y
0 0 0 0
Y = (A + B) + (B + C) 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
Y = (A + B) + (B . C)
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
Y=A+B+B.C 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Y = A + B(1 + C)
Y=A+B A Y

B A
Y
B
C

10/14/2018 Slide 3-59

 Exercise
• For the given logic circuit,
1. derive and simplify the output expression, and
2. and construct its truth table, draw the simplified
circuit and state the advantage of simplification
A A+B
(A+B)B

B B
X

BC

X = (A+B)B + B + BC
10/14/2018 Slide 3-60
 Simplify the expression Construct the Truth Table
x = (A+B)B + B + BC A B C X
0 0 0 1
x = AB+BB + B + BC
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
x = AB + 0 + B + BC 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
x = B(A+1)+ BC 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
x = B + BC = B + C 1 1 1 1

C
X X
B
B
C
Advantage: fewer gates which may result in less ICs and cost savings
10/14/2018 Slide 3-61
 • 1.Simplify : Y= AD  BC  D( B  C )
• Then draw the simplified circuit.

Y = AD  BC  D( B  C )
= A  D  ( B  C).D( B  C)

= A  D  D(BB  BC  BC  C).
= A  D  DC  A  D  C.  ACD

A Y
C
D

Summary

10/14/2018 Slide 3-62

 Simplification using K-Map
• Beside using Boolean Laws and Identities to
simplify an expression, an alternative systematic
method is to use a Karnaugh Map (K-map)
• The K-map is a row-column matrix (array) of
cells where each cell represents the binary
value for the product terms formed from all the
input variables
• The number of cells of a K-map is also 2n,
where n is the number of input variables

10/14/2018 Slide 3-63

 2-variable K-map
2-variable
• Array size = = 4 cells
22 Truth Table
• in this case, A and B are used for the
variables. A B X

– binary value of A is on the left side, and AB 0 0

– the value of B across the top. AB 0 1
AB 1 0
• Compare the K-map with the Truth Table AB 1 1

B
A 0 1

10/14/2018 Slide 3-64

 3 variable K-map
• Array size = 23 = 8 cells

C C

AB 000 ABC
ABC 001

AB 010 ABC
ABC 011

AB 110 ABC
ABC 111

AB 100 ABC
ABC 101

10/14/2018 Slide 3-65

 4 variable K-maps
• Array size = 24 = 16 cells

CD
AB 00 01 11 10

00

01

11

10

10/14/2018 Slide 3-66

 SOP expression  K-map
• Example 1:
• Example 2:
ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC
A+AB+ABC
BC
A 00 01 11 10
BC
0 0 1 0 1 A 00 01 11 10

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
C 0 1
AB
C 0 1
00 0 1 AB
1 0 00 1 1
01
1 1 01 1 1
11
0 0 11 1 0
10
10 1 1
ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC
10/14/2018 Slide 3-67
 Mapping from a Truth Table
Example :

A B C Y
0 0 0 1 C 0 1
AB
0 0 1 0 00 1 0
0 1 0 0
01 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 11 1 1
1 0 1 0 10 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Another Example

10/14/2018 Slide 3-68

 K-map variable elimination
• First loop isolated 1s
• Loop pairs, where a 1 term is adjacent to only
one other 1 term
• Proceed to loop 1s, which will eliminate the
most number of variables until all 1s are looped
Use minimum number of loops.
Loops can overlap
• Form the sum of the terms generated by each
loop (SOP expression)

10/14/2018 Slide 3-69

 Intentionally left blank

10/14/2018 Slide 3-70

 Examples
ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC A+AB+ABC
= ABC + AB + BC = A+B+C

C 0 1 C 0 1
AB AB
00 0 1 00 1 1

01 1 0 01 1 1

11 1 1 11 1 0

10 0 0 10 1 1

10/14/2018 Slide 3-71

 Examples
X = ABD + AB + BCD + BCD

CD
AB 00 01 11 10

00 1 0 0 1
01 0 1 1 0
11 0 1 1 0
10 1 1 1 1

X = BD + BD + AD
Alternative for last term:
X = BD + BD + AB

10/14/2018 Slide 3-72

 Examples
X = BD+ABCD+ABCD+ABCD+ABCD

CD
AB 00 01 11 10

00 0 0 1 0
01 1 1 1 0
11 0 1 1 1
10 0 1 0 0

X = ABC + ABC + ACD + ACD

What if the centre 4 1s are looped first?

10/14/2018 Slide 3-73

 More Exercises
• Use K-map to simplify the following:
(a) A(BC+BC)+A(BC+BC) CD
00 01 11 10
(b) AB+AB+CD+CD AB
00 1 1 1 1
C 0 1 01 1 0 0 1
AB
00 0 0 11 1 0 0 1
01 1 1 10 1 1 1 1
11 1 1

10 0 0

(a) ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC (b) AB + AB + CD + CD

=B =B+D

10/14/2018 Slide 3-74

 Exercise
• Use K-map to obtain the simplest expression for Y

A B C Y C 0 1
AB
0 0 0 0 1 00 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 01 2 3
2 0 1 0 0 11 6 7
3 0 1 1 1 10 4 5
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 0 Y=B+C
7 1 1 1 1

10/14/2018 Slide 3-75

 Obtain the simplest expression
SOP term A B C D Y
ABCD 0 0 0 0 0
0 CD
ABCD 0 0 0 1 1 AB 00 01 11 10
ABCD 0 0 1 0 1 00 0 1 3 2
ABCD 0 0 1 1 0
01 4 5 7 6
ABCD 0 1 0 0 0
0
ABCD 0 1 0 1 0
0 11 12 13 15 14
ABCD 0 1 1 0 11
ABCD 0 1 1 1 11
10 8 9 11 10
ABCD 1 0 0 0 11
K-map for output Y
ABCD 1 0 0 1 0
0
ABCD 1 0 1 0 1
ABCD 1 0 1 1 0
0
Y = ABCD + ACD + ABD
ABCD 1 1 0 0 1
ABCD 1 1 0 1 11 + ABC + BCD
ABCD 1 1 1 0 0
0
ABCD 1 1 1 1 11

10/14/2018 Slide 3-76

 Don’t Care Conditions
• In a logic circuit design,
– the output for certain input conditions or combinations
may not affect the design operation and therefore can
be either be a 0 or 1 (don’t care state)
OR
– certain input conditions will never occur, and therefore
it does not matter whether the output for these input
combinations be set to 0 or 1
• In the K-map, we will indicate the output for any of such
input condition by an “x” symbol
– The cell value will be taken as 1 and “looped” with
other 1s if this leads to simplification of logic
expression
10/14/2018 Slide 3-77
 Exercise
• Use K-map to obtain the simplest expression for Y

A B C Y C 0 1
AB
0 0 0 0 00 0 1
0 0 1 0 Treated
01 2 3
as ‘0’
0 1 0 0 11 6 7
0 1 1 x 10 4 5
1 0 0 x Treated
as ‘1’
1 0 1 1 Y=A
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

10/14/2018 Slide 3-78

 Obtain the simplest expression
SOP term A B C D Y
ABCD 0 0 0 0 x
x CD
ABCD 0 0 0 1 x AB 00 01 11 10
ABCD 0 0 1 0 0 00 0 1 3 2
ABCD 0 0 1 1 0
01 4 5 7 6
ABCD 0 1 0 0 0
0
ABCD 0 1 0 1 0
0 11 12 13 15 14
ABCD 0 1 1 0 0
0
10 8 9 11 10
ABCD 0 1 1 1 1
1
ABCD 1 0 0 0 11
ABCD 1 0 0 1 1 K-map for output Y
ABCD 1 0 1 0 x
ABCD 1 0 1 1 xx Y = BCD + A
ABCD 1 1 0 0 xx
ABCD 1 1 0 1 xx
ABCD 1 1 1 0 x
ABCD 1 1 1 1 x

10/14/2018 Slide 3-79

 BACK

CD Recap from Slide 34:

AB 00 01 11 10

0 0 1 0
• First loop isolated 1s NIL
00
01
• Loop pairs, where a 1 term
1 1 1 0
is adjacent to only one
11 0 1 1 1 other 1 term
10 0 1 0 0 • Proceed to loop 1s, which
will eliminate the most
The loop around the number of variables until all
centre 4 ones is 1s are looped NIL
redundant since the • Use minimum number of
1s are included in the loops. Loops can overlap
other 4 loops. The 1s are covered in a
minimum of 4 loops.

10/14/2018 Slide 3-80

 Sum of Products Expression
• Logic simplification methods often requires that logic
expressions be in a Sum-of-Products form (SOP)
• Which of the following is in SOP form?
M = ABC + AC + BD
  

P = AB(C+D) + BD
X

X = (A+D)(BC+AD)+ABC
X

Y = (AB+BD)+(ACD+AB)
   

10/14/2018 Additional Slide Slide 3-81

 SOP Expression  Truth table
• From a problem’s statements or description, one can
either setup the Truth table or write down the Boolean
expression as the first step
• For subsequent steps, we should be able to
– derive the Boolean expression from a truth table, or
– setup the truth table from a Boolean expression
• We have seen from Slides 3-19 to 3-22 how to set up a
truth table from a Boolean expression:-
– Use Boolean laws and identities, and DeMorgan’s
theorem to reduce the expression to SOP form
– For each product term, output = 1 for all combinations
that are included in the product term

10/14/2018 Slide 3-82

 Describing Logic Circuits
• We have seen in Topic 1 how the truth table is used to
describe the operation of logic gates and circuits
– The output responses, 1 or 0, for all combinations of
inputs are tabulated
– Number of table entries is 2n, where n is the number
of inputs of the logic gate or circuit
– The table gets very large for large number of inputs
• An alternative method is to express the output as an
algebraic expression of the inputs
– where the inputs are expressed as Boolean variables,
– and Boolean variables has only the value 1 or 0

10/14/2018 Slide 3-83

 Boolean Operators
• We have already introduced the use Boolean
expressions when we discussed the basic logic gates
using the OR, AND and NOT operators (+ . ¯ )
• Examples:
– For the AND gate with inputs and output expressed
as A, B and Y respectively, the Boolean expression
for an AND gate is
Y=A.B
– Similarly the 2-input OR, NOR, NAND gate can be
described as
Y = A + B, Y = A + B, Y = A . B

10/14/2018 Slide 3-84

 Describing Logic Circuits
• A logic circuit is an interconnection of the basic gates,
AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR and XNOR.
• It can be described by a Boolean expression
– by treating the output of a gate that is connected to
the input of another gate as a “compound” input
Boolean variable for the second gate

A
A A D (A D) A B
D
D A
B M=

C (A D) A B + A B C
A
B ABC

10/14/2018 Slide 3-85

 Boolean Algebra
• Just like Algebra as we know it in Mathematics, we can
use theorems pertinent to Boolean variables to simplify
or manipulate Boolean expressions – Boolean Algebra
• Since the OR operator uses the addition symbol,
sometimes OR operation of variable is also referred to
as the SUM term
Example:
A+B+C is also referred to as the
• SUM of A, B and C
W+X+Y+Z can be verbalized as the
• SUM of NOT W, X, NOT Y and Z

10/14/2018 Slide 3-86

 Boolean Algebra
• Since the AND operator uses the . multiplication symbol,
the AND operation of Boolean variables is often referred
as the PRODUCT term
Example
A.B.C is referred to as the
• PRODUCT of A, B and NOT C
W.X.Y.Z is referred as a
• PRODUCT term of NOT W, X, Y and Z
• When verbalizing or writing down a PRODUCT term, the
AND operator is optional and is often left out
Example: ABC A, B, NOT C

WXYZ NOT W, X, Y, Z

10/14/2018 Slide 3-87

 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
• As shown earlier in slide 3-3, the output of a logic
circuit can be expressed as a Boolean expression
A

D A
B M

C
A
B M = (A D).A.B + A.B.C

• A simpler equivalent logic circuit can be derived by

simplifying the Boolean expression and then redrawing
the new circuit from the expression

10/14/2018 Slide 3-88

 Simplify the Logic Circuit
M = (A D).A.B + A.B.C
M = (A D) + A + B + A.B.C
M = A + D + A + B + A.B.C
M = A + D + A + B + A.B.C = 1 !!
A

A M
D +5V M
B

C
A No matter what happens
B at the inputs, M is always
HIGH or at logic 1

10/14/2018 Slide 3-89

 Expression  Truth Table
A B C D Y
M = ABC + AC + BD 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
There are 4 variables (A, B, 0 0 1 0 0
C and D), therefore the 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
truth will have 16 input 0 1 0 1 1
combinations 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
Locate entries that include 1 0 0 0 1
ABC and enter 1 for Y 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
Repeat above for AC 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
and BD 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

10/14/2018 Slide 3-90

 Truth Table  Boolean Expression
From the table, Y=1 when A=0, B=1 and
A B C Y
C=0, which is Y=ABC
0 0 0 0 OR
when A=0, B=1 and C=1, which is Y=ABC
0 0 1 0 OR
0 1 0 1 when A=1, B=0 and C=0, Y=ABC
OR
0 1 1 1
when A=1, B=0 and C=1, Y=ABC
1 0 0 1 OR

1 0 1 1 when A=1, B=1 and C=0, Y=ABC

OR
1 1 0 1 when A=1, B=1 and C=1, Y=ABC
1 1 1 1 Y=ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC

10/14/2018 Slide 3-91

 K-map Labeling Format
• The K-map rows & columns are CD
labeled so that horizontally or vertically, AB 00 01 11 10
00 0 1 0 0
the product terms of adjacent cells
differ only in one variable 01 0 1 0 0

• This allows elimination of one variable 11 0 0 0 0

when the product terms of 2 adjacent 10 0 0 0 0
cells or squares are OR-ed together K-map for M
• For example: OR-ing the product terms
in the K-map shown (indicated by M = ABCD + ABCD
looping the terms together) will = ACD(B+B)
eliminate variable B
= ACD
• Can be observed from the K-map: for
the 2 terms looped, only B is different

10/14/2018 Slide 3-92

 K-map variable elimination
• ORing (or looping) adjacent terms can be extended to 4
squares (eliminating 2 variables), and so on
• Looping can only be done for 2n (2, 4, 8, …) adjacent
terms, where n will be the number of variables eliminated
CD ABCD  ABCD  ABCD  ABCD
AB 00 01 11 10
00 1 1 1 0 AC  ABC(D  D)  ABC(D  D)
01 1 1 1 0
 ABC  ABC
11 0 1 1 0 D  AC(B  B)
10 0 1 1 0
 AC

10/14/2018 Slide 3-93

 Mapping from Truth Table  K-map
SOP term A B C D Y CD CD CD CD
ABCD 0 0 0 0 0 AB 0 1 0 0
ABCD 0 0 0 1 1
ABCD 0 0 1 0 0 AB 0 1 0 0
ABCD 0 0 1 1 0
AB 0 1 1 0
ABCD 0 1 0 0 0
ABCD 0 1 0 1 1 AB 0 0 0 0
ABCD 0 1 1 0 0
CD
ABCD 0 1 1 1 0
ABCD 1 0 0 0 0 AB 00 01 11 10
ABCD 1 0 0 1 0 00 0 1 0 0
ABCD 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
01
ABCD 1 0 1 1 0
ABCD 1 1 0 0 0 11 0 1 1 0
ABCD 1 1 0 1 1
10 0 0 0 0
ABCD 1 1 1 0 0
ABCD 1 1 1 1 1
K-map for output Y

10/14/2018 Slide 3-94

 Introduction to Logic Gates
• A logic gate is an electronic switching device built using
transistors, whose output is typically at one of 2 binary
logic voltage levels or states,
– High voltage level represents logic state 1
– Low voltage level represents logic state 0
• A logic gate can have one or more inputs
– The signals to these inputs are also one of 2 voltage levels
representing 1 or 0, taken from voltage supply source or the
output of another logic gate or device
For a given gate type, the
I0 output (either 0 or 1) will
I1 . Logic Output depend on the input levels
Inputs . .
.

IN
. gate
Example: Output = 1 only
when all inputs signals are at
General block diagram of a logic gate state 1

10/14/2018 Slide 2-95

 Truth Table
• The operation of a logic gate or circuit
A
(interconnection of logic gates) can be B
Logic
P
circuit
described using a truth table C
• The truth table shows all the possible
responses for all the combinations of A B C P
logic level at the inputs 0 0 0 1

• Example: The truth table shown gives 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0
the output P responses for all the 0 1 1 0
combinations of logic levels at A, B, C 1 0 0 1

– The output is high (logic 1) when 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0
• all inputs are 0, OR 1 1 1 1
• all inputs are 1, OR
• when A=1 AND B=0

10/14/2018 Slide 2-96

 Inverter or NOT gate
• NOT gate or inverter has only one input and it inverts
or complements the logic level at its input

Symbol

A Y
A Y
0 1
1 0

Boolean Expression
Y=A

10/14/2018 Slide 2-97

 Inverter or NOT gate
A Y
A Y=A
0 1
1 0

Sketch Y output given waveform of input A as shown

10/14/2018 Slide 2-98

 2-input AND Gate
• AND gate output is HIGH only if all inputs are HIGH. The
output is LOW if one or more inputs is LOW

A B Y Boolean Multiplication
AND gate symbol

A 0 0 0 0.0=0
Y 0 1 0 0.1=0
B 1 0 0 1.0=0
1 1 1 1.1=1

Boolean expression
Y=A.B

Boolean Multiplication - is equivalent to the AND operation

10/14/2018 Slide 2-99

 2-input AND Gate
A B Y
A
0 0 0
Y=A.B
B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

• Exercise 1: Sketch the output waveform, Y if the 2

waveforms shown are applied to input A and B
A 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

B 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

10/14/2018 Slide 2-100

 2-input OR Gate
• OR gate output is HIGH (1) if one or more inputs is HIGH.
The output is LOW (0) only is all inputs are LOW

OR gate symbol A B Y Boolean Addition

A 0 0 0 0+0=0
Y 0 1 1 0+1=1
B 1 0 1 1+0=1
1 1 1 1+1=1
Boolean expression Y = A + B

Boolean Addition - is equivalent to the OR operation

10/14/2018 Slide 2-101

 OR Gate
A B Y
A 0 0 0
Y=A+B
B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

• Exercise 2: Sketch the output waveform, Y if the 2

waveforms shown are applied to input A and B

A 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

B 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

10/14/2018 Slide 2-102

 2-input NAND Gate
• NAND gate operates like a AND gate with an inverted
output
• The out is LOW only if all inputs are HIGH. The output is
HIGH if one or more inputs is LOW

NAND gate symbol

A B Y
A
Y
B 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Boolean expression
Y=A.B

10/14/2018 Slide 2-103

 3-input NAND Gate
• Exercise 4: If the three waveforms,
A
A , B and C are applied to the NAND Y
B
gate inputs, what is the resulting C
output waveform?

A 1 1 A B C Y

0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
B 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
C 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Y

Boolean expression Y = ABC

10/14/2018 Slide 2-104
 2-input NOR Gate
• NOR gate operation is like that of an OR gate with output
connect to a NOT gate
• The output is 0 if any one of is input is 1, and is 1 only
when all inputs are LOW

NOR gate symbol

A B Y
A
Y 0 0 1
B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Boolean expression
Y=A+B

10/14/2018 Slide 2-105

 3-input NOR Gate
• Exercise 5: If the three waveforms,
A , B and C are applied to the NOR A
B Y
gate inputs, what is the resulting
C
output waveform?

A 0 A B C Y
0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
B 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
C 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
Y

Boolean expression Y = A+B+C

10/14/2018 Slide 2-106
 Exclusive OR (XOR, EOR) Gate
• XOR gate output is HIGH if both inputs are different. The
output is LOW if both inputs are the same

XOR gate symbol

A B Y
A
Y 0 0 0
B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Boolean expression
Y=A+B

10/14/2018 Slide 2-107

 Exclusive OR (XOR) Gate
• Exercise 6: Determine the output
A
waveform for the XOR gate given Y
the input waveforms, A and B, as B

shown below.

A 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
A B Y

B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Y

10/14/2018 Slide 2-108

 Exclusive NOR Gate
• ENOR or XNOR gate output 1 if both inputs have the
same logic levels.
• The output is 0 if both inputs are different

XNOR gate symbol

A B Y
A
Y
B 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Boolean expression
Y=A+B

10/14/2018 Slide 2-109

 Exclusive NOR (XNOR) Gate
• Exercise 7: Determine the output
A
waveform for the XOR gate given Y
the input waveforms, A and B, as B

shown below.

A 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
A B Y

B 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Y

10/14/2018 Slide 2-110

 Exercise 8 (a)
(a) Draw the logic symbol for a 3- A B C Y
input OR gate, and 0 0 0 0
(b) Develop the truth table for the 0 0 1 1
3-input OR gate
0 1 0 1
A 0 1 1 1
B Y 1 0 0 1
C 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1

23 = ____entries
8 1 1 1 1
• 3-input table has ____
• OR gate output is 1 when ANY input is 1
and 0 when all inputs are 0
10/14/2018 Slide 2-111
 Exercise 8 (b)
(a) Draw the logic symbol for a 4-input AND A B C D Y
gate, and 0 0 0 0 0

(b) Develop the truth table for the 4-input 0 0 0 1 0

AND gate 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
A
0 1 1 0 0
B
C Y = A.B.C.D 0 1 1 1 0
D 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
4
2 = 16 entries 1 0 1 1 0
• 4-input table has ____
1 1 0 0 0
• AND gate output is 1 when ALL inputs 1 1 0 1 0
are 1 and 0 when any input is 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

10/14/2018 Slide 2-112

 Exercise 9: Design Problem
• A factory uses 2 tanks to store liquid chemicals.
• Each tank has a liquid level sensor, which outputs a
– 5V signal (logic 1) when the tank is > 25% full, and
– 0V signal (logic 0) when the tank is ≤ 25% full
• It is required to turn ON a LED (light emitting diode)
indicator when both tanks are more than 25% full.
• The LED indicator is turn ON by a logic 0 signal

Draw the truth table and identify the logic gate which
satisfies the above requirements

10/14/2018 Slide 2-113

 Exercise 9 Solution
Tank A
Step 1: Sketch a diagram
of the system A
Logic L LED turned ON
B Gate by logic 0 input
Step 2: Draw the truth
table to describe the logic Tank B
gate operation with 2
inputs and 1 output

A B L Step 3: Identify the gate

from the truth table and
0 0 1 draw the symbol for the A
0 1 1 gate with appropriate L
labels for the inputs and B
1 0 1 output
1 1 0 Observation: Output 0 only
when ALL inputs HIGH

10/14/2018 Slide 2-114

 Exercise 10
For the design problem in Exercise 9
1) Identify the gate if it is required to monitor 4 tanks rather
than 2
Gate output LOW (to turn on LED)
when ALL 4 inputs (from sensors)
4-input
are HIGH (tank > 25% full) NAND gate

2) Identify the logic gate required if the LED indicator

requires a logic 1 to turn it on.

Gate output HIGH (to turn on LED)

when ALL inputs (from sensors)
are HIGH
AND gate

10/14/2018 Slide 2-115

 Describing Logic Circuits
• A logic circuit is an interconnection of the basic gates,
AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR and XNOR. It can be
described by a Boolean expression
– by treating the output of a gate that is connected to
the input of another gate as a “compound” input
Boolean variable for the second gate

D A
B M

C
A
B
 For the given logic circuit, find the output expression, X
and construct its truth table.
A
A B C X
0 0 0 0
X
B 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
C 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
X  A  B  B.C 1 0 1 1

X =1 when A  1 1 1 0 1

OR B  1 1 1 1 1

OR B.C  1
10/14/2018 Slide 2-117
 Electronic Communication System
• Its purpose is to communicate information between two
or more locations commonly called stations.
• This is done by converting the original information into
electromagnetic energy and then transmitting it to one or
more receive stations where it is converted back to its
original form.
 Electronic Communication Systems

It includes following modules:

• A Transmitter
• A transmission Medium
• A Receiver
• And System Noise
Block Diagram of an Electronic
Communication System
Block Diagram of Electronic Communication
system
Transmitter
• It is a collection of one or more electronic devices or
circuits that converts the original source information to a
form more suitable for transmission over a particular
transmission medium.
Block Diagram of Electronic Communication
system
The Transmission Medium or Communication Channel
• It provides a means of transporting signals
between a transmitter and a receiver.
Types of medium used are as follows:-
• Copper wires
• Microwave
• Satellite
• Optical Fiber communications systems
 System Noise
• It is any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with
the information signal.
 Receiver
• It is a collection of electronics devices and circuits that
accepts the transmitted signals from the transmission
medium and then converts those signals back to their
original form.
 Communication systems

Digital

Analog
 MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

• As it is impractical to propagate information signals over

standard transmission media, it is often necessary to
modulate the source information onto a higher frequency
analog signal called a CARRIER.
• The carrier signal carrier the information through the
system.
 MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

• The information signal modulates the carrier by changing

either its :-
• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Or Phase
 Modulation
• It is the process of changing one or more properties of
the analog carrier in proportion with the information
signal.
 Types of Electronic Communication
Systems
ANALOG:
• In this system energy is transmitted and received in
analog form( a continuously varying signal such as a
sine wave).
• Both the Information and Carrier signals are analog
signals.
 Types of Electronic Communication
Systems
DIGITAL
• It includes a broad range of communication techniques
like
– Digital Transmission
– Digital Radio
 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
• It is a true digital system where digital pulses are transferred
between two or more points in a communication system.

• There is no analog carrier and the original source information

may be in digital or analog form.

• If it is in analog form , it must be converted to digital pulses prior

to transmission and converted back to analog form at the receive
end.

• This requires physical facility between the transmitter and

receiver like a metallic wire or an optical fiber cable.
 TYPES OF MODULATION
If the information signal is analog :
• And if amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional
to the information signal, then Amplitude modulation
(AM) is produced.
• If frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information
signal , Frequency Modulation (FM) is produced.
• IF the phase (θ) is varied proportional to the
information signal, Phase Modulation is produced.
 Why modulation is necessary?
• It is extremely difficult to radiate low frequency signals
form an antenna in the form of electromagnetic
energy.

• Information signals often occupy the same frequency

band and if signals from two or more sources are
transmitted at the same time , they would interfere with
each other.
 E.g.
• All Commercial FM broadcasts voice and music signals that occupy the audio-
frequency band from approximately 300 Hz to 15 KHz.

• To avoid interfering with each other , each station converts its information to a
different frequency band or channel.

• The term CHANNEL is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies

allocated a particular service.

• A standard voice band channel occupies approximately a 3KHz bandwidth and

is used for transmission of voice quality signals; commercial AM broadcast
channels occupy approximately a 10 KHz frequency band , and 30 MHZ or more
of bandwidth is required for microwave and satellite radio channels.
 Amplitude modulation

A radio frequency (r.f.) carrier wave of fixed amplitude is generated.

Its amplitude varies once an audio frequency (a.f.) signal is added.
Making a simple radio receiver

A: AM modulated radio wave

B: After diode rectification
C: The r.f. wave is filtered out, leaving a.f. signal
Amplitude modulation

Modulating the amplitude of a carrier wave

10/14/2018 Slide 1-138
 Frequency modulation

A radio frequency (r.f.) carrier wave of fixed amplitude is generated.

Its frequency varies once an a.f. signal is added.
 Frequency modulation

Modulating the frequency of a carrier wave

SKE Physics 17
10/14/2018 Slide 1-141
10/14/2018 Slide 1-142
 What is Demodulation?

Demodulation is the reverse process (to modulation) to recover the message signal
m(t) or d(t) at the receiver.
10/14/2018 Slide 1-144
10/14/2018 Slide 1-145