18EES101J-BASIC ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

- Dominic Savio . A
- AP/EEE
S.No TOPIC
1 Basic principles and classification of intruments
2 Moving coil and moving iron instruments
3 House wiring-wiring materials and accessories
4 Types of wiring-wiring circuits
Basic principles of earthing, Types of earthing (Pipe
5 and Plate)
6 Overview of Semiconductors-PN Junction
7 Zener diodes- Introduction to Rectifiers
8 Half and full wave rectifiers (No filter)
9 Clippers and clampers
10 BJT construction, operation
BJT characteristics (CB, CE and CC configurations)
11 and Applications
 Classification of Instrument
• Depends on the quantity measured.
– Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wattmeter, Energy meter,
ohm meter.
• Different principles used for their working.
– Moving iron type, Moving coil type, Dynamometer
type, Induction type.
• How the quantity is measured.
– Indicating type, Integrating type, Recording type.
- Indicating Instruments:
It indicate the magnitude of an electrical
quantity at the time when it is being measured. The
indications are given by a pointer moving over a graduated
dial.
- Recording Instruments:
The instruments which keep a
continuous record of the variations of the magnitude of an
electrical quantity to be observed over a defined period of
time.
- Integrating Instruments:
The instruments which measure the total amount of
either quantity of electricity or electrical energy supplied over
a period of time. For example energy meters.
 ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

Indicating instruments are those which indicate the value of

quantity that is being measured at the time at which it is
measured. Such instruments consist essentially of a pointer
which moves over a calibrated scale & which is attached to a
moving system pivoted in bearing. The moving system is
subjected to the following three torques:
1. A deflecting ( or operating) torque;
2. A controlling ( or Opposing) torque;
3. A damping torque.
 DEFLECTING TORQUE

- The deflecting torque is produced by making one of the

magnetic, heating, chemical, electrostatic and
electromagnetic induction effect of current or voltage and
cause the moving system of the instrument to move from
its zero position.

- The method of producing this torque depends upon the

type of instrument.
 Opposing Torque

- This torque is always opposing the deflection torque.

- Components of opposing torque is
- Inertia torque : due to inactive of moving system; the pointer
return back to rest.
- Control Torque : this torque always present; this torque increase
with deflection of moving system; it oppose the operating torque.
- Spring Control
- Gravity control
- Damping torque – its ensure the deflection reach the final position
with in the time.
- Air friction damping
- Eddy Current damping
Spring Control:
• Spring is twisted in opposite direction; it is proportional to
angle deflection; once the power is off; it return back to rest
position.
 Gravity Control
• In gravity controlled instruments, a small adjustable weight is
attached to the spindle of the moving system such that the
deflecting torque produced by the instrument has to act against
the action of gravity.
• Thus a controlling torque is obtained. This weight is called the
control weight. Another adjustable weight is also attached is the
moving system for zero adjustment and balancing purpose. This
weight is called Balance weight.
 DAMPING TORQUE

• We have already seen that the moving system of the

instrument will tend to move under the action of the
deflecting torque.
• But on account of the control torque, it will try to occupy a
position of rest when the two torques are equal and opposite.
• However, due to inertia of the moving system, the pointer will
not come to rest immediately but oscillate about its final
deflected position as shown in figure and takes appreciable
time to come to steady state.
• To overcome this difficulty a damping torque is to be
developed by using a damping device attached to the moving
system.
DAMPING TORQUE
 DAMPING TORQUE
1. Under damped condition:
The response is oscillatory
2. Over damped condition:
The response is sluggish and it rises very slowly from its
zero position to final position.
3. Critically damped condition:
When the response settles quickly without any
oscillation, the system is said to be critically damped.

The damping torque is produced by the following methods:

1.Air Friction Damping 2.Fluid Friction Damping
3.Eddy Current Damping 4.Electromagnetic
Damping
 Instrument Type
• Moving Iron Type. (Voltage and Current)
– Attraction
– Repulsion Type.
• Moving Coil Type.
– Permanent Magnet type. (DC supply)
– Dynamometer Type ( DC and AC supply)
Moving iron – Attraction type
• An attraction type of moving-iron instrument
is shown diagrammatically in Figure. When
current flows in the solenoid, a rotate soft-
iron disc is attracted towards the solenoid and
the movement causes a pointer to move
across a scale.
Moving iron – Repulsion type
• In the repulsion type moving-iron instrument
shown diagrammatically in Figure, two pieces
of iron are placed inside the solenoid, one
being fixed, and the other attached to the
spindle carrying the pointer.
Moving Coil - Permanent magnet Type
“The principle operation of PMMC is based
upon the principle of current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field it is
acted upon by force which tends to move it.”
Moving Coil - Dynamometer Type
 HOUSE WIRING
Wiring Materials and Accessories
 Switches

• A switch is used to make or break the electric

circuit
• Types

24
 Surface or Tumbler Switch
 Mounted on the mounting block directly fixed over the
surface of the wall.
 Classified into single and two way switch.

25
 Flush Switches
 It is fixed with the wall and it does not project out.
 classified into single and two way switch.

26
 Pull or Ceiling Switch
 This switch is fixed on the ceiling and all the live
parts are out of reach of the operator.
 It is operated with a single pull on the chord for on
or off.

27
 Rotary Snap Switches
 It consists of an insulated handle to which the blades are
fixed. These blades move in steps by the movement of the
handle and make contact with the terminals to which are
connected the wires in the electric circuits.

28
 Push Button Switch
• It consists of one blade only.
• The blade is given a rocking action by press buttons and its
movement is controlled by a cam or a spring.
• Thus, the blade opens or closes with quick motion

29
 Iron Clad Switches
• It is made up of cast iron and a gasket is fitted between
the case and the cover which it makes it tight.

30
 Lamp holders
• It is used to hold the lamp required for lighting purposes
• Types
Pendant Holder

32
 Batten Holder
• For incandescent bulbs

33
 Screw Lamp Holder
• For bulbs rated 200 W and above

34
 Starter Holder
• For tube light starters

35
 Ceiling rose
• It is used to provide a tapping to the lamp holder through a

flexible wire or connection to a fluorescent tube or a ceiling fan

36
 Socket Outlets
• 2-pin socket • 3-pin socket

• insulated base having 3 terminal sleeves.

• The cover is again moulded with corresponding 3 holes.
• The 2 thin terminal sleeves meant for connecting the load and third
sleeve larger in cross section is used for an earth connection. 37
 Plugs
• They are used for tapping power from socket outlets

38
 Distribution Board with fuse

• When number of circuits is to be wired in industries or big buildings

distribution fuse boards are used.

39
Types of wiring
 Cleat Wiring
In this wiring VIR conductors are supported in porcelain
cleats. (Vulcanised India Rubber wire)

41
 T.R.S. (Tough Rubber Sheath) wiring
It is Tough Rubber Sheathed wiring.
T.R.S cables are available in single, twin or three cores with
circular or oval shape.
The cable is flexible and has an insulation which resists
moisture, climate variations, acids and alkalies

42
 Wooden Casing capping wiring
 Residential buildings
 It consists of rectangular wooden blocks called casing made
from seasoned teak wood or any other wood free from defect.
 It has two grooves into which the wires are laid.
 The casing at the top is covered by a capping which is
rectangular strip of wood of same width as that of casing and
is screwed to it.

43
 Conduit wiring
• PVC / Metal Conduit

• Surface Conduit

• Concealed conduit

• V.I.R conductors are run in metallic tubes called conduits.

• provides mechanical protection, safety against fire and shock
if earthing is well done.

44
Staircase Wiring

In staircase wiring a single lamp, placed at the middle of the staircase, is

controlled by switches at two places, one at the beginning of the staircase and
the other at the end of the staircase. For this purpose two-way switches are
required. The wiring circuit is shown below.

P 1 1

S1 2 S2
2

Position of switch S1 Position of switch S2 Condition of lamp

1 1 ON
1 2 OFF
2 1 OFF
2 2 ON
46
 Earthing
• Earthing means generally connected to earth
to ensure at all times an immediate and safe
discharge of electric current due to leakages,
faults etc.
• Types
– Earthing through a G.I pipe
– Earthing through a plate

47
Earthing
Earthing provides safe discharge of electric current due to leakages and faults to
ground.

All metallic parts of electrical appliances shall be connected by earth wire made
of very good conductor and finally the earth wire is connected to ground.

Earthing can be done through G.I. pipe or G.I. plate buried in the ground and
surrounded by charcoal and common salt to provide good conductivity. To
ensure safety earth resistance should be checked now and then and it is kept at a
very low value.
Earthing through a G.I pipe

• 2 meter 38mm dia pipe

49
Earthing through a plate

• 60cm X 60 cm X 3.18 mm
• High cost

50
Incandescent lamp
This works on the principle that any hot body radiates energy. An electric current
passes through a thin filament, heating it to a temperature that produces light.
The enclosing glass bulb contains either a vacuum or an inert gas to prevent
oxidation of the hot filament.

Incandescent bulbs are made in a wide range of sizes and voltages, from 1.5 volts to
about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment and have a low
manufacturing cost, and work well on either alternating current or direct current. As a
result the incandescent lamp is widely used in household and commercial lighting, for
portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative
and advertising lighting.
Fluorescent lamp

A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a gas-discharge lamp that uses

electricity to excite mercury vapor. The excited mercury atoms produce short-
wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible
light. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light more
efficiently than an incandescent lamp. Lower energy cost typically offsets the
higher initial cost of the lamp. The lamp is more costly because it requires a
ballast to regulate the flow of current through the lamp.

While larger fluorescent lamps have been mostly used in commercial or institutional
buildings, the compact fluorescent lamp is now available in the same popular sizes and
is used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.
Sodium vapor lamp

A Sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp which uses sodium in an excited
state to produce light. There are two varieties of such lamps: low pressure and
high pressure. Because sodium vapor lamps cause less light pollution than
mercury-vapor lamps, many cities that have large astronomical observatories
employ them.

Mercury vapor lamp

A mercury-vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp that uses mercury in an excited

state to produce light. The arc discharge is generally confined to a small fused
quartz arc tube mounted within a larger borosilicate glass bulb. The outer bulb
may be clear or coated with a phosphor; in either case, the outer bulb provides
thermal insulation, protection from ultraviolet radiation, and a convenient
mounting for the fused quartz arc tube.

Mercury vapor lamps (and their relatives) are often used because they are
relatively efficient. Phosphor coated bulbs offer better color rendition than either
high- or low-pressure sodium vapor lamps. Mercury vapor lamps also offer a very
long lifetime, as well as intense lighting for several special purpose applications.
 Overview of semiconductor

• Energy band

• Energy band
 PN JUNCTION

A pn junction is formed by joining n-type semiconductor with p-type

semiconductor materials. A pn junction is shown in Fig. 1.9. An n-type
semiconductor and p-type semiconductors are joined together to make one piece
of semiconductor which is doped differently on either side of the junction. The
contact surface is called pn junction. For joining these two semiconductors, IC
manufacturing technology is used.
The n-type semiconductor region has a high electron concentration and the p-
type semiconductor region has high concentration of holes, electrons diffuse from
the n-type side to the p-type side. Similarly, holes flow by diffusion from the p-type
side to the n-type side.
Working of PN junction
 Diode as a rectifier
A diode D is connected to an a.c source that provides the input voltage Vs, and to a
load resistor RL (Half wave rectifier shown in Fig. 1.14). In half-wave rectifier,
during the positive half cycle of the a.c input, the diode is forward-biased. When the
diode barrier potential is taken into account, as in the practical model, the input
voltage must overcome the barrier potential before the diode becomes forward-
biased. This results in a half-wave output voltage with a peak value that is V0 less
than the peak value of the input voltage. During the negative half cycle, the diode is
in reverse bias, and the practical diode acts as a open circuit. There is no output dc
voltage across the diode. Input and output waveforms are shown in Fig. 1.15
 A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three layers, two

junctions and three terminal semiconductor device, made upon
a single piece of silicon wafer. It is similar to two pn junctions
with particular doping level. But practically, transistor action
cannot be achieved with two back-to-back connected diodes.
There are two types of transistor, namely; (i) pnp transistor and
(ii) npn transistor shown in the Fig. 2.1(i) & (ii) respectively.
The following figure shows the two types of transistor
structures and their circuit symbols. The three terminals of the
transistor are called as Collector, Base and Emitter.
• A transistor is a device that regulates current
or voltage flow
• Acts as a switch or gate for electronic
signals.
• Act as a Amplifier
CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
 Clipper
 A clipper is a type of diode network that has the ability to “clip off” a
portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform.
 The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form of diode
clipper—one resistor and a diode.
 Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative
region of the input signal is “clipped” off.
 There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel.
 Series clipper:- A series clipper and its response for two types of
alternating waveforms are provided.

Series clipper circuit Response of clipper circuit

CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
1. The first step is to find out in which interval of the input signal the
diode is in forward-bias.
2. The direction of the diode suggests that the signal vi must be
positive to turn it on. The dc supply further requires the voltage vi to
be greater than v volts to turn the diode on.The negative region of
the input signal turns the diode into the OFF state. Therefore, in the
negative region the diode is an open circuit.

Series clipper with a dc supply

CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
3. Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will cause a change
in state for the diode. For the ideal diode the transition between states will
occur at that point on the characteristics where vd = 0 V and id = 0 A.
Applying this condition, it is recognized that the level of vi that will cause a
transition in state is:
vi = V
For an input voltage greater than V volts, the diode is in the short-circuit
state, while for input voltage less than V volts it is in the open-circuit or OFF
state (as it is reverse-biased).

Determining the transition level

of the input signal Determining vo in the clipper circuit
CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
4. Be continually aware of the defined terminals
and polarity of vo. When the diode is in the
short-circuit state, the output voltage vo can
be determined by applying KVL in the clock-
wise direction:

5. It can be helpful to sketch the input signal

above the output and determine the output
at instantaneous values of the input. It is
then possible to sketch the output voltage
from the resulting data points of vo.

Determining levels of vo
CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS

For Vm > V, the diode is in the

short-circuit state and vo = Vm – V.
At vi = V, the diode changes state
and vi = – Vm, vo = 0 V. The
complete curve for vo can be
sketched.

Determining vo when vi Vm

Sketch for vo
CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
 Parallel clipper:- Input vi is
applied for the output vo. The
analysis of parallel configuration
is very similar to the series
configuration.

Parallel clipper

Response of parallel clipper

CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
 Break region
 There is a discontinuity at the voltage Vγ. Actually the transition
of a diode state is not exactly abrupt but gradual.
 Thus, a waveform, which is transmitted through the clipper
circuit, will not show an abrupt clipping. Instead, it will show a
gradual broken region, exhibiting the regions of un-attenuated
and attenuated transmission. Now, we will estimate the range of
this break region. The output current of a diode is given by:
at diode break point

 The incremental diode resistance r = dv/dI is given by:

 Again for meaningful clipping to be done, the applied signal

must vary from one side of the break point to a point well on the
other side.
CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
Clamper
 A clamping network is one that will “clamp” a signal to a different dc
level. The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive
element, but it can also employ an independent dc supply to introduce an
additional shift.
 Before further probing into the clamper circuit one must have a basic
understanding of a transient RC circuit.
From the basic understanding of a series RC transient circuit applied
across a dc voltage EO, the instantaneous charge across the capacitor at
any time is given by

Q0=E0C where, C is the

capacitance of the capacitor.
We know that the time
constant τ = RC. The rise time
becomes smaller if we
decrease the time constant. Charging of a RC circuit
CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
The discharge will occur quickly
if the time constant of the circuit is
decreased.
The magnitude of R and C must
be so chosen that the time
constant, τ = RC, is large enough
to ensure that the voltage across
the capacitor does not discharge
significantly during the interval the
diode is non-conducting.
Discharging of an RC circuit

 The clamping
circuit will clamp
the input signal to
the zero level.

Simple clamper circuit

CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
 During the interval 0 –T/2 the network will appear, with the diode in the ON
state effectively “shorting out” the effect of the resistor R.
 The resulting RC time constant is so small that the capacitor will charge to V
volts very quickly. During this interval the output voltage is directly across the
short circuit and vo = 0 V.
 The diode will now be in the open-state condition. Applying KVL around the
input loop of figure will result in:

 The negative sign results from

the fact that the polarity of 2 V is
opposite to the polarity defined
for vo.
 For a clamping network the
total swing of the output is equal
to the total swing of the input.
State of the circuit in the negative half-cycle
DIODE CLIPPER
 peak of
A device which removes the a
waveform is known as a Clipper

Voltage clipping diagram

 Clipping circuit

• Clipping circuit is a wave-shaping circuit, and is used to either

remove or clip a portion of the applied wave in order to control
the shape of the output waveform

• Clipping Circuits are also called as Slicers, amplitude selectors or

limiter
A clipping circuit consists of

• Resistor
• Junction diode
• A battery
• Load resistance
 Types of clippers
• According to level of clipping the clippers may be

 Positive clippers
 Negative clippers
 Biased clippers
 Combination clippers

• There are two general categories of clippers:

 series
 parallel (shunt)
 Positive Diode Clipper
• The positive half cycles of the input voltage will be
removed

• During the positive half cycle of the input waveform,

the diode ‘D’ is reverse biased, Thus causes the
positive half cycle to be clipped off.

• During the negative half cycle of the input, the diode is

forward biased and so the negative half cycle appears
across the output.
 Negative Diode
Clipper
The negative clipping circuit is almost same as the positive
clipping circuit, If the diode is reconnected with reversed
polarity, the circuits will become for a negative series clipper
and negative shunt clipper respectively figure (a) and (b).
 Practical diode Clipper
In a practical diode, the breakdown voltage will exist (0.7 V for silicon and
0.3 V for Germanium). When this is taken into account, the output wave-
forms for positive and negative clippers will be of the shape shown in the
figure below.
 Biased Positive Clipper and Biased Negative Clipper

• When a small portion of positive or negative half cycles of the

signal voltage is to be removed.

• When a small portion of the negative half cycle is to be removed,

clipper is called biased negative clipper

• When a small portion of the positive half cycle is to be removed,

clipper is called biased negative clipper
a

b
 Working of Biasing Clipper
In a biased clipper, when the input signal voltage is positive, the diode ‘D’ is reverse-
biased. Thus the entire positive half cycle appears across the load, as illustrated by output
waveform [figure (a)]. When the input signal voltage is negative but does not exceed
battery the voltage ‘V’, the diode ‘D’ remains reverse-biased and most of the input
voltage appears across the output. When during the negative half cycle of input signal,
the signal voltage becomes more than the battery voltage V, the diode D is forward
biased and so conducts heavily. The output voltage is equal to ‘- V’ and stays at ‘- V’ as
long as the magnitude of the input signal voltage is greater than the magnitude of the
battery voltage, ‘V’. Thus a biased negative clipper removes input voltage when the input
signal voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage. Clipping can be changed by
reversing the battery and diode connections, as illustrated in figure (b).
 combination clipper
When a portion of both positive and negative of each half cycle of the input
voltage is to be clipped (or removed), combination clipper is employed
 Working of combination clipper

For positive input voltage signal when input voltage exceeds battery voltage ‘+
V1‘ diode D1 conducts heavily while diode ‘D2‘ is reversed biased and so voltage
‘+ V1‘ appears across the output. This output voltage ‘+ V1‘ stays as long as. the
input signal voltage exceeds ‘+ V1‘. On the other hand for the negative input
voltage signal, the diode ‘D1‘ remains reverse biased and diode ‘D2‘ conducts
heavily only when input voltage exceeds battery voltage ‘V2‘ in magnitude.
Thus during the negative half cycle the output stays at ‘- V2‘ so long as the
input signal voltage is greater than ‘-V2‘.
CLAMPERS
 COMPONETS OF CLAMPING CIRCUIT

• Capacitor
• Junction diode
• Resistance

CLAMPING CIRCUIT
 CLAMPING CIRCUIT

• A clamping circuit is used to place either the positive or

negative peak of a signal at a desired level

• A clamp circuit adds the positive or negative dc component to

the input signal so as to push it either on the positive side, as
illustrated in figure (a) or on the negative side, as illustrated in
figure (b)
 POSITIVE CLAMPER
• The signal is pushed upward by the circuit
 NEGATIVE CLAMPER
• The signal is pushed downward by the circuit
 Negative clamper
circuit
A circuit that shifts the original signal in a vertical downward direction, as shown
in the figure above. The diode D will be forward biased and the capacitor C is
charged with the polarity shown, when an input signal is applied. During the
positive half cycle of input, the output voltage will be equal to the barrier
potential of the diode, V0 and the capacitor is charged to (V – VQ). During the
negative half cycle, the diode becomes reverse-biased and acts as an open-
circuit. Thus, there will be no effect on the capacitor voltage. The resistance R,
being of very high value, cannot discharge C a lot during the negative portion of
the input waveform. Thus during negative input, the output voltage will be the
sum of the input voltage and the capacitor voltage and is equal to – V – (V — V0)
or – (2 V – V0). The value of the peak-to-peak output will be the difference of the
negative and positive peak voltage levels is equal to V0-[-(2V-V0)] or 2 V.
 Positive clamper
circuit
The figure shown below can me modified into a positive clamping
circuit by reconnecting the diode with reversed polarity. The positive
clamping circuit moves the original signal in a vertical upward
direction. A positive clamping circuit is shown in the figure below. It
contains a diode D and a capacitor C as are contained in a negative
clamper. The only difference in the circuit is that the polarity of the
diode is reversed. The remaining explanation regarding the working of
the circuit is the same as it is explained for the negative clamper.
 IMPORTANT
•
POINTS
The shape of the waveform will be the same, but its level is
shifted either upward or downward

• There will be a change in the peak and average values of the

waveform

• The values of the resistor R and capacitor C affect the

waveform.

• We have a positive dc clamper and when the diode points

downward, the circuit is a negative dc clamper.