Flight dynamics-I Prof. E.G.

Tulapurkara
Chapter-3

Chapter 3
Lecture 11

Drag polar – 6

Topics
3.3.4 Parabolic drag polar at high speeds
3.3.5 Guidelines for variations of CDo and K for subsonic jet transport
airplanes
3.3.6 Variations of CDo and K for a fighter airplane
3.3.7 Area ruling
3.4 Drag polar at hypersonic speeds
3.5 Lift to drag ratio
3.6 Other types of drags
3.6.1 Cooling drag
3.6.2 Base drag
3.6.3 External stores drag
3.6.4 Leakage drag
3.6.5 Trim drag

3.3.4 Parabolic drag polar at high speeds

The foregoing sections indicate that the drag coefficients of major airplane
components change as the Mach number changes from subsonic to supersonic.
Consequently, the drag polar of an airplane, being the sum of the drag
coefficients of major components, will also undergo changes as Mach number
changes from subsonic to supersonic. However, it is observed that the
approximation of parabolic polar is still valid at transonic and supersonic speeds,
with CD0 and K becoming functions of Mach number i.e.:

CD = CD0 (M) + K (M)CL2 (3.49)

Detailed estimation of the drag polar of a subsonic jet airplane is presented in

section 2 of Appendix B.

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3.3.5 Guidelines for variations of CDo and K for subsonic jet transport

airplanes
Subsonic jet airplanes are generally designed in a manner that there is no
significant wave drag up to the cruise Mach number (Mcruise). Further, the drag

polar of the airplane for Mach numbers upto Mcruise can be estimated, using the

methods for subsonic airplanes. Section 2 of Appendix B illustrates the

procedure for estimation of such a polar. However, to calculate the maximum
speed in level flight (Vmax) or the maximum Mach number Mmax, guidelines are

needed for the increase in CD0 and K beyond Mcruise. Such guidelines are

obtained in this subsection by using the data on drag polars of B727-100 airplane
at Mach numbers between 0.7 to 0.88.
Reference 3.18 part VI, chapter 5, gives drag polars of B727-100 at M = 0.7,
0.76, 0.82, 0.84, 0.86 and 0.88. Values of CD and CL corresponding to various

Mach numbers were recorded and are shown in Fig.3.29 by symbols. Following
the parabolic approximation, these polars were fitted with Eq.(3.49) and CD0 and

K were obtained using least square technique. The fitted polars are shown as
curves in Fig.3.29. The values of CD0 and K are given in Table 3.5 and presented

in Figs.3.30 a & b.

Fig.3.29 Drag polars at different Mach numbers for B727-100

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M CD0 K

0.7 0.01631 0.04969

0.76 0.01634 0.05257
0.82 0.01668 0.06101
0.84 0.01695 0.06807
0.86 0.01733 0.08183
0.88 0.01792 0.103

Table 3.5 Variations of CD0 and K with Mach number

Fig.3.30a Parameters of drag polar - CD0 for B727-100

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Fig.3.30b Parameters of drag polar - K for B727-100

It is seen that the drag polar and hence CD0 and K are almost constant up to

M = 0.76. The variations of CD0 and K between M = 0.76 and 0.86, when fitted

with polynomial curves, give the following equations (see also Figs.3.30 a & b).

CD0= 0.01634 -0.001( M-0.76)+0.11 (M-0.76)2 (3.50)

K= 0.05257+ (M-0.76)2 + 20.0 (M-0.76)3 (3.51)

Note: For M ≤ 0.76, CD0= 0.01634, K = 0.05257

Based on these trends, the variations of CD0 and K beyond Mcruise but upto

Mcruise + 0.1 are expressed by the following two equations.

CD = CDOcr - 0.001 ( M-Mcruise) + 0.11 (M-Mcruise)2 (3.50 a)

K = Kcr + (M-Mcruise)2 + 20.0 (M-Mcruise)3 (3.51 a)

where CDOcr and Kcr are the values of CD0 and K at cruise Mach number for the

airplane whose Vmax or Mmax is required to be calculated. It may be pointed out

that the value of 0.01634 in Eq.(3.50) has been replaced by CDOcr in Eq.(3.50a).

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This has been done to permit the use of Eq.(3.50a) for different types of
airplanes which may have their own values of CDOcr (see section 4.2 of Appendix

B). For the same reason the value of 0.05257 in Eq.(3.51) has been replaced by
Kcr in Eq.(3.51a).

Section 4.2 of Appendix B illustrates the application of the guidelines given in this
subsection.
3.3.6 Variations of CD0 and K for a fighter airplane

Reference 1.10, chapter 2 has given drag polars of F-15 fighter airplane at
M = 0.8, 0.95, 1.2, 1.4 and 2.2.These are shown in Fig 3.31. These drag polars
were also fitted with Eq.(3.49) and CD0 and K were calculated. The variations of

CD0 and K are shown in Figs.3.32a & b. It is interesting to note that CD0 has a

peak and then decreases, whereas K increases monotonically with Mach

number. It may be recalled that the Mach number, at which CD0 has the peak

value, depends mainly on the sweep of the wing.

Fig.3.31 Drag polars at different Mach numbers for F15 (Reproduced from
Ref.1.10, chapter 2 with permission from McGraw-Hill book company)
Please note: The origins for polars corresponding to different Mach numbers are
shifted.

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Fig.3.32a Typical variations of CD0 with Mach number for a fighter airplane

Fig.3.32b Typical variations of K with Mach number for a fighter airplane

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3.3.7 Area ruling

The plan view of supersonic airplanes indicates that the area of cross section
of fuselage is decreased in the region where wing is located. This is called area
ruling. A brief note on this topic is presented below.
It was observed that the transonic wave drag of an airplane is reduced when the
distribution of the area of cross section of the airplane, in planes perpendicular to
the flow direction, has a smooth variation. In this context, it may be added that
the area of cross section of the fuselage generally varies smoothly. However,
when the wing is encountered there is an abrupt change in the cross sectional
area. This abrupt change is alleviated by reduction in the area of cross section of
fuselage in the region where the wing is located. Such a fuselage shape is called
‘Coke-bottle shape’. Figure 3.33c illustrates such a modification of fuselage
shape.

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Fig.3.33 Design for low transonic wave drag

(a) Abrupt change in cross sectional area at wing fuselage junction
(b) Coke-bottle shape

Figure 3.34, based on data in Ref.1.9 , chapter 5, indicates the maximum wave
drag coefficient, in transonic range, for three configurations viz (i) a body of
revolution (ii) a wing-body combination without area ruling and (iii) a wing-body
combination with area ruling (Ref. 1.9, chapter 5 may be referred to for further
details). Substantial decrease in wave drag coefficient is observed as a result of
area ruling. Figure 3.35. presents a practical application of this principle.

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CDWave = 0.0035 0.008 0.0045

Fig.3.34 Maximum transonic wave drag coefficient of three different shapes
(a) body of revolution (b) wing-body combination without area ruling (c) wing-
body combination with area ruling

Fig.3.35 An example of area ruling - SAAB VIGGEN

(Adapted from http://upload.wikimedia.org)

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3.4 Drag polar at hypersonic speeds

When the free stream Mach number is more than five, the changes in
temperature and pressure behind the shock waves are large and the treatment of
the flow has to be different from that at lower Mach numbers. Hence, the flows
with Mach number greater than five are termed hypersonic flows. Reference 3.19
may be referred to for details. For the purpose of flight mechanics it may be
mentioned that the drag polar at hypersonic speeds is given by the following
modified expression (Ref. 1.1, chapter 6).

CD= CD0 (M) + K (M)CL3/2 (3.52)

Note that the exponent of the CL term is 1.5 and not 2.0.

3.5 Lift to drag ratio

The ratio CL/ CD is called lift to drag ratio. It is an indicator of the aerodynamic

efficiency of the design of the airplane. For a parabolic drag polar CL/ CD can be

worked out as follows.

CD= CD0 +KCL2

Hence, CD / CL = (CD0 / CL) +KCL (3.53)

Differentiating Eq.(3.53) with CL and equating to zero gives CLmd which

corresponds to minimum of (CD / CL) or maximum of (CL / CD).

CLmd = (CD0 / K)1/2 (3.54)

CDmd = CD0 + K (CLmd)2 = 2 CD0 (3.55)

1
(L/D)max = (CLmd / CDmd) = (3.56)
2 CD0 K

Note:
To show that CLmd corresponds to minimum of (CD / CL), take the second

derivative of the right hand side of Eq.(3.53) and verify that it is greater than zero.
3.6 Other types of drag

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Subsections 3.1.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.14, 3.2.17 and 3.3.2. dealt with the skin
friction drag, pressure drag (or form drag), profile drag , interference drag ,
parasite drag, induced drag, lift dependent drag and wave drag. Following
additional types of drags are mentioned briefly to conclude the discussion on this
topic.
3.6.1Cooling drag
The piston engines used in airplanes are air cooled engines. In such engines, a
part of free stream air passes over the cooling fins and accessories. This causes
some loss of momentum and results in a drag called cooling drag.
3.6.2 Base drag
If the rear end of a body terminates abruptly, the area at the rear is called a
base. An abrupt ending causes flow to separate and a low pressure region exists
over the base. This causes a pressure drag called base drag.
3.6.3 External stores drag
Presence of external fuel tank, bombs, missiles etc. causes additional parasite
drag which is called external stores drag. Antennas, lights etc. also cause
parasite drag which is called protuberance drag.
3.6.4 Leakage drag
Air leaking into and out of gaps and holes in the airplane surface causes
increase in parasite drag called leakage drag.
3.6.5 Trim drag
In example 1.1 it was shown that to balance the pitching moment about c.g.
(Mcg), the horizontal tail which is located behind the wing produces a lift (- LT) in

the downward direction. To compensate for this, the wing needs to produce a lift
(L W) equal to the weight of the airplane plus the downward load on the tail i.e. LW

= W + LT. Hence, the induced drag of the wing, which depends on Lw, would be

more than that when the lift equals weight. This additional drag is called trim drag
as the action of making Mcg equal to zero is referred to as trimming the airplane.

It may be added that a canard surface is located ahead of the wing and the lift on
it, to make Mcg equal to zero, is in upward direction. Consequently, the lift

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produced by the wing is less than the weight of the airplane. SAAB Viggen
shown in Fig.3.35, is an example of an airplane with canard. Reference1.15 and
internet (www.google.com) may be consulted for details of this airplane.

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