Linear Equations

Linear Equations in n
Variables
• A linear equation in n variables x1, x2, x3, …, xn has the
form a1x1 + a2 x2 + … + an xn = b.

The coefficients a1, a2, . . . an are real numbers, and the

constant term b is a real number. The number a1 is the
leading coefficient, and x1 is the leading variable.

Linear equations have no products or roots of variables

and no variables involved in trigonometric, exponential, or
logarithmic functions. Variables appear only to the first
power.
 Linear Equations in n
Variables
Example 1. Which of the following are Linear and Non-linear
Equations?

1
a. 3x + 2y =7 b. x + y − πz = 2

2
2
c. (sinπ)x1 − 4x2 =e d. xy + z = 2

e. e x − 2y =4 f. sinx1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 0

Solutions and Solution Sets

A solution of a linear equation in n variables is a sequence of n real numbers
s1, s2, s3, . . . , sn arranged to satisfy the equation when you substitute the values
x1 = s1, x2 = s2, x3 = s3, . . . xn = sn into the equation.

For example, x1 = 2 and x2 = 1 satisfy the equation x1 + 2x2 = 4. Some other

solutions are x1 = − 4 and x2 = 4 and x1 = 0 and x2 = 2 and x1 = − 2 and
x2 = 3.

The set of all solutions of a linear equation is called its solution set, and when
you have found this set, you have solved the equation. To describe the entire
solution set of a linear equation, use a parametric representation.
 Parametric Representation
of a Solution Set
Solve the linear equation x1 + 2x2 = 4.

To find the solution set of an equation involving two variables, solve for
one of the variables in terms of the other variable. Solving for x1 in
terms of x2, you obtain x1 = 4 − 2x2.

In this form, the variable x2 is free, which means that it can take on any
real value. The variable x1 is not free because its value depends on the
value assigned to x2.
 Parametric Representation
of a Solution Set
To represent the infinitely many solutions of this equation, it
is convenient to introduce a third variable t called a
parameter. By letting x2 = t, you can represent the solution
set as x1 = 4 − 2t, x2 = t, t is any real number.

To obtain particular solutions, assign values to the

parameter t. For instance, t =1 yields the solution x1 = 2
and x2 = 1, and t=4 yields the solution x1 = − 4 and x2 = 4
.
 Parametric Representation
of a Solution Set

Exercise:

Solve the following linear equation

1. 3x + 2y − z = 3

3 2
2. + −1=0
y x
 Systems of Linear
Equations
Definition of Terms

a11x1 + a12x2+ … + a1nxn = b1,

a21x1 + a22x2+ … + a2nxn = b2,

a31x1 + a32x2+ … + a3nxn = b3,

am1x1+ + am2x2+ … + amnxn = bm,

The x1, x2, … , xn are the unknown variables of the system,

while the aij are called coefficients. The bi on the right-hand
side are fixed numbers or scalar.
Consistent and Inconsistent
Systems
When at least one solution exists for a given system
of linear equations, we call that system consistent.

A consistent system either has a unique solution or

it can have an infinite number of solutions.

If a consistent system has an infinite number of

solutions, if we can define a solution in terms of some
extra parameter t, we call this a parametric solution.

If no solution exists, the system is called

inconsistent.
Using Elimination to Rewrite a
System in Row-Echelon Form
Which system is easier to solve
algebraically?

x − 2y + 3z = 9 x − 2y + 3z = 9

−x + 3y = − 4 y + 3z = 5

2x − 5y + 5z = 17 z=2
 Solving a System of Linear Equations
(Using Back-Substitution in Row-
Echelon Form)

Use Back substitution to solve the system

x − 2y = 5 x − 2y + 3z = 9

y=−2 y + 3z = 5

z=2
 Solving a System of Linear Equations
(Using Back-Substitution in Row-
Echelon Form)
Two systems of linear equations are equivalent when they have
the same solution set.

Operations that produces Equivalent Systems

Each of the following operations on a system of linear equations

produces an equivalent system.

1. Interchange two equations.

2. Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant.

3. Add a multiple of an equation to another equation.

Using Elimination to Rewrite a
System in Row-Echelon Form
Solve the system

x − 2y + 3z = 9

−x + 3y = − 4

2x − 5y + 5z = 17
An Inconsistent System

Solve the system

x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 1

2x1 − x2 − 2x3 = 2

x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = − 1
 A System with Infinitely
Many Solutions

Solve the system

x2 − x3 = 0

x1 − 3x3 = − 1

−x1 + 3x2 = 1
 Exercises
A. Determine whether equation is linear

B. Find the parametric representation of the

solution set of

C. Use Back Substitution to solve the

system

D. Determine whether statement is True or

False
 Matrix
To write down the coefficients and scalars
in a linear system of equations as a
rectangular array of numbers is called a
matrix. Each row in the array corresponds to
one equation.

A matrix with m rows and n columns is

referred to as an m × n matrix.
 Matrix
Square Matrix is a matrix with the number of rows
equals the number of columns.

If the number of rows and columns are not equal,

the matrix is called rectangular matrix.

Matrices consisting of single row or column are

often called row vectors or column vectors.

 Matrix
An alternative method of identifying elements
in a matrix is to use a subscript notation.
Matrices are often identified with italicized or
bold capital letters. So A, B, C or A, B, C can
be used as labels to identify matrices.

The corresponding small letter is then used

to identify individual elements of the matrix,
with subscripts indicating the row and column
where the term is located.
 Matrix

We refer to a given element found in a

matrix by identifying its row and column
position. This can be done using the
notation (i, j ) to refer to the element located
at row i and column j .
 Matrix
As an example, consider the 3 x 4 matrix

−1 2 7 5
B =! 0 2 −1    0
8 17 21 6
The element located at row 2 and column 3
of this matrix can be indicated by writing
(2,3) or b23 . This number is b23 = -1
 Matrix
A matrix that includes the entire linear
system is called an augmented matrix.

We can also make a matrix that is made

up only of the coefficients that multiply the
unknown variables. This is known as the
coefficient matrix.
 Matrix
For example, the system

5x − y + 9z = 2

4x + 2y − z = 18

x + y + 3z = 6

5 −1 9
its coefficient matrix is A = 4 2 −1 and its

1 1 3

5 −1 9 2
augmented matrix is A = 4 2 −1        18 
1 1 3 6
Solving a System Using Elementary
Operations

There exist three elementary operations that can

be applied to a system of linear equations without
fundamentally changing that system. These are:

✓ Exchange two rows of the matrix.

✓ Replace a row by a scalar multiple of itself,

as long as the scalar is nonzero.

✓ Replace one row by adding the scalar

multiple of another row.
Solving a System Using Elementary
Operations

To indicated exchange of rows 2 and 3,

we indicated R2 ↔ R3

2 −1 5 2 −1 5
M = ! 1 33 6 →! 17 4 8
17 4 8 1 33 6
Solving a System Using Elementary
Operations

Replace a row by a scalar multiple of itself.

Let’s say we wanted to replace the first row in the
following way:

2 −1 5 4 −2 10
2R1→R1 = 1 33 6 → 1 33 6
17 4 8 17 4 8
Solving a System Using Elementary
Operations

Replace a selected row by adding a scalar multiple

of a different row. Consider

2 −1 5 0 −67 −7
-2R2 + R1→R1 = 1 33 6 → 1 33 6
17 4 8 17 4 8

Solving a System Using Elementary
Operations

The solution to the system is obtained

when this set of operations brings the
matrix into triangular form. This type of
elimination is sometimes known as
Gaussian elimination. A system that is
triangular is said to be in echelon form.
Solving a System Using Elementary
Operations
Pivots

Once a system has been reduced, we call the coefficient of

the first unknown in each row a pivot.

−2 11 0 19
0 16 −1 7
A=     

0 0 11 21
0 0 0 14

The pivots are -2, 16, 11, and 14.

Solving a System Using Elementary
Operations
Row Canonical Form
If the pivot in each row is a 1 and the pivot is the only
nonzero entry in its column, we say that the matrix or
system is in a row canonical form.

1 0 0 0
1 0 8
[0 0 0 ]
0 1 0 −6
A=        B = 0 0    −2 .

0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0
A is a row canonical form while B is not.
 Gaussian Elimination
Method

Gaussian elimination is a tool to identify

solutions for a system of m linear algebraic
equations in n unknowns of the system.
 How to do Gaussian
Elimination Method?
1. Write the systems of linear equation into
augmented matrix

2. Identify the pivot. (Objective: to write the

matrix into an upper triangular form)

3. Eliminate all terms below the pivot.

4. Use back substitution to solve the values

of the unknown
Find the solution of the system
using Gaussian Elimination.
3x − 7y + 2z = 1

x + y − 5z = 15

−x + 2y − 3z = 4

Step 1. Write into an augmented matrix, let’s call it

matrix A.

3 −7 2 1
A= 1 1 −5      15
−1 2 −3 4
 Find the solution of the
system
Step 2. Identify the pivot. (Objective: to write the matrix into an upper triangular
form).

Step 3. Eliminate all terms below the pivot.

3 −7 2 1
A= 1 1 −5      15
−1 2 −3 4

R1 + 3R3 → R3

R1 − 3R2 → R2

R2 − 10R3 → R3
 Find the solution of the
system
Now the matrix is triangular. Or we can say it is in echelon form. This
means that:

✓Row 1 has three nonzero coefficients.

✓Row 2 has two nonzero coefficients: the first nonzero coefficient is to

the right of the column where the first nonzero coefficient is located in
row 1.

✓Row 3 has one nonzero coefficient: it is also to the right of the first
nonzero coefficient in row 2.

Step 4. Use Back Substitution to solve the unknown values

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Method

✓The pivot element is forced to be 1.

✓All terms above the pivot as well as

below the pivot are eliminated.

✓The solution then appears in the last

column.
Gauss-Jordan Method

Apply the Gauss-Jordan Method to solve

2x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 = 4

2x1 + x2 + 7x3 = 6

−2x1 − 6x2 − 7x3 = − 1

 Gauss-Jordan Method

Solution:

½R1 , R2 – 2R1, R3+ 2R1, – R2, R1 – R2, R3

+ 4R2

-R3/5, R1 – 4R3, R2 + R3
Gauss-Jordan Method
 Assignment
A. Use Gaussian Elimination to solve the following systems.

1. 2y − z = 1

−x + 2y − z = 0

x − 4y + z = 2

2. −x + y + z = −1

x + y + z = 1

x + 2y + z = 2
 Assignment
B. Use Gauss-Jordan Elimination to solve the ffg.

1. 4x2 − 3x3 = 3

−x1 + 7x2 − 5x3 = 4

−x1 + 8x2 − 6x3 = 52

2. x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 1,

x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 + 2x4 = 0

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 3x4 = 0

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 0