1.

INTRODUCTION:

Soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of cleansing and lubricating

products. In a domestic setting the term usually refers toilet soap, used for washing,
bathing, and other types of house keeping. In industry, soaps are used as thickeners,
components of some lubricants, and precursors to catalysts. When used for cleaning,
soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article
being cleaned. Where soaps act as surfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be
carried away by water. Soap is created by mixing fats and oils with a base, as
opposed to detergent which is created by combining chemical compounds in a
mixture.
Soaps have the general formula (RCO2-n) Mn+ (where R is an alkyl, M is a
metal and n is the charge of the cation). The major classification of soaps is
determined by the identity of Mn+. When M is Na or K, the soaps are called toilet
soaps, used for handwashing. Many metal dications (Mg2+, Ca2+, and others) give
metallic soaps. When M is Li, the result is lithium soap which is used in high
performance greases.
The types of soaps are

 Non-toilet soaps

 Toilet soaps
Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases and thickeners.

Greases are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap and mineral oil.
Many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium,
and mixtures thereof. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the
viscosity of oils.
The insoluble oil/fat molecules become associated inside micelles, tiny
spheres formed from soap molecules with polar hydrophilic groups on the outside
and encasing a lipophilic pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water
making it soluble.
 2.HISTORY:
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates
back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon. A formula for soap consisting of water,
alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC. The
Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates the ancient Egyptians bathed regularly
and combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create a soap-like
substance. In ancient Israel, the ashes from barilla plants, such as species of Salsola,
saltwort and Anabasis, were used in soap production, known as potash. The word
soap, Latin for soap, likely was borrowed from an early Germanic
language and is cognate with Latin sebum, “tallow”.

Zosimos of Panopolis, circa 300 AD, describes soap and soap making.
The use of soap for personal cleanliness became increasingly common in the second
century AD. A detergent similar to soap was manufactured in ancient China from
the seeds of Gleditsia sinensis. Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced
in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an
established industry. In the Middle East, soap was produced from the interaction of
fatty oils and fats with alkali.
A 12th century Islamic document describes the process of soap
production. In Europe, soap in the 9th century was produced from animal fats and
had an unpleasing smell. Finer soaps were later produced in Europe from the 16 th
century, using vegetable oils (such as olive oil) as opposed to animal fats.
Industrially manufactured bar soaps became available in the late 18th century. Until
the Industrial Revolution, soap making was conducted on a small scale and the
product was rough. William Gossage produced low-priced, good quality soaps from
the 1850s. Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap powder in 1837,
initially by grinding the soap with a mortar and pestle. In 1865, William Shepphard
patented a liquid version of soap.
3.PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COCONUT OIL:

Colour Colourless @ or above 300 C

Odour Smell of coconuts
Melting point 250C
Gelling point 22-250C
Absolute Viscosity 55 cP @160C
Smoking point 1770C
Solubility Insoluble in water
Density 924.27 g/m3

4.PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NaOH:

Molar Mass 39.9971 g/mol

Appearance White,Waxy,Opaque crystals
Odour Odourless
Density 2.13 g/cm3
Melting point 3230C
Boiling point 13880C
Vapor Pressure < 2.4 kPa@( 200)
 5.CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COCONUT OIL:

Name of the fatty acids Percentage

Capric acid 4-8
Caproic acid 0.5-1
Palmitic acid 7-10
Oleic acid 5-8
Linolenic acid Upto 0.2
Linoleic acid 1-3
Stearic acid 2-4

6.CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NaOH:

Property Information
Acidity 13-14 pH
Corrosive High
Reactivity Medium
Solubility 110 g/L

7.OTHER NAMES OF NaOH:

• Caustic soda
• Lye
• Ascarite
• White caustic
• Sodium hydrate
8.METHODS OF PRODUCTION:

• Melt and Pour method

• Cold Process method
• Hot Process method
• Rebatching method

9.PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

9.1 HOT PROCESS METHOD

In hot process, hot oils and lye are combined to begin saponification, and
then introduced to heat. The additional heat speeds up the saponification process
and cooks the soap before it goes into the mould.

9.2 MELT AND POUR

Melt and pour soap is a ready-made soap base composed of fatty acids,
glycerine, and other natural ingredients. The base is produced through the
saponification process.

9.3 REBATCHING

Rebatching is taking soap that has already been made and giving it new
life by grating it, melting it, and then adding any additional colours, fragrances or
additives.
9.4 COLD PROCESS METHOD

9.4.1 Saponification

It is an exothermic chemical reaction that occurs when fats or oils come

into contact with lye. In this reaction, the triglyceride units of fats react with
sodium hydroxide and are converted to soap and glycerol. The saponification
generally takes about 24 to 48 hours to complete once the lye and oils have been
mixed and the raw soap has been poured into the mould.

9.4.2 Emulsification

The lye is dissolved in water. Then oils are heated, or melted if they are
solid at room temperature. Once the oils are liquefied and the lye is fully dissolved
in water, they are combined. This lye-fat mixture is mixed until the two phases are
fully emulsified.

9.4.3 Moulding

The batch is then poured into moulds, kept warm with towels or blankets,
and left to continue saponification for 12 to 48 hours. During this time, it is normal
for the soap to go through a “gel phase”, wherein the opaque soap will turn
somewhat transparent for several hours, before once again turning opaque.

9.4.4 Cutting

After the insulation period, the soap is firm enough to be removed from
the mould and cut into bars. At this time, it is safe to use the soap, since
saponification is in essence complete. However, cold-process soaps are typically
cured and hardened on a drying rack for 2-6 weeks.
 9.4.5 Curing

During the curing process, some molecules in the outer layer of the solid
soap react with the carbon dioxide of the air and produce a dusty sheet of sodium
carbonate.

10.JUSTIFICATION:

In the cold process, the essential oils or fragrances can be added to the soap
if needed during trace which is not possible in the other methods. Soap heats from
the inside out while in the hot process the external heat is required to bring the soap
to the gel phase before it is placed in a soap mould.

Cold process gives more flexibility to do swirls and embeds, designs within
the soap batter before pouring into the mould. Cold process soap batter is much
thinner when it is poured into the mould but the thick texture of hot process soap
makes swirls and techniques, such as layering, very difficult. Cold process soap will
appear to look shiny and polished while the hot process soap appears rustic.

11.CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
a) Fat splitting

( R-COO)3-C3H5 + 3H2O 3R-COO-H+C3H5(OH)3

Triglyceride Fatty acid glycerine

b) Saponification

R-COO-H + NaOH R-COO-Na + H2O

Sodium Soap
hydroxide
12.FLOW SHEET OF SOAP MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

Fig 12.1 Flow sheet of Soap Manufacturing Process

13.EQUIPMENTS:

1. Saponification reactor is a reactor where the process of saponification

takes place.
2. The wet soap is pumped to a static separator-a settling vessel which does
not use any mechanical action. The soap/lye mix is pumped into the tank
where it separates out on the basis of weight .
3. In wash column, the glycerine is removed with fresh lye. The column has
rings fixed on its inside surface. The soap solution is added near the
bottom of the column and the lye near the top.
4. The fatty acids are neutralized with an alkali solution such as sodium
hydroxide to yield neat soap in the neutralizer.

14.MAJOR PLANTS:

Table 14.1 Major plants

Companies City
Vasa Global Company Mumbai
Twasa Cosmetics Ahmedabad
Baldha Industries Pvt Ltd Surat
Ivory Soap Works Ltd Nashik
Hindustan Unilever Ltd Hosur
Kavit Soap Industries Ahmedabad
Spice Herbals and Pitampura
Aminities Pvt Ltd
Karnataka Soaps and Mysore and Bangalore
Detergents Ltd
The Himalaya Drug Chennai
Company
ITC Ltd Chennai
15.USES OF COCONUT OIL SOAP:

• Coconut oil soap is an excellent moisturizer for both the skin and the
hair.

• It helps remove dead skin cells and dirt away from the body.

• It helps prevent or reduce acne.

• It also helps firm up your skin

16.ADVANTAGES OF COCONUT OIL FOR SOAP MAKING:

• Availability of coconut seed is more compare to other oil seeds.

• Cost is less compare to other oils.
• It does not irritating the skin.
17.NPSH AND CAVITATION:

To avoid cavitation in centrifugal pumps, the pressure of the fluid at all points
within the pump must remain above saturation pressure.The quantity used to
determine if the pressure of the liquid being pumped is adequate to avoid cavitation is
the net positive suction head(NPSH).The net positive suction head available(NPSHA)
is the difference between the pressure at the suction of the pump and the saturation
pressure for the liquid being pumped. The net positive suction head required(NPSHR)
is the minimum net positive suction head necessary to avoid cavitation.
NPSHA=Pa+Pst - hf –Psat
NPSHA=net positive suction head available
Pa= absolute pressure on the surface of the liquid
Pst=pressure due to elevation between liquid surface and pump suction
hf=head losses in the pump suction piping
Psat=saturation pressure of the liquid being pumped

18.CAVITATION:
Cavitation is a phenomenon in which rapid changes of pressure in a liquid lead
to the formation of small vapour-filled cavities, in places where the pressure is
relatively low.
19. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTIC CURVE:

Fig 19.1 Centrifugal Pump Characteristic curve

20. MATERIAL BALANCE:

20.1Basis:

Monolaurin – 200 kg/hr

Lye – 200 kg/hr
Water – 600 kg/hr

20.2 Assumptions:

1. The process is an open system.

2. The process occurs at a steady – state condition.

20.3 Saponification Reactor:

Mass of Monolaurin in = 200 kg/hr of Monolaurin

Mass of Lye in = 200 kg/hr of Lye

Mass of Water in = 600 kg/hr of Water

Mass in = Mass of Monolaurin+Mass of Lye + Mass of Water

= 200+200+600

Mass in = 1000 kg/hr

Mass of soap out= 1000*(0.2182)=218.2 kg/hr of soap

Mass of Water out=1000*(0.7273)=727.3 kg/hr of Water

Mass of Glycerin out= 1000*(0.0364)=36.4 kg/hr of Glycerin

 Mass of Lye out= 1000-981.9 kg/hr of Lye=18.1kg/hr of Lye

Mass out= Mass of Soap+ Mass of Water+ Mass of Glycerin+ Mass of Lye

= 218.2+727.3+36.4+18.1

=1000 kg/hr

200 kg/hr of monolaurin 218.2 kg/hr of soap

727.3 kg/hr of water
200 kg/hr of lye Saponification
reactor
36.4 kg/hr of glycerin
600 kg/hr of water 18.1 kg/hr of lye

Fig 20.3.1 Saponification reactor balance

Table 20.3.1 Saponification reactor balance

In Input stream O Output stream

20200 kg/hr of monolaurin 21218.2 kg/hr of soap
20200 kg/hr of lye 72727.3 kg/hr of water
60600 kg/hr of water 3636.4 kg/hr of glycerin
1818.1 kg/hr of lye
T Total= 1000 kg/hr T Total= 1000 kg/hr
20.4 Static Separator:

Mass of soap in= 218.2 kg/hr of soap

Mass of water in=727.3 kg/hr of water

Mass of glycerin in= 36.4 kg/hr of glycerol

Mass of Lye in=18.1 kg/hr of lye

Mass in= 218.2+727.3+36.4+18.1

=1000 kg/hr

Mass of soap out= 0.87*(250.8046)=218.2 kg/hr of soap

Mass of glycerin out=(0.07)*(250.8046)+(749.1954)*(0.025)=36.3 kg/hr of

glycerin

Mass of water out= (0.06)*(250.8046)+(749.1954)*(0.9507)=727.3 kg/hr

Mass of lye out=(0.0243)*(749.1954)=18.21kg/hr

Mass of out =218.2+36.3+727.3+18.2 =1000 kg/hr

 218.2 kg/hr of soap
18.21 kg/hr of lye
727.3 kg/hr of water
18.7299 kg/hr of glycerin
Static separator

36.4 kg/hr of glycerin 712.26 kg/hr of water

18.21 kg/hr of lye

Crude soap

218.2 kg/hr of soap

17.5563 kg/hr of glycerin
15.0483 kg/hr of water

Fig 20.4.1 Static separator balance

Table 20.4.1 Static separator balance

Input Stream Output Stream

21218.2 kg/hr of soap Crude soap Spent lye
72727.3 kg/hr of water 21218.2 kg/hr of soap 1818.21 kg/hr of lye
3636.4 kg/hr of glycerin 1717.5563 kg/hr of
1818.7299 kg/hr of
glycerin glycerin
1818.21 kg/hr of lye 1515.0483kg/hr of H2O71712.26 kg/hr of water
T Total= 1000 kg/hr T Total= 1000 kg/hr
20.5 Washing Column:

Mass of soap in=218.2 kg/hr of soap

Mass of glycerin in=17.5563 kg/hr of glycerin

Mass of water in=33.5 kg/hr of water

Mass of fresh + recycle lye in=200 kg/hr of fresh lye

Mass in= 218.2+17.5563+33.5+200=469.2563 kg/hr

Mass of soap out=(0.488)*(447.17)=218.2 kg/hr of soap

Mass of lye out=(0.65)*(22.0528)+(0.4148)*(447.17)=199.91 kg/hr of lye

Mass of glycerin out=(0.35)*(22.0528)+(0.0222)*(447.17)=17.6456 kg/hr of

glycerin
Mass of water out= (0.075)*(447.17)=33.5 kg/hr of water

Mass out=469.2563 kg/hr

 218.2 kg/hr of soap
7.7185 kg/hr of glycerin
17.5563 kg/hr of glycerin
Washing column

33.5 kg/hr of water

14.3343 kg/hr of lye
200 kg/hr of lye

Washed soap

218.2 kg/hr of soap

185.4861 kg/hr of lye
33.5 kg/hr of water
9.8377 kg/hr of glycerin

Fig 20.5.1 Washing column balance

Table 20.5.1 Washing column balance

I Input stream O Output stream

Washed soap
21 218.2 kg/hr of soap 21218.2 kg/hr of soap 7. 7.7185 kg/hr of glycerin
17 17.5563 kg/hr of glycerin
18 185.4861 kg/hr of lye 1414.3343 kg/hr of lye
33 33.5 kg/hr of water 33 33.5 kg/hr of water
20200 kg/hr of lye 9. 9.8377 kg/hr of glycerin
T Total=469.2563 kg/hr T Total = 469.2563 kg/hr
20.6 Centrifuge:

Mass of soap in=218.2 kg/hr of soap

Mass of lye in=185.4861 kg/hr of lye

Mass of water in=33.5 kg/hr of water

Mass of glycerin in=9.8377 kg/hr of glycerin

Mass in=218.2+185.4861+33.5+9.8377

=447.0238 kg/hr

Mass of soap out=(0.518)*(420.5429)=218.03 kg/hr of soap

Mass of water out=(0.939)*(26.6271)+(0.0201)*(420.5429)= 33.4696 kg/hr of

water

Mass of lye out=(0.0611)*(26.6271)+(0.439)*(420.5429)= 185.5 kg/hr of lye

Mass of glycerin out=(0.0225)*(420.5429)=9.4759 kg/hr of glycerin

Mass out=218.03+33.4696+185.5+9.4759

=447.02 kg/hr
 218.03 kg/hr of soap

185.4871 kg/hr of lye Centrifuge 1.6271 kg/hr of lye

33.5 kg/hr of water

25 kg/hr of water
9.8377 kg/hr of glycerin

Wet soap
218.03 kg/hr of soap
183.3129 kg/hr of lye
8.4696 kg /hr of water
9.4759 kg/hr of glycerin

Fig 20.6.1 Centrifuge balance

Table 20.6.1 Centrifuge balance

Input stream Output Stream

21 218.03 kg/hr of soap W Wet soap N
18185.4871 kg/hr of lye 21218.03 kg/hr of soap 1. 1.6271 kg/hr of lye
33 33.5 kg/hr of water 18183.3129 kg/hr of lye 25 25 kg/hr of water
9. 9.8377 kg/hr of glycerin 8. 8.4696 kg/hr of water
9. 9.4759 kg/hr of glycerin
T Total =447.0238 kg/hr T Total =447.02 kg/hr

20.7 Recycle:
Assume the value recycled and purged to be x and y. The balance for
water content is
15.0483+x = 8.4696+x+y
y = 6.5787
6.5787 kg/hr of water is purged.
Assume the water content from centrifuge to be 25 kg/hr.
x+y = 25
x = 25-6.5787
= 18.4213
The amount of water recycled is 18.4213 kg/hr. The amount of lye purged is 0.4281
kg/hr. The amount of lye recycled is 1.199 kg/hr.

20.8 Neutralizer:

Mass of soap in=218.03 kg/hr of soap

Mass of lye in=183.3129 kg/hr of lye

Mass of water in=8.4696 kg/hr of water

Mass of glycerin in=9.4759 kg/hr of glycerin

Mass of citric acid in=61.1 kg/hr of citric acid

Mass of tea leaves=0.8819 kg/hr of tea leaves

Mass in=218.03+183.3129+8.4696+9.4759+61.1+0.8819

=481.2703 kg/hr

Mass of soap out=(0.65)*(335.4308)=218.03 kg/hr of soap

 Mass of glycerin out=(0.0282)*(335.4308)=9.4591 kg/hr of glycerin

Mass of water out=(0.02)*(145.8395)+(0.2625)*(335.4380)=90.9674 kg/hr of

water

Mass of salt out=(0.974)*(145.8395)+(0.0593)*(335.4308)=161.9387 kg/hr of salt

Mass of tealeaves out=(0.006)*(145.8395)=0.875 kg/hr of tealeaves

Mass out=218.03+9.4591+90.9674+161.9387+0.875 = 481.2702 kg/hr

218.03 kg/hr of soap

8.4696 kg/hr of water 142.0477 kg/hr of salt
Neutralizer 2.9168 kg/hr of water
183.3129 kg/hr of lye
9.4759 kg/hr of 0.875 kg/hr of
glycerin tealeaves
0.8819 kg/hr of
tealeaves
61.1 kg/hr of citric
acid
Neat soap

218.03 kg/hr of soap

9.4591 kg/hr of glycerin
88.0506 kg/hr of water
19.8910 kg/hr of salt

Fig 20.8.1 Neutralizer balance

Table 20.8.1 Neutralizer balance:

Input Stream Output Stream

Neat soap
218.03 kg/hr of soap 218.03 kg/hr of soap 142.0477 kg/hr of salt
8.4696 kg/hr of water 9.4591kg/hr of glycerin 2.9168 kg/hr of water
183.3129 kg/hr of lye 88.0506 kg/hr of water 0.875 kg/hr of tealeaves
9.4759 kg/hr of glycerin 19.8910 kg/hr of salt
0.8819 kg/hr of tea leaves
61.1 kg/hr of citric acid
Total=481.2703 kg/hr Total=481.2702 kg/hr

20.9 Dryer:

Mass of soap in=218.03 kg/hr of soap

Mass of water in=88.0506 kg/hr of water

Mass of glycerine in=9.4591 kg/hr of glycerine

Mass of salt in=19.8910 kg/hr of salt

= 335.4307 kg/hr

Mass in=218.03+88.0506+9.4591+19.89

Mass of soap out=(0.845)*(258.02)=218.03 kg/hr

 Mass of water out=(77.4107)*(1)+(0.0412)*(258.02)=88.0411 kg/hr

Mass of glycerine out=(0.0367)*(258.02)=9.4693 kg/hr

Mass of salt out=(0.0771)*(258.02)=19.8903 kg/hr

Mass out=218.03+88.0411+9.4693+19.8903=335.43kg/hr

218.03 kg/hr of soap

88.03 kg/hr of water
9.4591 kg/hr of Dryer 77.4107 kg/hr of
glycerin water
19.8910 kg/hr of
salt

Solid soap

218.03 kg/hr of soap

10.6304 kg/hr of water
9.4693 kg/hr of glycerin
19.8903 kg/hr of salt

Fig 20.9.1 Dryer balance

 Table 20.9.1 Dryer balance

Input Stream Output Stream

Solid Soap
218.03kg/hr of soap 218.03 kg/hr of soap 77.4107 kg/hr of water
88.0506kg/hr of water 10.6304 kg/hr of water
9.4591kg/hr of glycerin 9.4693 kg/hr of glycerin
19.8910kg/hr of salt 19.8903kg/hr of salt
Total=335.43kg/hr Total=335.43kg/hr

21.ENERGY BALANCE:

Compound Specific Heat Heat of formation

(KJ/kg K) (KJ/kg)
Monolaurin 1.6316 -4237.61
Water 4.1833 -16263.33
Lye 1.4881 -10645.8
Glycerin 2.4119 -7278.26
Sodium laurate 2 -5404.41
Citric acid 1.3916 -61.42
Sodium citrate 0.4692 7285.13

21.1 Saponification Reactor:

For liquid state, ∆H=m*cp*dt

Cp=specific heat capacity in KJ/kg K

m=mass flow rate in kg/hr

∆T=Temperature difference in K

Reactor in:

T=322 K

Monolaurin, ∆H=200*1.6316*(27-25)

=652.64 KJ/hr
Water, ∆H=600*(27-25)*4.1833

=5019.96 KJ/hr
Lye, ∆H=200*1.4881*(27-25) = 595.24 KJ/hr

Total enthalpy in, Hi=6267.84 KJ/hr

Reactor out:

Soap,∆H=2*218.2*(49-25)

=10473.6 KJ/hr

Water,∆H=727.3*4.1833*(49-25)

=73020.34 KJ/hr

Lye,∆H=1.4881*18.1*(49-25) =646.43 KJ/hr

Glycerin,∆H=36.4*2.4119*(49-25)

=2107.04 KJ/hr

Total enthalpy out,H0=86247.41 KJ/hr

C15H30O4 + H2O C3H8O3 + C11H23COOH

C11H23COOH + NaOH C11H23COONa + H2O

Heat of reaction = Heat of formation of product – Heat of formation of reactants

Heat of formation of product = -1179242.26-192688.98-11828319.91-264928.66

= -13465179.81 KJ/hr

Heat of formation of reactants = -2129160-9757998-847522

= -12734680 KJ/hr

Heat of reaction = -13465179.81+12734680

= -730499.81 KJ/hr

Amount of Heat,Q = H0 – Hi + Hr

= 86247.41 – 6267.84 – 730499.81 = -650520.24 KJ/hr

Q is negative, because the reaction is exothermic.

The rate of cooling water needed = 650520.24/ (4.1833*(45-20))

= 6220.16 KJ/hr

21.2 Static Separator:

No energy balance is required.

21.3 Washing Column:

Wash column in:

Soap,∆H = 2*(49-25)*218.2

= 10473.6 KJ/hr

Lye,∆H = 1.4881*(49-25)*200

= 7142.88 KJ/hr

Glycerin,∆H = 17.5563*(49-25)*2.4119

= 1016.26 KJ/hr

Water,∆H = 4.1833*(49-25)*33.4696

= 3360.32 KJ/hr
Total enthalpy in,Hi = 3360.32 + 7142.88 + 1016.26 + 10473.6

= 21993.06 KJ/hr

Wash column out:

Soap,∆H = 2*(60-25)*218.03

= 15262.1 KJ/hr

Water,∆H = 4.1833*(60-25)*33.4696

= 4900.47 KJ/hr

Lye,∆H = (1.4881*(60-25)*14.3343) + (1.4881*(60-25)*185.4861)

= 9660.77 + 746.58 = 10407.35 KJ/hr

Glycerin,∆H = (2.4119*(60-25)*7.7185) + (2.4119*(60-25)*9.8377)

= 651.57 + 830.46 = 1482.03 KJ/hr

Total enthalpy out,Ho= 15262.1 + 4900.47 + 10407.35 + 1482.03

= 32051.95 KJ/hr
21.4 Centrifuge:

No energy balance is required.

21.5 Neutralizer:

C6H8O7 + 3NaOH 3H2O + C6H5O7Na3

Heat of reaction,Hr=Heat of formation of products-Heat of formation of reactants

Heat of formation of products=(-3*16263.33) + 7285.13

=-48789.99 + 7285.13

=-41504.86 KJ/hr

Heat of formation of reactants=-61.42-(3*10645.8)

=-61.42-31937.4

=-31998.82 KJ/hr

Hr = -41504.86+31998.82

= -9506.04 KJ/hr

Amount of Heat,Q= -9506.04 KJ/hr

Q is negative, because the reaction is exothermic.

The rate of cooling water needed=9506.04/ (4.1833*(30-10)) = 113.62 kg/hr

21.6 Dryer:

Dryer in:

Soap,∆H=2*218.03*(60-25)

=15262.1KJ/hr

Water in,∆H=4.1833*35*88.0506

=12891.97KJ/hr

Salt in,∆H=35*19.8910*0.4692

=326.65KJ/hr

Glycerin in,∆H= 2.4119*9.4591*35

=798.50KJ/hr

Total enthalpy in,Hi=15262.1+12891.97+326.65+798.50

=29279.22KJ/hr
Dryer out:

Soap out,∆H=218.03*2*(100-25)

=32704.5KJ/hr
Glycerin out,∆H=2.4119*9.4571

=1710.72KJ/hr

Water out,∆H=water out in vap+water out in soap

=(4.1833*75*77.4107+77.4107*2260)+(4.1833*75*10.6304)

=199235.59+3335.26

=202570.85KJ/hr

Salt out,∆H=0.4692*75*19.8903

=699.94KJ/hr

Total enthalpy out,HO=202570.85+699.94+32704.5+1710.72

=237686.01KJ/hr

Amount of Heat,Q=237686.01-29279.22

=208406.79KJ/h
21.7 Condenser:

Condenser in:

Steam entering at 1000 C

Steam,∆H=(77.4107*(100-25)*1.996) + (77.4107*2676)

= 11588.38 + 207151.03 = 218739.42 KJ/hr

Water,∆H=(77.4107*(49-25)*4.1833)

= 7771.97 KJ/hr

Q = 7771.97 + 218739.42

= -210967.44 KJ/hr

Q is negative, because it is exothermic.

Amount of cooling water needed is

210967.44 = m*4.1833*(50-20)

m = 1681.03 Kg/hr
22. ZERO DISCHARGE:
The glycerin is produced as a by-product of soap production. This glycerin
is purified and bleached. The purified glycerin is used as a main ingredient in the
cosmetics and lotions producing industries. Waste water from the soap production is
treated by several methods like dissolved air flotation or chemical coagulation-
sedimentation. The treated water is then discharged into the municipal sewage system.

23. RECYCLE STREAM:

Water and lye from the centrifuge is recycled to the wash column. The water
vapourized from the dryer is condensed and recycled to the reactor.

24. SUMMARY OF MATERIAL BALANCE:

Table 24.1 Summary of material balance

Equipment Input Output

(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
Saponification 600(water) 218.2(soap)
reactor 200(lye) 727.3( water)
200( monolaurin) 36.4( glycerin)
18.1( lye)
Static separator 218.2(soap) Crude soap 18.21(lye)
727.3( water) 218.2 (soap) 18.7299(glycerin)
36.4(glycerin) 17.5563(glycerin) 712.26(water)
18.1( lye) 15.0483(water)

Washing column Crude soap Washed soap 7.7185(glycerin)

218.2 (soap) 218.03(soap) 15.1425(lye)
 17.5563(glycerin) 184.9402(lye)
33.5(water) 33.5(water)
200( lye) 9.8377(glycerin)
Centrifuge Washed soap Wet soap 1.6271(lye)
218.03(soap) 183.3129(lye) 25(water)
184.9402(lye) 8.4696(water)
33.5(water) 218.03(soap)
9.8377(glycerin) 9.8377(glycerin)
Neutralizer Wet soap Neat soap 142.0477(salt)
183.3129(lye) 218.03(soap) 2.9168(water)
8.4696(water) 9.4591(glycerin) 0.875(tealeaves)
218.03(soap) 88.0506(water)
9.4759(glycerin) 19.8910(salt)
0.8819(tealeaves)
61.1(citric acid)
Vaccum dryer Neat soap Solid soap 77.4107(water)
218.03(soap) 218.03(soap)
9.4591(glycerin) 10.6304(water)
88.0506(water) 9.4693(glycerin)
19.8910(salt) 19.8903(salt)
25.SUMMARY ENERGY BALANCE:

Table 25.1 Summary of material balance

Equipment ∆H in ∆H out ∆Hr ∆Hf Q

(KJ/hr) (KJ/hr) (KJ/hr) (KJ/hr) (KJ/hr)

Saponification 6267.84 86247.41 -730499.81 -650520.24

reactor
Wash column 21993.06 32051.95 10058.89
Neutralizer - - -9506.04 -9506.04
Dryer 29279.22 237686.01 208406.79
Condenser 218739.42 7771.97 -210967.44

26. COST OF RAW MATERIALS & PRODUCTS:

Monolaurin : Rs.. 600/kg
Sodium hydroxide : Rs. 299/kg
Soap : Rs. 240/kg

27. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS:

Sodium laurate is toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term
adverse effects in the aquatic environment. Lye should not be discharged into drains or
the environment. Hazardous waste shall not be mixed together if this may entail a risk of
pollution or create problems for the further management of waste. All entities that store,
transport or handle hazardous waste shall take the necessary measures to prevent risks of
pollution or damaged to people or animals. It should not be land-filled with household
waste. Sodium citrate should be diluted with water and flushed to sewer.
28. P & ID FLOW SHEET:

Fig 28.1 P &ID Flow Sheet

29. MECHANICAL DESIGN:
29.1 SAPONIFICATION REACTOR:
rA = k CACB
V0 = Feed rate/ Average density of feed
Lauric acid +NaOH→Sodium laurate+ Glycerol
τ=V/V0
Moles of NaOH = 200/39.9977= 5 Kmol/hr
Moles of Water = 600/18= 33.33 Kmol/hr
Moles of Monolaurin = 200/274.4= 0.7289 Kmol/hr
Total Moles = 33.33+0.7289+5=39.0589
Mole fraction of NaOH = 5/39.0589 = 0.1280
Mole fraction of water = 33.33/39.0589 = 0.8533
Mole fraction of monolaurin = 0.7289/39.0589 = 0.0187
Average density of feed = (2.13*0.1280)+(0.977*0.8533)+(0.0187*0.9764)/3
= 0.2726+0.8507+0.0183/3
= 1.1416/3
= 0.3805 g/cm3
= 0.3805*10-2/10-6
= 380.5 kg/m3
V0 = 1000/380.5 = 2.6281 m3/hr
τ = 22 hr
τ = V/V0
V = 22*2.6281
= 57.8182 m3
V = π/4 Dt2*h
h/Dt = 1.5
h = 1.5 D
V = π/4Dt2*1.5*Dt
= 57.8182*4/3.14*1.5 = Dt3
Dt3 = 49.1025
Dt = 3.6619 m
h = 1.5 Dt = 1.5* 2.6619
= 5.4929 m
Material of construction = Stainless steel
Temperature = 49⁰ C
Maximum permissible stress =16,700 psi = 115.14 N/mm2
Corrosion allowance = Nil
Joint efficiency = 0.85

29.1.1 Shell Thickness:

ts = (PDt/2fJ-P) + C
Design pressure = 1.1 Working pressure
Working pressure = 101.325 kPa
Design pressure = 1.1 *101.325
= 111.4575 kPa = 0.1115 N/mm2
ts = (0.1115*3.6619*103)/(2*0.85*115.14 – 0.1115)
= 408.3019/195.6265
= 2.09 mm

29.1.2 Head:
Shallow dished head
th =PRcW/2Fj
W = 1/4 (3+(√ Rc/R1)
Rc = Crown radius
Rc = 3.6619 m
R1 = Knuckle radius
R1 = 0.2197 m
W = 1/4 ( 3+ (√ 3.6619/0.2197)
 = 1.7706
th =0.1115*3.6619*103*1.7706/(2*0.85*115.14)
= 722.9393/195.738
th = 3.69 mm

29.1.3 Height of head:

H = (Dt - ((Dt –R1)2 – ( Dt/2 – R1)2)0.5
= 3.6619 – ((3.6619 – 0.2197 )2 – ( 3.6619/2 – 0.2197 )2 )0.5
= 3.6619 – ( 11.8487 – 2.5961 )0.5
= 3.6619 -3.0418
= 0.62 m

29.1.4 Agitator Design:

Turbine agitator
P/Dt = 1.8, W/Da=0.2, E/J = 0.33, Da/Dt= 0.33, J/Dt= 0.833, Ha/H = 0.9, b/Dt = 0.25
Da= Agitator diameter, W= Agitator blade width, Dt= Vessel diameter, J= Baffle
diameter, E= Clearance between agitator & reactor vessel bottom, Ha=Height of agitator
H= Height of reactor

Da= 0.33*3.6619=1.2084 m, Ha=0.9*5.4929= 4.9436 m, W= 0.2* 1.2084 = 0.2417m

J= 0.833*3.6619= 3.0504 m , b= 0.25*3.6619=0.9155 m, Hb= H-E=5.3922 m
E= 0.33*0.305=0.1007 m

Power required P = NpDa5N3ρavg /gc

Re=ρavgNDa2/μavg gc=1(Newton’s law of gravitational constant)
ρavg= ⅀ρiVi
Volumetric flow rate of water = 600/997= 0.6018 m3/hr
Volumetric flow rate of NaOH= 200/2130= 0.0939 m3/hr
Volumetric flow rate of monolaurin = 200/976.4= 0.2048 m3/hr
Total volumetric flow rate = 0.6018+0.0939+0.2048= 0.9005 m3/hr
Volume fraction of water = 0.6018/0.9005 = 0.6683
Volume fraction of NaOH = 0.0939/0.9005 = 0.1043
Volume fraction of monolaurin = 0.2048/0.9005 = 0.2274
ρavg= 0.997*0.6633+2.13*0.1043+0.9764* 0.2274
= 0.6663+0.2222+0.222
= 1.1105 g/cm3
ρavg = 1110.5 kg/m3
μavg =⅀μimi
mi = mass fraction of individual component
Mass flowrate of monolaurin =200 kg/hr
Mass flowrate of lye= 200 kg/hr
Mass flowrate of water = 600 kg/hr
Total mass flowrate = 200+200+600= 1000 kg/hr
Mass fraction of monolaurin = 200/1000 = 0.2
Mass fraction of water = 600/1000 = 0.6
Mass fraction of lye = 200/1000= 0.2
Viscosity of water = 0.890 cP
Viscosity of lye = 78cP
Viscosity of monolaurin = 6.88cP
μavg= 0.6*0.89+78*0.2+0.2*6.88
= 17.51 cP
= 0.01751 kg/ms
N = 60 rpm
N = 1r/s
Re= 1110.5*1*(1.2084)2/0.01751
= 92609.14
NP = 0.15
P = (1.2084)5 (1)3*1110.5*0.15/1 = 429.2 W
29.1.5 JACKET:
Total reactor surface area = (π*Dt*H)+(2*π*Dt2/H)
= (3.14*3.6619*5.4929)+(2*3.14*3.66192/4)
= 84.2123 m2
Dj = Diameter of the jacket = Dt+(2*th)
th = Thickness as 50 mm
Dj = 3.6619+(2*0.005)
= 3.7619 m
Assuming that the jacket covers 70% of the reactor surface.
84.2123*0.7 = ( 3.14*3.7619*H)+(2*3.14*(3.7619)2)
58.9486 = 11.8124 *H +22.2185
36.7301 = 11.8124 *H
H = 3.1095 m

29.2 DRYER:
Inlet conditions:
Temperature of soap = 60⁰C
Temperature of hot air = 160⁰C
Outlet conditions:
Temperature of soap = 100⁰C
Temperature of cold air = 90⁰C
Air stream temperature difference = ∆tG= 160-90 = 70⁰C
Avg temperature difference = ∆tm= (Air out- solid in)+(Air in- solid out)/2
= (90-60)+(160-100)/2
= 45⁰C
Number of transfer units based on air stream NtOG =∆tG/∆tm = 70/45 =1.56
For drum diameter D = 1.2 m
Area of drum = 3.14 /4 * (1.2)2
= 1.1304 m2
Feed = 335.4307 kg/hr
Dry solid = 258.02 kg/hr
Moisture content at inlet = 26.3%
X1=0.263
Moisture content at outlet = 4.1%
X2= 0.041
Inlet temperature of feed = 60⁰C = Ts1
Outlet temperature of feed = 100⁰C= Ts2
Humidity of inlet air Y2 = 0.04
Humidity of outlet Y1
Inlet air temperature = 150⁰C
Outlet air temperature= 90⁰C
Relative humidity = Actual vapor pressure/Saturation vapor pressure
Air flow rate =G
ms (X1-X2)=G(Y1-Y2)
258.02( 0.263-0.0410=G(Y1-0.04)
ms(Hs1-Hs2)=G(HG1-HG2)+Q
Hs1 = (Cpsolid *dT)+(Cpwater*X1*dT)
=( 2.496*(60-0))+(4.183.0.263*(60-0))
= 149.76+66.008
= 215.768
Hs2 = (Cpsolid*dT)+(CPwater*X2*dT)
= (2.496*(100-0))+(4.183*0.0418*(100-0)
= 249.6+17.1503 = 266.75
HG1= (Cs*dT)+(Y1*λ0)
= ((1.005+(Y1*1.884))*(90-0))+(Y1-2502.3)
= 90.45+2671.86Y1
HG2 =(Cs*dT)+(Y2*λ0)
=(1.005+(0.04*1.884))(150-0)+(0.04*2502.3)
 =(1.005+0.075)*150+100.092
= 150.75+ 11.25+ 100.092
= 262.092
258.02(215.768-266.75)=G(90.45+2671.86Y1-262.092)+Q
Q = 0.1*HG2*G
= 0.1*262.092*G
Q = 26.2092G
-13154.38=G(90.45+2761.86Y1-262.092)+(26.2092G)
-13154.38= -145.43G+ 2671.86Y1
57.28= GY1-0.04G
G= 4310.62 kg/hr of air
GY1= 229.7
Y1=229.7/4310.62=0.053
Air mass flux Gs =G/3600*A
= 4310.62/(3600*1.1304)
= 1.0593 kg/m2s
Solid mass flux Ss= ms/3600*A
= 258.02/3600*1.1304
= 0.0634 kg/m2s
Y2= 0.04 kg of water/kg of dry air
Y1 = 0.053 kg of water /kg of dry air
Average humidity Yavg= (1/1+1/2)/2
= 0.0465
Average air mass flux Gavg=Gs(1+Yavg)
= 1.0593(1+0.0465)
= 1.1086 kg/m2s
Heat transfer coefficient of the dryer Ua=237*(Gavg)0.67/D
Ua = 237*(1.1086)0.67/1.2 =211.62 W/m2k
Average humid heat Cs= Cs1+Cs2/2
Cs1= 1.005+1.884(Y2)
= 1.0804
Cs2= 1.005+1.884(Y1)
= 1.1049
Cs= 1.0804+1.1049/2
= 1.0927 KJ/kg K
HtOG= CsGs/Ua
= 1.0593*1.0927/211.62
= 5.4697m
Z = HtOG*NtOG
= 5.469*1
Z = 5.5 = 6 m
Power requirement = 0.3*π/4*D2*Z
= 0.3*3.14*(1.2)2*6/2
= 4.07 KW
Hold up ϕD = 0.05
k = 0.6085/ρsdP1/2
ρs= 976.4 kg/m3
Diameter of pellets,dP = 5mm
Correction factor k= 0.6085/(5*10-3)1/2*976.4
= 0.6085/69.0419
= 0.0088
Hold up with no flow ϕDO= ϕD-(k*Gavg)
= 0.05 –(0.0088*1.1086)
= 0.0402
Speed of dryer, N= 10 rpm
= 0.1667r/s
29.2.1 Shell Thickness:
ts= PDs/2Fj-P
Working pressure P= 0.05atm
Design pressure = 1.1*0.05
= 0.0051 N/mm2
Material of construction : Stainless steel
f = 115.14 N/mm2
Ds=1.2 m
J=0.85
ts = 0.0051*1.2*103/(2*115.14*0.85-0.0051)
= 0.031 mm

Gear and Pinion Design:

Pitch circle diameter =D
Diameter of sungear,Dg=150 mm
Diameter of pinion,DP= 70 mm
Number of tooth of gear and pinion(T)
Number of tooth on gear =18
Number of tooth on pinion = 15
D=Dg+DP
= 200 mm
T= 18+15
= 33
Module = D/T
= 220/33
= 6.667
=7
Velocity ratio = Dg/DP
= 150/70
= 2.14

PITCH ANGLE:
Angle for pinion,Ө = tan-1(1/Velocity ratio)
= tan-1 (1/ 2.14)
= 25.05
Angle for gear,Ө = 90-25.05
= 64.95

29.3 CONDENSER:
29.3.1 Shell side:
Material of construction = carbon steel
Corrosion allowance = 3mm
Number of shells = 1
Number of pass = 1
Working pressure = 0.1 N/mm2
Design pressure = 1.5 * working pressure
= 0.1*1.5
= 0.15 N/mm2
Temperature inlet = 20⁰C
Temperature outlet = 50⁰C

29.3.2 Head:
Crown radius = 566.96 mm
Gasket= flat metal jacketed asbestos filled
Bolts = Steel
29.3.3 Nozzle:
Inlet & outlet =75 mm
Vent = 25 mm
Opening for relief values = 50 mm
Permissible stress for carbon steel = 95 N/mm2
Permissible stress for steel = 140.6 N/mm2

29.3.4 Tube side:

∆Tlm= (T1-t2)-(T2-t1)/ln(T1-t2)/(T2-t1)
= (20-49)-(50-100)/ln(20-49)/(50-100)
= 21/0.5447
= 38.6⁰C
Q = 210967.4 W
m = 1681.03 kg/hr
Assume 1 shell and 2 tube pass
R = T1-T2/t2-t1
= 100-49/50-20
= 1.7
S = t2-t1/T1-t1= 50-20/100-20
= 0.375
Ft = 0.7
Let U =900 W/m2⁰C
Area, A =Q/UFt∆tln
= 210967.4/0.7*38.6*900
= 8.6754 m2
Surface area of single tube = πdot
do= 20 mm
L = Q/U∆tlmdo
= 210967.4/0.7* 38.6* 20 *10-3*900
= 433.8 mm
Area of single tube = 3.14*433.8*20*10-3
= 0.0272 m2
Number of tubes = Area/Area of single tube
= 8.6754/0.0272
= 318
Outside diameter = 20 mm
Length = 433.8 mm
Pitch = 1.25do= 1.25* 20 = 0.025 mm
Fluid = steam
Working pressure = 0.33 N/mm2
Design pressure = 1.5*WP
= 1.5* 0.33
= 0.5 N/mm2
Inlet temperature =100⁰C
Outlet temperature = 49⁰C
Permissible stress = 100.6 N/mm2

29.3.5 Channel and Channel cover:

Material of costruction = Carbon steel (IS2062)
Joint with tube sheet gasket ring facing
Gasket = Steel jacket asbestos
Nozzle (Inlet&Outlet)=75 mm
Permissible stress = 95 N/mm2
29.3.6 Shell side:
Shell side diameter = 2500 mm
Shell thickness,tS=(PDS/2fJ-P) +C
= (0.15*566.56/2*95*0.85-0.15)+3
= 0.5267+3
ts = 3.5 mm
Bundle diameter,Db=do(Nt/k1)1/n1
For square pitch, k1= 0.156 , n1=2.291
Db= 20*(318/0.156)1/2.291
= 556.56 mm
Ds= Db+Clearance
= 566.96 mm

29.3.6 Nozzle:
Thickness of nozzle = (PD/2fJ-P) + C
= 0.15*75/(2*0.85*95-0.15)+3
= 3.07 mm
= 4 mm

29.3.7 Head:
Torispherical head
Head Thickness ,th = PRcW/2fJ +C
Stress intensification factor ,W =1/4 (3+√Rc/R1)
Rc = 566.96 mm
R1 = 5* ts= 5*8
= 40 mm
W = 1/4(3+√566.96/40)
= 1.69
th = (0.15*566.96*1.69/2*95*0.85)+3
= 3.89 mm
Head thickness = 8 mm

29.3.8 Baffles:
Baffle type = Transverse
Baffle spacing = Ds/5 = 566.96/5
= 113.4 mm
Assuming baffle thickness = 6mm
Baffle cut = 45%
Baffle length = 0.55*566.96
= 311.83 mm
Number of baffles = 8

29.3.9 Tie rods & support:

Number of rods = 6
Diameter of tie rods = 10 mm

29.3.10 Flange point:

Number of bolts = 16
Size of bolts = 16 mm
Pitch circle diameter = 525 mm

29.3.11 Flange thickness ( Male & Female):

Gasket size = 440 mm outer diameter
= 416 mm inner diameter
Gasket diameter G =440+416/2= 428 mm
Gasket contact width = 24 mm
Gasket seating width bo= 24/2 = 12 mm
Effective gasket seating width b = 2.5 √bo
= 2.5 √12
= 8.66 mm
Seating stress 1/a = 53.4 N/mm2
Gasket factor m = 3.75
Minimum bolt load at atmospheric conditions = πbGYa
= 3.14*8.66 * 428* 53.4
Wm1 = 6.2*105 N

Minimum bolt load at operating conditions = π2bGmP+(π*G2P/4)

= (3.14*2*8.66*428*3.75*0.15)+(3.14*4282)0.15/4
=13093.14+21569.9
Wm2= 0.35*105N
Flange thickness,tf = G√P/kf+C
k = 1/(0.3+(1.5*Wm*hG/Hg))
Wm=6.2*105 N (Higher value among Wm1& Wm2)
H = Total Hygroscopic end force
hG =B-G/2
B = Bolt circle diameter
= 525-428/2
= 48.5 mm
H = π*G2P/4
= 3.14*428*428*0.15/4
= 21569.92 N
k = 1/(0.3+(1.5*6.2*105*48.5/21569.92*428))
= 1/ 0.3+4.89
= 0.19
tf = 428*√0.15/0.19*95+3 = 42.02
= 43 mm
29.3.12 Tube side :
Thickness of tube ,tf = 2mm
tf = PDo/2fJ+P
2fJtf +tf P = PDo
2fJtf = P(Do-tf)
P = 2fJtf/D0-tf
= 2*100.6*2*1/20.2
= 402.4/18
= 22.36 N/mm2

Tube sheet thickness = 50 mm

Maximum permissible pressure which it can withstand ,P = t2f/0.25*Gc2
t = Thickness of tube sheet
G= Mean gasket diameter
P =50*50*100.6/(0.25*(380)2)
= 251500/36100
= 7 N/mm2
Channel & Channel cover:
They are made up of single plate
tc = Gc√kP/f
Gc= Mean gasket diameter for cover = 380 mm
k = 0.3 for ring type gasket
tc= 380*√0.3*0.5/95
= 15.1 mm
= 16 mm
Flange joint between tubesheet & Channel
Gasket& bolt design
G=380 mm
Ring gasket width = 22 mm
bo= W/8 = 22/8
b0 = 2.75 mm = b
Ya= 126.6 N/mm2
m = Gasket factor =5.5
Wm1 = πbGYa
= 3.14*2.75*380*126.6
= 4.15*105 N
Wm2 = 2πbGmP+πG2P/4
= (2*3.14*2.75*380*5.5*0.5) +( 3.14*380*380*0.5)/4
= 18047.15+56677
= 0.75*105 N
Bolt area = Wm1/f
f = for steel = 140.6 N/mm2
= 4.15*105/140.6
= 2952 mm2
Number of bolts = Mean diameter of gasket in cm/2.5
= 38/2.5
= 15.2
= 16
Bolt circle diameter = 380 +22+2*16
= 434 mm
= 525 ( Standard size)

Flange thickness
tf = G√(P/kf)+C
k = 1/(0.3+(1.5*WmhG/HG))
Wm = 4.15*105N
hG = 525-380/2
= 72.5 mm
 H = π G2P/4
= 3.14*380*380*0.5/4
= 0.57*105 N
G = 380 mm
k = 1/(0.3+(1.5*4.15*105 *72.5/380*56677)
= 380*0.1088
= 41.34 mm
tf = 42 mm

29.4 STORAGE VESSEL:

Tank diameter = 10 m
Tank height = 5m
Elastic modulas = 2*10 5 N/mm2
Density of liquid = 1000 kg/m3
Super Imposed load = 1250 N/m2
Material of construction= Carbon steel
f = 165 N/mm2
Density of carbon steel = 7850 kg/m3
Corrosion allowance = 1.5 mm

29.4.1 Shell:
P = ρ (H-0.3)*9.807*10-6 N/mm2
= 1000( 5- 0.3)*9.807*10-6
= 0.0461 N/mm2
t =( PD/2fJ)+C
= (0.0461*10000/(2*165*0.85))+1.5
= (461/280.5)+1.5
t = 3.14 mm
Assume thickness to be 1 mm
P = 2tfJ/D
= 2*1*165*0.85/10*103
= 0.0281 N/mm2
H = (P/ρwater*9.807*10-6)+ 0.3
= (0.0281/1000*9.807*10-6)+ 0.3
H =3.17 m
Assumed thickness to be 0.5 mm
P =2*0.5*165*0.85/(10*103)
P = 0.014 N/mm2
H = (0.014/(1000*9.807*10-6))+0.3
= 1.73 m
Assume thickness to be 0.2 mm
P = 2*0.2*165*0.85/(10*103)
= 0.0056 N/mm2
H = (0.0056/1000*9.807*10-6)+0.3
= 0.87 m

29.4.2 Tank Bottom:

The diameter of the bottom tank extends beyond the shell by 65 mm
Db= 10+2*65/1000+2*3.14/1000
= 10+0.13+6.28*10-3
= 10.14 m
Annular plate = 3.14 mm
Sketch plate = 6 mm
Annular Plates:
Minimum width of annular plate = 65+300+ 65+ 3.14
= 433.14 mm
Circumference of the bottom =πDb
= 3.14*10.14
= 31.84 m

Self Supporting Conical Roof:

The plate thickness for the roof is assumed to be 0.2 mm
Weight per unit area = 0.2*103*7850
= 1.57 kg/m2
Force acting due to load = 1.57*9.807
= 15.4 N/m2
= 16 N/m2
Total load = Super Imposed load + Load due to weight
= 1250+ 16
= 1266 N/m2
P = 1266* 10-6 N/mm2
SinӨ =(D/t)√(P/0.2048E)
= 10*103/0.2 √(1266*10-6/0.204*2*105)
= 50000*1.7615*10-4
sinӨ = 8.8076
Assume t = 1mm
sinӨ =1.7615
t = 2 mm
sinӨ = 0.8808
Ө = 1.0774
tanӨ = 1.86
t = 12 mm
tanӨ = 0.148

The slope is within acceptable limit for a thickness of 12 mm. Hence self-supporting roof
is not recommended to use.
In this case,a column support type roof is used.

30. DETAIL ANALYSIS OF PUMPS:

30.1 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:

The pump used in the fluid catalytic cracking unit is a centrifugal pump.
The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy are
called “Pumps”’.The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy.

PRINCIPLE:
The centrifugal pump works on the principle of forced vortex flow which means that
when a certain mass of liquid is rotated by an external torque,the rise in pressure head of
the rotating liquid takes place.The rise in pressure head at any point of the rotating
liquid is proportional to the square of tangential velocity of the liquid at the point.

WORKING:
If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means of centrifugal force
acting on the fluid,then the hydraulic machine is called “Centrifugal Pump”.
The Centrifugal Pump acts as a reversed of an inward radial flow reaction turbine.This
means that the flow in centrifugal pumps is in the radial outward directions.
At outlet of the impeller the radius is more,the rise in pressure head will be more and the
liquid will be discharged at the outlet with a high pressure head.Due to this high pressure
head,the liquid can be lifted to a high level. There are large quantities of centrifugal
pumps associated with the catalytic cracker,most of them being conventional single-stage
and multistage units in cold and hot service.

CONSTRUCTION:
Type-Vertically split overhung or between bearing pumps,flow serve type.
Head-Since the pressure differential between the fractionator and reactor is low.
Operating Speed- 1180 to 1750 RPM range to reduce erosion of the catalyst in the slurry .
Furnishing-With chrome cases and impellers-Because of the temperature and sulfide
environment.
In addition,clean flushing oil is supplied to the wear rings,throat bushingsand
packing,through specially designed connection,to reduce erosion in wearing parts.

APPLICATION:
One special application that mertis consideration is the fractionator bottoms pumps,which
recycle the slurry oil form the fractionator back to the reactor feed system.
The slurry oil consists of a mixture of the heavy oil in the bottom of the fractionator and
catalyst particles that carry over from the reactor into the fractionator.
The slurry oil pumps are special units built to withstand the erosive action of the catalyst
powder suspended in the air.
They usually handle large quantities of 600 to 700⁰F oil – quantities in the range of 500 to
1000 gpm and are the vertically split overhung or between bearing pumps,Flowserve
type.
The fractionator gas oil pumps and light, heavy and extra-heavy gas oil, are all heavy-
duty
Refinery type units with low NPSH requirements, high temperature and high head
applications.
30.2 ROTARY LOBE PUMP:

Lobe pumps are used in a variety of industries including,pulp and

paper,chemical,food,beverage,pharmaceutical,and biotechnology.They are popular in
these diverse industries because they offer superb sanitary qualities,high
efficiency,reliability,corrosion resistance,and good clean-in-place and sterilize-in-
place(CIP/SIP) characteristics.

These pumps offer a variety of lobe options including single,bi-wing,tri-lobe,and multi-

lobe.Rotary lobe pumps are non-contacting and have large pumping chambers,allowing
them to handle solids such as cherries or olives without damage.They are also used to
handle slurries,pastes,and a wide variety of other liquids.If wetted,they offer self-priming
of other self-priming performance.A gentle pumping action minimizes product
degradation.They also offer reversible flows and can operate dry for long periods of
time.Flow is relatively independent of changes in process pressure,so output is constant
and continuous.

WORKING:

Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation in that fluid flows around the
interior of the casing.Unlike external gear pumps,however,the lobes do not make
contact.Pump shaft support bearing are out of the pumped liquid,pressure is limited by
bearing location and shaft deflection.

1)As the lobes come out of mesh,they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the
pump.Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate.

2)Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets around the interior of the
casing in the pockets between the lobes and the casing-it does not pass between the lobes.

3)Finally the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION/CONFIGURATION OPTIONS:

Externals (head,casing) – Typically 316 or 316L stainless steel head and casing

Externals (gearbox) - Cast iron,stainless steel

Internals (rotors,shaft) – Typically 316 or 316L stain less steel, non-galling stainless steel

Shaft seal – O-rings,component single or double mechanical seals, industry-standard

cartridge mechanical seals

APPLICATIONS:

➢ Polymers

➢ Paper coatings

➢ Soap and surfactants

➢ Paints and dyes

➢ Food application

ADVANTAGES:

➢ Pass medium solids

➢ No metal-to-metal contact

➢ Long term dry run

DISADVANTAGES:

➢ Requires timings gears

➢ Requires two seals

➢ Reduced lift with thin liquids

31. HAZARD & OPERABILITY ANALYSIS (HAZOP):

31.1 CENTRIFUGE:

Table 31.1.1 HAZOP Analysis of Centrifuge

Project Title :HAZOP Analysis Team:Sundaravel N.,Supraja R.
Study Node: Centrifuge Date:

Item Guide Deviation Possible Possible Recommended

Word Causes Consequences Action

1 Flow No 1)Control No separation Schedule

valve failed maintenance
closed and inspection
Insufficient
2)Line
amount of
blocked product to
supply
3)Pump
broken

2 Flow Low flow 1)Valve Delayed 1)Schedule

rate Partially separation maintenance
closed process of valve

2)Pipe
rupture

3)Pipe 2)Maintenance
leakage of pipes

3 Speed High No check Incomplete Schedule and

the separation.Extra inspection and
maximum stress on the check the
speed and centrifuge maximum
sample resulting speed and
density deteriorate on sample density
ratings. rotor ratings
 4 Speed Low 1)No check Incomplete Schedule
the separation maintenance
minimum and inspection
speed and and check the
sample minimum
density speed and
ratings sample density
ratings
2)Corrosion
on the rotor

31.2 REACTOR:

Table 31.2.1 HAZOP Analysis of Reactor

Project Title: HAZOP Analysis Team: Sundaravel N., Supraja R

Study Node: Reactor( cooling coils,stirrer) Date:

Operating conditions: 49⁰C

Item Guide Word Deviation Possible Possible Recommended

Causes Consequences Action

1 Flow No 1) Control 1)Loss of 1) Select valve

valve fails cooling to fail open
closed possible
2) Install filter
runaway
2) Plugged with
cooling coils 2) Loss of maintenance
cooling procedure
3) Cooling
possible run
water service 3) Check and
away.3) Loss
failure monitor
of cooling
reliability of
possible run
water service
away
2 Flow High 1) Control 1) Reactor Instruct
valve fails cools,reactant operations and
open concentration update
builds,possible procedures
2)Controller
runaway on
fails and
heating
opens valve
2) Reactor
cools,reactant
concentration
builds,possible
runaway on
heating

3 Flow Low 1) Partially 1) Diminished Schedule

plugged cooling maintenance
cooing line and inspection
and monitor
2) Partial
2) Diminished
water source
cooling
failure

3) Control
valves fail to 3) Diminished
respond cooling

4 Temperature Low 1) Low 1) None- None

water supply controller
temperature handles

6 Temperature High 1) High 1) Cooling 1) Install high

water supply system flow alarm
temperature capacity and/or cooling
limited water high
temperature
alarm
7 Agitation No 1) Stirrer 1) No mixing, 1) Interlock
motor Possible with feed line
malfunction accumulation
2)Monomer
of unreacted
feed valve
materials
must fail
2) Power 2) Monomer closed on
failure feed continues power loss

8 Agitation More 1) Stirrer 1)None

motor
controller
fails,resulting
in high motor
speed

31.3 CONDENSER:
Table 31.3.1 HAZOP Analysis of Condenser

Project Title:HAZOP Analysis Team:Sundaravel N.,Supraja R

Study Node:Condenser Date:

Item Description Guide Word Deviation Possible Possible Recommended

Causes Consequences Action
1 Condenser Temperature High 1)High 1)Tubes heat 1)Review the
Cooling temperature up,then cool tube design
Water excursion and with data to
System possible understand the
breakage case of higher
from thermal temperature
induced stress excursions
2 Condenser Flow 2 Phases 1)Condensate 1) Slugging 1) Provide
Suction regimes flow dropping out leading to condensate
System in the steam piping system upstream of
supply line damage isolation valve
and a warm up
line
3 Condenser Flow High 1) Loss of 1) Full steam 1) Check the
Ejector condensate the exhaust pressure drop
Supply flow to the line to the in exhaust line
ejector vent.Potential to vent at full
condenser for increased steam flow
friction losses conditions to
in the vent determine if
piping. overpressure
of the ejector
condenser
shell can occur
4 Condenser Flow Low 1) Running 1) Lose the 1) Add a line
Vessel thecondensate steam and valve
System system while condensate from
shutdown supply downstream to
the condenser
fill nozzle
32. FAULT TREE ANALYSIS:
32.1 CONTINUES STIRRED TANK REACTOR:

Improper mixing

Less mixing Improper functioning of

time agitator

Failure in
timer Less power
supply

Thermal run away

reaction

Failure in temperature
Measuring device Improper supply of
cooling water

Fig 32.1.1 Fault Tree Analysis of CSTR

33. FMEA TECHNIQUE:

Table 33.1 FMEA Technique

Type Factor Due of S Failure O Proposed D

of Failure Causes Improvements RPN
Failure

Man Annoying 8 Less 7 The company 3 168

product skilled made a
function training
Operator
& not 6 5 schedule for
Fatigue
accepted workers
by Failure
8 5 Companies
consumers been
specify hours 3 90
of rest which
remained
Provide a
warning to
4 160
operators that
fail to work

Dented Raw Disruptive Quality of Perform

product raw inspections of
function materials raw materials
& not 8 is not 5 the supplier is 4 160
accepted according in conformity
by to the with the
consumers standard standards set

Machinery Disruptive The Do the

& product machine planning of
Equipment function does not preventive
& not 8 produce 4 maintenance 3 96
accepted the on the mower
by appropriate
consumers size.
 There is Companies
a cleaning
residual machine &
6 5 3 90
material equipment
in the periodically
engine

Method Interfering 8 Old 4 Setting 3 96

product& cooling standards
not for long
accepted cooling
by
Setting
consumers 7 Old 4 2 56
standards
ripening
for long
cooking

34. TOTAL COST ANALYSIS:

Table 34.1 Cost of Equipments

SI.NO EQUIPMENT COST IN $ IN 2009 COST IN $ IN 2020

1 WATER STORAGE TANK 6505 8900.8
2 NAOH STORAGE TANK 14904 20393.14
3 LYE STORAGE TANK 8280 11329.52
4 REACTOR 146302 200183.03
5 SEPARATOR 649600 888847.68
6 WASH COLUMN 21900 29965.77
7 CENTRIFUGE 6900 9441.27
8 NEUTRALIZER 265700 363557.31
9 DRYER 7800 9988.59
Cost Index in 2000 = 435.8
Cost Index in 2009 = 521.9
Cost Index in 2020 = 714.11
Cost in 2020 = 1542609.11$
= Rs.117238292.4

34.1 DIRECT COST:

Table 34.1.1 Direct Cost

SI.NO THINGS INCLUDED IN DTRECT COST COST IN Rs

1 INSTALLATION (0.25 TEC) 29309573.1
2 INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL (0.08 TEC) 9379063.39
3 PIPING (0.3 TEC) 35171487.72
4 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION (0.12 TEC) 14068595.09
5 BUILDING (0.47 TEC) 55101997.43
6 YARD IMPROVEMENT (0.1 TEC) 11723829.24
7 SERVICE FACILITIES (0.3TEC) 35171487.72
8 LAND COST (0.04 TEC) 4689531.7
9 TOTAL EQUIPMENT COST (TEC) 117238292.4
10 TOTAL DIRECT COST (TDC) 280199857.8
34.2 INDIRECT COST:

Table 34.2.1 Indirect Cost

SI.NO THINGS INCLUDED IN INDIRECT COST COST IN Rs

1 ENGINEERING & SUPERVISION (0.08TDC) 22415988.62
2 CONSTRUCTION (0.1 TDC) 28019985.78
3 CONTARCTOR’S FEES (0.05 TDC) 14009992.89
4 CONTIGENCY (0.08 TDC) 22415988.62
5 TOTAL INDIRECT COST (TIC) 86861955.91

Total Fixed Capital Investment (TFCI) = TIC+TDC

= 86861955.91+280199857.8
=367061813.7
Working Capital (WC) = 15% TFCI
=0.15* 367061813.7
= 55059272.06
Total Capital Investment (TCI) = TFCI+WC
= 55059272.06 +367061813.7
=422121085.8
Manufacturing Cost = Direct Production Cost + Fixed Charges + Plant Overhead Cost
34.3 DIRECT PRODUCTION COST :
Raw Materials Cost =1049448000
Operating Labor Cost = 113424300
Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labor Cost (0.1*OLC) = 11342430
Utilities Cost (0.1 TEC) = 117238229.2
Maintenance & Repairs (0.06 TFCI) = 22023708.82
Operating Supplies(0.15 M&R) = 3303556.323
Laboratory Charges (0.10 LC) = 11342430
Patents & Royalties (0.1 OLC) = 11342430
Total Direct Production Cost = 1339465084

34.4 FIXED CHARGES:

Depreciation Charges (0.1 TFCI+0.02 Building) = 37808221.32
Local Taxes (0.01 TFCI) = 3670618.137
Insurance (0.004 TFCI) = 1468247.255
Rent (0.08 Land+0.08 Building) = 4783322.33
Total Fixed Charges = 47730409.04
Plant Overhead Cost (0.5*(OLC+SC+M&RC) = 73395219.41
General Expenses = Administrative Cost +Distribution & Selling Cost +Research &
Development Cost
Administrative Cost (0.15(OLC+SC+M&RC)) = 22018565.82
Distribution &Selling Cost = 22018565.82
Research & Development Cost =73395219.41
General Expenses =117432351.1
Manufacturing Cost = 1460590712
Total Production Cost = GE+MC
=1578023064
Total Product Cost = 9041020800
Gross Earnings = Total Product Cost- Total Production Cost
 = 9041020800-1578023064
= 7462997736
General Taxes = 15% Gross Earnings – General Taxes
= 1119449660
Profit = Gross Earnings – General Taxes
= 6343548076
Rate Of Return = Profit/Total Capital Cost
= 6343548076/422121085.8
= 15.03%
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