Engineering Practice

Piping Design,
Part 2 —
Flanges
W. M. Huitt
W. M. Huitt Co. The engineer or designer must choose among
several flange options. Additional decisions involve
P
ipe flanges are used to me-
chanically connect pipe sections
to other pipe sections, inline facing and surface finishes, and the appropriate
components, and equipment.
Flanges also allow pipe to be assem- gaskets, bolts and nuts
bled and disassembled without cut-
ting or welding, which eliminates the Flanges are available with various and that the end of the pipe be reason-
need for those two operations when contact facings (the flange-to-flange ably close to the mating surface of the
dismantling is required. In providing contact surface) and methods of con- flange. Note that the term “reasonably
a breakable joint, however, flanges necting to the pipe itself. The flanges close” is taken, in context, from Annex
unfortunately provide a potential leak under B16.5, a standard widely rel- A of ASME B16.5; it is not quantified.
path for the process fluid contained in evant to the process industries, are In order to achieve this “reasonably
the pipe. Because of this, the usage of available in a variety of styles and close” requirement, the flange thread
flanges needs to be minimized where pressure classifications. The differ- has to be longer and the diameters of
possible, as with all other joints. ent styles, or types, are denoted by the smaller threads must be smaller
The most prevalent flange stan- the way each connects to the pipe than that indicated in ASME B1.20.1.
dards to be used in the process in- itself and/or by the type of face. The When installing threaded flanges
dustries are based on those of the types of pipe-to-flange connections Class 600 and higher, ASME B16.5
American Soc. of Mechanical Engi- include the following: recommends using power equipment
neers (ASME). These include: • Threaded to obtain the proper engagement. Sim-
B16.1 – Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and • Socket welding (or socket weld) ply using arm strength with a hand
Flanged Fittings • Slip-on welding (or slip on) wrench is not recommended.
B16.5 - Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fit- • Lapped (or lap joint) The primary benefit of threaded
tings (NPS 1/2 through NPS 24, • Welding neck (or weld neck) flanges is in eliminating the need for
where NPS is nominal pipe size; see • Blind welding. In this regard, these flanges
Part 1 of this series, CE, February, are sometimes used in high-pressure
pp. 42–47) Flange types service in which the operating temper-
B16.24 – Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Threaded: The threaded flange (Fig- ature is ambient. They are not suit-
Flanges and Flanged Fittings ure 1), through Class 400, is connected able where high temperatures, cyclic
B16.36 – Orifice Flanges to threaded pipe in which the pipe conditions or bending stresses can be
B16.42 – Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges thread conforms to ASME B1.20.1. potential problems.
and Flanged Fittings For threaded flanges in Class 600 and Socketweld: The socketweld flange is
Large Diameter Steel Flanges (NPS* higher, the length through the hub of made so that the pipe is inserted into
26 through NPS 60) the flange exceeds the limitations of the socket of the flange until it hits
B16.47 – Large Diameter steel flanges ASME B1.20.1. ASME B16.5 requires the shoulder of the socket. The pipe is
(NPS 26 through NPS 60) that when using threaded flanges in then backed away from the shoulder
Class 600 or higher, Schedule 80 or approximately 1/16 in. before being
*NPS, indicated above, is an acronym for Nomi-
nal Pipe Size. heavier pipe wall thickness be used, welded to the flange hub.
56 Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2007

56-61 CHE 3-07.indd 56 2/27/07 6:45:01 PM

 9
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Figure 1. Threaded flanges need not be welded Figure 3. Slip-on flanges offer an initial lower cost

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Figure 2. Socketweld flanges have been commonly used Figure 4. A lap-joint flange can yield savings in material
for small pipe sizes costs

If the pipe were resting against the room to make the internal
shoulder (this is the flat shelf area fillet weld without damag- -FOHUI -FOHUI -FOHUI
depicted in Figure 2 as the differ- ing the flange face. UO UO UO
ence between diameters B and B2) of The slip-on flange is a pre-
the socket joint during welding, heat ferred flange for many appli-
0% 0% 0%
from the weld would expand the pipe cations because of its initial
longitudinally into the shoulder of the lower cost, the reduced need
socket, forcing the pipe-to-flange weld for cut length accuracy and S S S
U U U
area to move. This could cause the the reduction in end prep - - -
weld to crack. time. However, the final in- 5ZQF
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The socketweld flange was initially stalled cost is probably not
developed for use on small size, high- much less than that of a
pressure piping in which both a back- weld-neck flange.
side hub weld and an internal shoul- The strength of a slip- "/4* "/4*
der weld was made. This provided a on flange under internal 4MJQPO MBQKPJOU
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static strength equal to the slip-on pressure is about 40% less
flange (discussed below), with a fa- than that of a weld-neck
tigue strength 1.5 times that of the flange, and the fatigue rate 5ZQFT
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Because having two welds was on flange is not approved

labor intensive, it became the prac- above Class 1500. Figure 5. Stub-ends serve to complete lap joints
tice to weld only at the hub of the Lap joint: The lap-joint
flange. This practice relegated the flange (Figure 4) requires a compan- cases, the designer can elect to use a
socketweld flange to be more fre- ion lap joint, or Type A stub end (stub stub end specified with the same ma-
quently used for small pipe sizes ends are described below) to complete terial as the pipe, but use a less costly,
(NPS 2 in. and below) in non-high- the joint. The installer is then able to perhaps carbon-steel, lap-joint flange.
pressure, utility type service piping. rotate the flange. This capability al- This strategy prevents the need of
The socketweld flange is not ap- lows for quick bolthole alignment of having to weld a more costly compat-
proved above Class 1500. the mating flange during installation ible alloy flange to the end of the pipe.
Slip on: Unlike the socketweld flange, without taking the extra precautions Stub ends are prefabricated or cast
the slip-on flange (Figure 3) allows the required during prefabrication of a pipe flares that are welded directly to
pipe to be inserted completely through welded flange. the pipe. They are available in three
its hub opening. Two welds are made Their pressure holding ability is different types (Figure 5): Type A,
to secure the flange to the pipe. One about the same as that of a slip-on (which is the lap-joint stub end), Type
fillet weld is made at the hub of the flange. The fatigue life of a lap-joint/ B and Type C.
flange, and the second weld is made at stub-end combination is about 10% Type A is forged or cast with an
the inside diameter of the flange near that of a weld-neck flange, with an outside radius where the flare be-
the flange face. initial cost that is a little higher than gins. This radius conforms to the
The end of the pipe is offset from that of a weld-neck flange. radius on the inside of the lap-joint
the face of the flange by a distance The real cost benefit in using a lap- flange. The mating side of the flare
equal to the lesser of the pipe wall joint flange assembly is realized when has a serrated surface.
thickness or ¼ in. plus approximately installing a stainless-steel or other Type B is forged or cast without
1/16 in. This is to allow for enough costly alloy piping system. In many the radius where the flare begins. It
Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2007 57

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 Engineering Practice

9
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# : $
$ 3
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Figure 6. Weld-neck flanges are highly versatile Figure 7. Blind flanges are commonly used to cap off pipe-
line ends

is used to accommodate the slip-on loading, either cryogenic or elevated sification was changed to the class
flange or plate flange as a back-up temperatures, the weld-neck flange designation. These designations have
flange. is essential. no direct correlation with pounds of
Type C is fabricated from pipe using Blind: While the blind flange (Fig- pressure. Rather, they are a factor in
five suggested methods indicated in ure 7) is used to cap off the end of the pressure rating calculation found
ASME B31.3. The most prevalent a pipeline or a future branch con- in B16.5. In a subsequent part of this
of these is the machine flare. This nection, it is also used for other pur- series, we will discuss how these des-
method consists of placing a section poses. It can be drilled and tapped ignations are factored into the design
of pipe into a flaring machine, flaring for a threaded reducing flange or of the flange.
the end of the pipe and then cutting machined out for a slip-on reducing Flanges, whether manufactured to
it to length. flange. The reduced opening can be ASME, API (American Petroleum In-
As you can see in the assembly de- either on-center or eccentric. stitute), MSS (Manufacturer’s Stan-
tail of Figure 5, stub-end Types B & C dardization Soc.), AWWA (American
have no radius at the flare, while Type Flange pressure ratings Water Works Assn.) or any other stan-
A does. This allows Type A to conform ASME B16.5 flange pressure ratings dard, are grouped into pressure rat-
to the lap-joint flange. Due to the ra- have been categorized into material ings. In ASME, these pressure ratings
dius of the Type A stub end, a slip-on groupings. These groupings are for- are a sub-group of the various mate-
flange would have a poor fit, creating mulated based on both the material rial groups designated in B16.5.
non-uniform loading of the flare face composition and the process by which Tables 1 and 2 in this article break
as well as an undesirable point load at the flange is manufactured. out information from the Table 2 se-
the radius of the flare. The available pressure Classifica- ries in ASME B16.5. The Table 2 se-
Weld neck: The reinforcement area tions under ASME B16.5 are: 150, ries is a series of tables that list the
of the weld-neck flange (Figure 6) dis- 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500 and 2500. The working pressures of flanges based
tinguishes it from other flanges. This correct terminology for this designa- on material groupings, temperature
reinforcement area is formed by the tion is Class 150, Class 300, and so on. and classification.
added metal thickness, which tapers The term 150 pound, 300 pound and There are 34 such tables, segregated
from the hub of the flange to the weld so on is a carryover from the old ASA into three material categories: carbon
end. The bore of the flange needs to be (American Standards Association) and low alloy steels, austenitic stain-
specified in order to obtain the same Classification. ASA is the precursor to less steels, and nickel alloys. These are
wall thickness at the weld end as the the American National Standards In- further segregated into more defined
pipe it will be welded to. This will give stitute (ANSI).* material sub-groups. Tables 1 and 2
it the same ID bore as the pipe. Development of ASME B16.5 began of this article show Table 2-1.1 from
The weld-neck flange is the most in 1920. In 1927 the American Tenta- B16.5, which indicates, in reverse
versatile flange in the ASME stable tive Standard B16e was approved. sequence, Subcategory 1 of Material
of flanges. Much of its use is for fit- This eventually became what we group 1 (carbon and low alloy steels).
ting-to-fitting fabrication, in which know today as ASME B16.5. Until the If you had an ASME B16.5, Class
the flange can be welded directly to a 1960s, the pressure classifications, 150, ASTM A105 flange, this is the
fitting, such as an elbow, without the as addressed earlier, were referred table you would use to determine the
need for a short piece of pipe, as would to as 150 pound, 300 pound, etc. It working pressure limit of the flange.
be required with a slip-on flange. It was at this point the pressure clas- To find the working pressure of the
can be used in low-pressure, non-haz- *ANSI was founded as a committee whose responsibility was to coordinate the development of stan-
ardous fluid services as well as high- dards and to act as a standards traffic cop for the various organizations that develop standards. Its
basic function is not to develop standards, but rather to provide accreditation of those standards
pressure, high-cyclic and hazardous Originating as the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC) in 1918, ANSI had, over
fluid services. its first ten years, outgrown its Committee status and in 1928 was reorganized and renamed as the
American Standards Association (ASA). In 1966 the ASA was reorganized again under the name of
While the initial cost of the weld- the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). In 1969 ANSI adopted its present name.
neck flange may be higher than that While the B16 and B31 Standards have previously carried the ASA and ANSI prefix with its vari-
ous standards titles, ASME has always been the administrative sponsor in the development of those
of a slip-on flange, the installed cost standards. In the 1970s the prefix designation changed to ANSI/ASME and finally to ASME.
Referring to ANSI B16. or ANSI B31. is no longer correct. Instead, it is correct to refer to a standard
reduces that differential. And for as ANSI/ASME B16. in that it indicates an ANSI-accredited ASME standard. Or one can simply refer
conditions of possible high thermal to the standard as ASME B16. or ASME B31.

58 Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2007

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 These conditions, such as
steam service, will also be
discussed in a subsequent
article.
Category D fluid services
are those fluid services that
are nonflammable, non-
toxic and not damaging to
human tissue. Additionally,
Category D fluids do not
exceed 150 psig and 366º F.
In initial service leak
testing, the test fluid is the
service fluid. Leak test-
ing occurs during or prior
to initial operation of the
system. As the service fluid
is introduced to the piping
system and brought to op-
erating pressure, in pres-
sure increments, all joints
are observed for possible
leaks. If no leaks are de-
tected, the pipeline simply
Figure 8. Flange facings are available in several varieties
remains in service.
Other ASME B31.3 fluid
abovementioned flange, enter the col- dition that the system is expected or services may be expected to operate at
umn of this table designated as 150 allowed to see. This then becomes the one set of conditions, but are designed
then move down the column to the op- condition to which you should design for another set. For those systems,
erating temperature. For intermedi- for, and to which the leak test is based which might include periodic steam-
ate temperatures, linear interpolation on, not the operating condition. out (cleaning, sterilization, sanitiza-
is permitted. Table 2, as it indicates, represents tion) or passivation, you therefore
The previous paragraph refers to the working or operating pressures want to base your flange-rating selec-
“operating temperature” when one of the flange at an indicated tempera- tion on those more-extreme, periodic
is looking to determine the working ture for a specific class. The maximum design conditions. To clarify “periodic”
pressure of a flange. “Operating” and hydrostatic leak-test pressure for a in this context, the sanitization pro-
“working” are synonymous. The indi- Class 150 flange in Table 2-1.1 is 1.5 cess may be done as frequently as once
cation of a working pressure and tem- times the rated working pressure at per week and last for up to one-and-a-
perature of a fluid service is the same 100°F, or 285 x 1.5 = 427.5 rounded off half shifts in duration.
as indicating the operating pressure to the next higher 25 psi, or 450 psig.
and temperature. We can extrapolate that piece of Facings and surface finishes
There exists some confusion in this information to say that since hydro- Standard flange-facing designations
area. That confusion becomes appar- static leak-test pressure is based on (Figure 8) are as follows: flat face,
ent when the engineer is determining 1.5 times design pressure, the work- raised face, ring joint, tongue and
design pressure and temperature and ing pressure limit given in the Table 2 groove, large and small male and fe-
applying them to the flange rating. On matrix ostensibly becomes the design male, small male and female on end of
the surface, there appears to be a con- pressure limit. pipe, and large and small tongue and
flict in rating a flange for design con- When one is working with ASME groove. The height of the raised face
ditions when Table 2 only indicates B31.3 Category D fluid services, and for Class 150 and 300 flanges is 0.06
working pressures. initial service leak testing is per- in. The height of the raised face for
Operating and design pressures formed, the working pressure limit Class 400 and above is 0.25 in.
and temperatures will be explained then remains the working pressure Industry wide, not discounting the
in more detail in a subsequent article limit because testing is performed lap-joint flange and stub-end com-
in this series. For now, be aware that at operating or working pressures. bination, the two most widely used
every service should have an operat- However, there are caveats that ad- flange facings are the flat face and
ing pressure/temperature as well as dress the fact that not all Category the raised face.
a design pressure/temperature. A de- D fluid services (see next paragraph) The surface finish of standard
sign condition is the maximum coinci- should waive the hydrostatic leak raised-face and flat-face flanges has a
dental pressure and temperature con- test for an initial service leak test. serrated concentric or serrated spiral
Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2007 59

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 Table 1. Pressure Temperature ratings
for Groups 1.1 through 3.16 Materials
Engineering Practice Ratings for group 1.1 materials
Nominal Forgings Castings Plates
designation

surface finish with an average rough- C-Si A 105 (1) A 216 Gr. WCB (1) A 515 Gr. 70 (1)
ness of 125 × 10–6 in. to 250 × 10–6 C-Mn-Si A 350 Gr. LF2 (1) A 516 Gr. 70 (1)(2)
in. The cutting tool used for the ser- A 537 Cl. 1 (3)
rations will have a 0.06 in. or larger Notes: (1) Upon prolonged exposure to temperature above 800°F, the carbide phase of steel may
be converted to graphite. Permissible, but not recommended for prolonged use above 800°F.
radius, and there should be from 45 to (2) Not to be used over 850°F (3) Not to be used over 700°F
55 grooves per inch.
Table 2. Working Pressures by classes, psig
Bolts, nuts and gaskets Temp., °F Class
Sealing of the flange joint and the 150 300 400 600 900 1,500 2,500
hygienic-clamp joint (as discussed -20 to 100 285 740 990 1,480 2,220 3,705 6,170
last month in Part 1) is paramount 200 260 675 900 1,350 2,025 3,375 5,625
in providing integrity to the overall 300 230 655 875 1,315 1,970 3,280 5,470
piping system. This is achieved with 400 200 635 845 1,270 1,900 3,170 5,280
the use of bolts, nuts and gaskets. 500 170 600 800 1,200 1,795 2,995 4,990
Making the right selection for the 600 140 550 730 1,095 1,640 2,735 4,560
application can mean the difference 650 125 535 715 1,075 1,610 2,685 4,475
between a joint with integrity and 700 110 535 710 1,065 1,600 2,665 4,440
one without. 750 95 505 670 1,010 1,510 2,520 4,200
ASME B16.5 provides a list of ap- 800 80 410 550 825 1,235 2,060 3,430
propriate bolting material for ASME 850 65 270 355 535 805 1,340 2,230
flanges. The bolting material is 900 50 170 230 345 515 860 1,430
grouped into three strength catego- 950 35 105 140 205 310 515 860
ries — high, intermediate and low 1,000 20 50 70 105 155 260 430
— that are based on the minimum
yield strength of the specified bolt adequate strength to maintain joint • Fluid service compatibility will help
material. tightness.” B31.3 additionally states in determine the most suitable gasket
The high-strength category in- Paragraph 309.2.3, “…If either flange material.
cludes bolt material with a minimum is to the ASME B16.1 (cast iron), ASME The critical nature of the fluid will
yield strength of not less than 105 B16.24 (cast copper alloy), MSS SP- determine the degree of integrity re-
kilopounds per square inch (ksi). The 42 (valves with flanged and buttweld quired in the joint. This requirement
intermediate-strength category in- ends), or MSS SP-51 (cast flanges and will help determine bolt strength
cludes bolt material with a minimum fittings) specifications, the bolting ma- and material as well as gasket type
yield strength of between 30 ksi and terial shall be no stronger than low • Environmental conditions (corrosive
105 ksi. The low-strength category in- yield strength bolting unless: (a) both atmosphere, wash-down chemicals,
cludes bolt material with a minimum flanges have flat faces and a full face other) will also help determine the
yield strength no greater than 30 ksi. gasket is used: or, (b) sequence and best bolt material
As defined in ASME B16.5, the torque limits for bolt-up are specified, In short, all of the variables that come
high-strength bolting materials “. . . . with consideration of sustained loads, together in making up a flange-joint
may be used with all listed materials displacement strains, and occasional specification have to do so in a com-
and all gaskets.” The intermediate- loads (see Paragraphs. 302.3.5 and plementary fashion. Simply selecting
strength bolting materials “. . . . may 302.3.6), and strength of the flanges.” a gasket based on material selection
be used with all listed materials and In specifying flange bolts, as well as and not taking into account the pres-
all gaskets, provided it has been veri- the gasket, it is necessary to consider sure rating requirement could provide
fied that a sealed joint can be main- not only design pressure and temper- a gasket that would get crushed under
tained under rated working pressure ature but also fluid service compat- necessary torque requirements rather
and temperature”. The low-strength ibility, the critical nature (if any) of than withstand the bolt load and cre-
bolting materials “. . . . may be used the fluid service, and environmental ate a seal.
with all listed materials but are lim- conditions, all in conjunction with one Selecting a low-strength bolt to be
ited to Class 150 and Class 300 joints,” another. To aid in understanding the used with a Class 600 flange joint with
and can only be used with selected relationships among these criteria, proper gasketing will require the bolts
gaskets as defined in ASME B16.5. some clarification follows: to be torqued beyond their yield point,
ASME B31.3 further clarifies in • The design pressure and tempera- or, at the very least, beyond their elas-
Paragraph 309.2.1, “Bolting having ture jointly determine the pressure tic range. To explain this briefly, bolts
not more than 30 ksi specified mini- class of a flange set. That in turn, act as springs when they are installed
mum yield strength shall not be used along with flange size, will deter- and loaded properly. In order for the
for flanged joints rated ASME B16.5 mine the number and size of the flange joint to maintain a gasket seal,
Class 400 and higher, nor for flanged flange bolts. The flange class will it requires dynamic loading. Dynamic
joints using metallic gaskets, unless also determine the compressibility loading of flange bolts allows expan-
calculations have been made showing range of the gasket material sion and contraction movement in and
60 Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2007

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 around the joint while maintaining a states that the proper grade for bolts with one another in order for the joint
seal. This is achieved by applying suf- to be used for pipe flange applications assembly to perform in a way that it is
ficient stress to the bolt to take it into is Grade B. The standard goes fur- expected to for a given application. ■
the material’s elastic range. ther to state that when used for pipe Edited by Nicholas P. Chopey
If the bolts are not stressed suffi- flanges, Grade B bolts require a Heavy
ciently into their elastic range, any re- Hex Grade A nut under ASTM A563. Author
laxation in the gasket could reduce the In writing a pipe specification that W. M. (Bill) Huitt has been
involved in industrial pip-
sealing ability of the joint. To the other included the A307 bolt, you would not ing design, engineering and
construction since 1965. Posi-
extreme, if the bolts were stressed be- need to specify the nut, since it is al- tions have included design en-
yond their elastic range and into the ready defined in A307. gineer, piping design instruc-
tor, project engineer, project
plastic range of their material of con- However, ASTM A193, alloy and supervisor, piping depart-
struction the same issue would apply; stainless-steel bolts, goes only so far ment supervisor, engineering
manager and president of W.
they would lose their dynamic load on when it states that nuts shall conform M. Huitt Co. a piping con-
the gasket. In that case, if they did not to ASTM A194 — there are several sulting firm founded in 1987.
His experience covers both the engineering and
shear, they would take a set. Any re- grades of A194 nuts to select among. construction fields and crosses industrial lines
to include petroleum refining, chemical, petro-
laxation in the gasket will then result This is an example of where the match- chemical, pharmaceutical, pulp & paper, nuclear
in the reduction or elimination of the ing nut is not always explicitly called power, and coal gasification. He has written nu-
merous specifications including engineering and
joints sealing ability. out in the ASTM standard. Because construction guidelines to ensure that design
The nut should be selected to com- the ASTM standards are inconsistent and construction comply with code requirements,
Owner expectations and good design practices.
plement the bolt. The bolt material in that regard, the specification writer Bill is a member of ISPE (International Society
specification will steer you, either must make sure that the nut is cov- of Pharmaceutical Engineers), CSI (Construction
Specifications Institute) and ASME (American
partially or completely, into the proper ered in a specification. Society of Mechanical Engineers). He is a con-
tributor to ASME-BPE and sets on two corporate
nut selection. In summary, all four components specification review boards. He can be reached
ASTM A307, a material standard — flanges, bolts, nuts and gaskets at: W. M. Huitt Co., P O Box 31154, St. Louis, MO
63131-0154, (314)966-8919. His email address is
for bolts in the low-strength category, — have to be selected in conjunction [email protected]

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