VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE OVERVIEW To apply calculus in many real-world situations and in higher mathematics, wwe nee! @ mathematical description of three-dimensional space. In this chapter we intro- duce threeimensional coordinate systems and vectors, Building on what we already know about coordinates in the x1-plane, we establish coordinates in space by adding a third axis that measures distance above and below the xy-plane. Vectors are used to study the analytic geometry of space, where they give simple ways to describe lines, planes, sur= faces, and curves in space. We use these yeomeitic ideas in the rest of the book to study ‘motion in space and the ealeulus of functions of several variables, with their many impor- tant applications in science, engineering, economies, and higher mathematics. Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems ‘To locate point in space, we use three mutually perpendicular coondiate axes, arranged 2s in Figure 12.1. The axes shown there make a right-handed coordinate frame. When you hold your right hand so thatthe Fingers curt from the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis, your thumb points along the positive z-axis. So when you Took down on the 2y~ plane from the positive direction of the axis, postive angles in the plane are measured counterelockwise from the positive x-axis and around the positive =-axs. (Ina left-handed coordinate frame, the -axis would point downward in Figure 12.1 and angles inthe plane ‘would be positive chen measured clockwise from the positive x-axis. This i not the con- vention we have used for measuring angles in the xy-plane. Right-handed and left-handed contin coordinate frames are not equivalent.) The Cartesian coordinates (x , =) of a point Pin space are the numibers at which the planes through P perpendicular © the axes cut the axes. Cartesian coordinates for space ‘are also called rectangular coordinates because the axes that define them meet at right . angles. Points on the axis have y+ and z-coordinates equal to zero. That is, they have co- a ‘ordinates ofthe form (x, 0,0). Similarly, points onthe y-axis have coordinates of the form (0,0), and points on the =axis have coordinates of the form (0,0, 2) ‘The planes determined by the coordinates axes are the xp-plane, whose standard on ye was) d x.0) 0.0) “ equation is = = 0; the yz-plane, whose standard equation is x = 0; and the xz-plane, Seams whose standard equation is » = 0. They meet at the origin (0, 0, 0) (Figure 12.2). The Seeeeharte seer ‘origin is also identified by simply 0 or sometimes the letter O. ‘The three coordinate planes x = 0,y = 0, and z = 0 divide space into eight cells FIGURE 12.1 TheCartesian coordinate called octants, The actant in which the point coordinates are all positive is called the first system is right-handed, ‘octant; there is no conventional numbering for the other seven octants 832 asyephie: 2 = 0 FIGURE 12.2 The planes x space into eight octants, 121 Thvee-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 833 ‘The points in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis all have the same x-coordinate, this being the number at which that plane cuts the x-axis. The y~ and >-coordinates can be any ‘numbers. Similarly the points in a plane perpendicular to the y-axis have a common y-co- ‘ordinate and the points in a plane perpendicular to the z-axis have a common z-coordinate ‘To write equations for these planes. we name the common coordinate’s value, The plane x = 2 isthe plane perpendicular to the x-axis at x = 2. The plane y = 3 i the plane per- pendicularto the y-axis at y = 3. The plane > = 5 is the plane perpendicular to the 2-axis al Figure 12.3 shows the planes x = 2, 5, together with their inter- section point (2. 3,5). FIGURE 12.3. The planes x andz = 5 determine thre ines through the point (2,3, 5). ‘The planes x = 2 and y = 3 in Figure 12.3 intersect in a line parallel 10 the z-axis. ‘This line is described by the pair of equations x = 2, » = 3. A point (x,y, z) lies on the line ifand only if x = 2 and y = 3. Similarly, the line of intersection of the planes y = 3 and 2 = 5 is described by the equation pair y = 3, 2 = 5. Ths line runs parallel to the x= axis. The line of intersection of the planes 5, parallel to the y-axis, is de- seribed by the equation pair x = 2,2 = 5 In the following examples, we match coordinate equations and inequalities with the sets of points they define in space. EXAMPLE 1 Interpreting Equations and Inequalities Geometrically @) 220 The half-space consisting of the points on and above the sy-plane, ) © The plane perpendicular to the x-axis at x = —3. This plane lies parallel fo the ye-plane and 3 units behind it © 2= 0x50» 20 “The second quadrant of the x»-plane, @) += Oy 20,220 “The first ootant @ -lsysl The slab between the planes y = —1 and y = 1 (planes: included), wy 22 The line in which the planes y = ~2 and z = 2 inter- sect. Alternatively, the line through the point (0, ~2, 2) parallel to the x-axis .834 Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space FIGURE 12.4 Thecinles? + y? = 4in the plane = = 3 (Example 2. Biss 92.2) FIGURE 12.5 We find he distance between P\ and Ps by applying the Pythagorean theorem to he sight triangles PAB and PRP EXAMPLE 2 Graphing Equations What points P(x, 2) satisfy the equations tyra and 23? Solution The points lie in the horizontal plane = = 3 and, inthis plane, make up the citele x? + y? = 4, We call this set of points “the circle x? + y? = 4 in the plane = = 3” ‘or, more simply, “the circle x? + y? = 4,2 = 3” (Figure 12.4), . Distance and Spheres in Space ‘The formula for the distance between two points in the xy-plane extends to points in space. “The Distance Between Pyixi,y15 1) amd Pslxs, 252) [PP = Vo — nF + Qa + Proof We construct a rectangular box with faces parallel to the coordinate planes and the points P, and P; at opposite comers of the box (Figure 125). If A(xz,y).21) and Bix, 92,21) are the vertices of the box indicated in the figure, then the three box edges PA, AB, and BPs bave lengths idl =|e-al 48) =b2-ml, [BP = le — al Because triangles P)BP: and P\AB are both right-angled, evo applications of the Pythagorean theorem give [P.Po|? = [PvBl? + |BP2|? and Py? = |Pidl? + |AB|? (see Figure 12.5) So [PiP2P = [PiBl? + |BPal? = |PiAl? + ABP? + [BPI ‘Therefore [Pia = Voa— i? + G2 — nF # @— aP . EXAMPLE 3 Finding the Distance Between Two Points The distance between P,(2, 1,5) and P3(—2, 3, 0) is |p| = VER 2 #81 + OF = Vistar = VE = 6.2708 .Pulse. toeo) em FIGURE 12.6 The standard equation of the sphere of radius a centered atthe point Ceosmnszo)is (ea +P + a) 12,1. Theee-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 835 ‘We can use the distance formula to write equations for spheres in space (Figure 12.6). [A point Px, y=) lis onthe sphere of radius a centered at Psa, yo 20) precisely when IPaP| = aor ( — x + Oy — oF + G ‘The Standard Equation for the Sphere of Radius # and Center (xy,y9, 20) (x= x0)? + = yo} — ae)? = a EXAMPLE 4 — Finding the Center and Radius of a Sphere Find the center and radius ofthe sphere aby eet tayo det 1 =0, Solution We find the center and radius ofa sphere the way we find the center and radius of a circle: Complete the squares on the x, y-, and z-terms as necessary and write each quadratic as a squared linear expression. Then, from the equation in standard form, read off the center and radius. For the sphere here, we have Sty ered t1=0 (x? + 3x) + y? + (@? — dz) = -1 (e+a+@))er+( -#+(3 y+ (Ay BV 4 ype eae t S44 ed (3) ty tees deanF From this standard form, we read that xo = ~3/2,y9 anda = 21/2. The ‘center is (—3/2, 0, 2). The radius is 21/2. . EXAMPLE 5 Interpreting Equations and Inequalities @ Pty tt<4a ‘The interior ofthe sphere x? + y? + @ Pry tes ‘The solid ball bounded by the sphere x? + y? + 2? = 4. Alternatively the sphere x? + y? + 27 4 together with its interior. @ ety teo4 “The exterior of the sphore x? + y? + 2? = @ e+ 420 ‘The lower hemisphere cut from the sphere x? + y+ =? = 4by theay-plane (the plane z = 0). Just as polar coordinates give another way to locate points in the xy-plane (Section 10,5), alternative coordinate systems, different from the Cartesian coordinate system de- veloped here, exist for three-dimensional space. We examine two of these coordinate sys- tems in Section 15.6836 Chapter 12: Vectors andthe Geometry of Space rear pe Ee Sg Sets, Equations, and Inequalities Ia Exercises 1-12, give a geomet description ofthe set of points in space whose coordinate sate the given pis of equations rad yo3 Rara-l 2-0 Arak oye 6 ttytaa re Ryeeal x Payt Wet te Met y+ @+3F=25, 2=0 B+ = DF -4y In Exercises 13-18, desribe the sets of points in space whose coord nates satisfy the given inequalities or combinations of equations and inequalities. 1B. a2 0, y20, 2-0 bez y=O, z= Waders! bosrsl, syst e0srs1, Osysi, O52 Bartetts! hee Wa rtytsh 2-0 batty 2 +y'< 1, norestrction on Wactye2el 220 beepers 220 Waray, 220 bray no restriction on = In Exercises 19-28, describe the given set wi with a pair of equations 19. The plane perpendicular tothe a, xaxisat(3,0,0) sani at (0,0, 2) 20, The plane though the poin (3, ~1, 2) perpendicular tothe 1 single equation or be, pais at (0, ~1, 0) a vaxis—b. panis ©. eaxis 21. The plane trough the point (3,~1, 1) parallel tothe a sypline b yeplne es az-plane 22, The circle of radius 2 centered at (0,0, 0) and lying in the arplane he ye-plane ——e. azplane 23. The circle of radius? centered at (0,2, 0) and lying in the -splne yeplane ——e. plane y= 2 24, The circle of radius | centered at (~3, 4, 1) and lying in & plane paral tothe a. splne bssphine —« 25, The line through the point (1,3, ~1) parallel tothe b. ysaxis 26, The set of points in space equidistant from the origin and the point (0, 2,0) 227, The citele in whieh the plane through the pont (1, 1.3) perp: dicular tothe 2s meets the sphere of radius $ centered atthe origin 28, The set of points in space that Lie 2 units from the point (0,0, 1) snd, atthe same time, 2 units from the point (0,0, ~1) ‘Write inequalities to describe the sets in Fxerises 20-34 29. The slab bounded by the planes = cluded) ‘30. The solid cube in the first octant bounded by the coordinate planes and the planes x = 2, y= 2, and = 2 SL. The hal-space consisting of the points on and below the xy-plane 32, The upper hemisphere ofthe sphere of radius | centred atthe origin 33. The (a) interior and (b) exterior ofthe sphere of radius | centered atthe point (1,1, 1) ‘34, The closed region bounded by the spheres of radi I and radius 2 centered at the origin. (Closed means the spheres are to be in= cluded. Had we wanted the spheres left out, we would have asked for the open region bounded by the spheres. This is analogous 10 the way we use closed and open to describe intervals: closed ‘means endpoints included, open means endpoints left out. Closed sets include boundaries; open seis leave them out.) 0 and z= 1 (planes in- Distance In Exercises 35-40, find the distance berween points Py and P. 35. Pull), Px3.3,0) 36. PA=11,5), PL2,5,0) 37. PU, PCA -2,7) 38 P34S), PA2,3,4) 39. Py(0,0,0), Pa(2,-2,-2) 40. PY5,3.-2), Pa{0,0.0) ‘Spheres Pe cota hein Ee aarp ee 1y iy iV _ 2 a (rt) «(t+ (tf a 43, (x ~ V3) + (y- Va) + (+ Vi =2 wer (redler122 Vectors. 837 Find equations for the spheres whose centers and radi re given in. St, 2x? + 2)? + 22? +r tp = Exercises 45-48 Shar? 4 3y2 43:2 4 y- 22 = ens abana Theory and Examples 43. (1,2,3) vie ‘53. Find a formula for the distance from the point Pix, y, 2) to the 46. (0,-1.5) 2 er ee 47. (-2,0,0) M3 ‘54, Find a formata for the distance from the point P(x, y, 2) to the 48. (0,-7.0) 7 erp: byrne «, eahen lod the enters and radi of the spheres in Brercises 49-82, $5. Find the perimeter of the triangle with vertices A(—1,2, 0), ty te ead =0 BU, =1,3), and CB, 4, 5). 56, Show that the point P[3, 1, 2) is equidistant from the points A(2,~1, 3) and B44, 3,1. Terminal point a ial 8 poi FIGURE 12.7. The directed line segment 4B ‘Some of the things we measure are determined simply by their magnitudes. To record ‘mass, length, or time, for example, we need only write dawn a number and name an appro- priate unit of measure. We need more information to describe a force, displacement, or ve~ locity. To describe a force, we need to record the direction in which it acts as well as how lange itis. To describe a body's displacement, we have to say in what direction it moved as ‘well as how far. To describe a body's velocity, we have to know where the body is headed as well as how fast itis going, Component Form A quantity such as force, displacement, or velocity i ealled a vector and is represented by a directed line segment (Figure 12.7). The arrow points in the direction of the action and. its length gives the magnitude of the action in terms of a suitably chosen unit. For exam- pile, a force vector points in the direction in which the force acts; its length is a measure of the force's strength; a velocity vector points in the direction of motion and its length is the speed of the moving object. Figure 12.8 displays the velocity vector v ata specific location for a particle moving along a path in the plane or in space. (This application of vectors is studied in Chapter 13.) (2) evo dimensions (ey ehee dimensions FIGURE 12.8 The velocity vector ofa particle moving along a path (2) in the plane (bin space. The arrowhead on the path indicates the 0, then ku has the same direction as u; if & <0, then the direction of ku is opposite to that of u. Comparing the lengths of w and ku, we see that [awl = Van? (las)? lus)? = VP an? a = VE at + uF + ue = [kl Iu) ‘The length of ku is the absolute value of the scalar & times the length of w. The vector (—1)u = ~w has the same length as u but points in the opposite directionFIGURE 12.14 (a) The vector u ‘when aed tov, gives w @)u-veus ey, 122 Vectors 841. By the di ference u ~ v of two vectors, we mean u u + (-¥). and v = (v1.13, 9), then wv = (iy = via = Haus = my). Note that (u ~ v) + ¥ = u, so adding the vector (uw — v) to gives u (Figure 12.14a). Figure 12,14b shows the difference w ~ was the sum w + (=v) EXAMPLE 3 Performing Operations on Vectors Let = (-1,3,1) andy = (4,7, 0). Find @ut+3y mu-v © {3 Solution (4) Dut 3y = 2(-1.3.1) + 34, 7.0) = (-2,6,2) + (12,21,0) = (10, 27,2) 0) w= y= (13,1) = (47,0) = (1 = 4,3 = 1 = 0) = (5,-4.1) 2 pa © 3) = ty -jvi . Vector operations have many of the properties of ordinary arithmetic. These proper- tics are readily verified using the definitions of vector addition and multiplication by a scalar, Properties of Vector Operations Let u, v, w be veetors and a, b be scalars Loutveveu 2 (wtytweustivtw 2ou+0=u 4 u+(-u) S 0u=0 6 iu 7. albu) = (abu Balu tv) au tay 9. (a+ bu = au + bu An important application of vectors occurs in navigation. EXAMPLE 4 Finding Ground Speed and Direction A Bocing” 767° airplane, flying due east at 500 mph instill ait, encounters a 70-mph tail- ‘wind blowing in the ditection 60° north of east. The airplane holds its compass heading ddue east but, because of the wind, acquires a new ground speed and direction, What are they?B42 Chapter 12: Vectors andthe Geometry of Space FIGURE 12.15 Vectors representing the velocities ofthe airplane w and tilwind v in Example 4 ead tnd X Patsy Pauses ay baie FIGURE 12.18 The vector from P10 Pa is PiPy = tm — mh + (a 9h + = 2k Solution If u = the velocity ofthe airplane alone and v = the velocity ofthe talwind, then |u| = 500 and |v| = 70 (Figure 12.15). The velocity of the airplane with respect 10 the ground is given by the magnitude and direction of the resuliant vector w + v. Tf we let ‘the positive x-axis represent east and the positive y-axis represent north, then the compo~ nent forms of w and v are u = (500,0) and (70 e08 60°, 70 sin 60°) = (35, 35V3) ‘Therefore, ut y= (535,353) P+ (355) = 5384 and 65°, Figwe 2 ‘The new ground speed of the airplane is ubout $38.4 mph, and its new direction is about 65° north of east. . Unit Vectors A vector v of length 1 is called a unit vector. The standard unit veetors are 1= (1,00), 7 = (0,1,0), and k= (0,0,1) Any vector v = (v1, 12,03) cam be written as a Zinear combination of the standard nit vectors as follows: = (o1.e2e¥9) = (01, 0,0) + (0,995) + (0,045) (1, 0,0) + v2(0, 1,0) + v3(0, 0, 1) i +02) + ook. We call the scalar (or number) y; the i-component of the vector y, v» the Feomponent, and ps the k-component. In component form, the vector from Pi(x),).2)) 10 Pal, )>, (Figure 12.16). Whenever v # 0, its length |] is not zero and ‘That is, v/|¥| is a unit vector in the direction of v, called the direction of the nonzero vee: tory EXAMPLE 5 Finding a Vectors Direction Find a unit veetor u inthe direction of the vector from P\(1, 0, 1) t0 P4(3, 2,0)Historicat. BlocRaPiy Hermann Grassmann (1809-1877) 122 Vectors 843 Solution We divide PP, by its length: FPy = (3 ~ i+ (2-0) +- DR= + 3—k + ays Oa ei = Vazaei IPiP2] = VQ" + QP + (= Q+4+1=VO=3 2-4, +3y-te The unit vector u is the direction of FP . EXAMPLE 6 Expressing Velocity as Speed Times Direction Ify = 31 — 4] isa velocity vector, express v as a product ofits speed times a unit vector in the direction of motion. Solution Speed is the magnitude (length) of v lvl = Var + CaF = Vo 16 =5. The unit vector v/ || has the same direction as v vy 3-43, 04 ‘ i so vena . Leng Disesion oan ra Jn summary, we can express any nonzero vector v in terms of is two important features, engin and diet, by wing y = Jol Ity 4 0,then 1. * isa unit vector in the direction of v; 2. the equation v = |y|7}> expresses vin fxm ofits length and direction EXAMPLE 7 A Force Vector A force of 6 newtons is applied in the direction of the vector v = 2i + 2) ~ k. Express the force Fas a product of its magnitude and direction Solution The force vector has magnitude 6 and direction we 50 +2 -kB44 chapter 12: Vector andthe Geometry of Space Midpoint of a Line Segment Vectors are often usefll in geometry, For example, the coordinates of the midpoint of line segment are found by averaging ‘The midpoint M of the line segment joining points Py(xi,yi,21) and Pals, Y2, 22) isthe point ‘To see why, observe (Figure 12.17) that Git = Bb + Luy = Oh, + LO, ~ Th) (OP, + OP.) ntm, nth at area ecco EXAMPLE 8 Finding Midpoints The midpoint ofthe seyment joining P\(3, ~2, 0) and Px7, 4,4) is FIGURE 12.17 The coordinates of the ee 2 a eri y af i tnpoint rete averages of he (34 coordinates of Pd Ps Vectors in the Plane 13, The unit vector that makes an angle 0 = 22/3 wth the positive In Exercises 1-8, letw = (3, —2) and v = (2,5). Find the (a) com- vane poconisteauned ty megsiiie engl) pt toeqaces. 14, The nit vector that makes an angle = ~3a;/4 with he positive 13e a. ae unit vector obtained by rotting the vector (0,1) 120° coun Beas rae 15, The unit, tained by rotating the vector (0, 1) terclockwise about the origin 16, The unit vector obtained by rotating the vector (1, 0) 135° coun terelockwise about the erigin 5 2u-3v 6 tut sv 3 due In Exereises 9-16, find the component form ofthe vector. Venter 10 S908 Gace ckaee yaa i i 2, ee eh sta = 10. Thesectr OP whee OisthecriginandPis the midpoint ofscg- 2 * 0 i went 8, where R= and = (-4.3) 11, Psi ste poi (5,7, ~1)and itp (2, 9,2 i ee eee 18 HPs im iste po 20) nl iste 3.05) Fer ee OTE a AB, elas ae Coit, = (40, 1% ABIEA Wit pin (~7,—,1)and Be pin (10,8, 1) Oe (shan = 22) 20, AB isthe point (0,3) andthe pit 1,45)21, Su vitw = (1,1,—1) andy = (2, 22, —2u + 3vitw = (—1,0,2) andy Geometry and Calculation In Exercises 28 and 24, copy vectors u,v, and w head to til as neded to sketch the indicated vector. 3) (tay 2. auty butvew eure aunw 4, eu dutvtw Length and Direction In Exercises 25-30, express each vector a a product ofits length and direction 25, j-2k 26, 91 - 2) + 6k 3,44 ae Sit gk 27. sk fecal ik. ak a ve ve V6 vs V3 V3 31, Find the vectors whose lengths and directions are given. Try to do the calculations without writing. », Leng Dein connol BVI =k enahe ef hed at ar 1-3 122 Vectors B45 Find the vectors whose lengths and directions are given. Try to do the calculations without writing. Length Direction a7 nova 3 Se dard tie va 33, Finda Yector of magnitude 7in the direction of = 121 ~ 5k 14. Finda vector of magnitude 3 in the dretion opposite to the d= reetion of v = (1/28 = (1/2) ~ (1/20 Vectors Determined by Points; Midpoints In Exercises 35-38, find a the direction of PP and the midpoint of ine segment PP: 38. Py(-1,1,5) P202,5.0) 36, Pill,4.5)—Px(4,-2,7) 37. PARAS) P3234) 38, P1(0,0,0) —Px(2,~2,-2) 39, 1fAB = i + 4j ~ 2k and B is the point (5, 1, 3), find A. 40. 1B 3] + 8k and 4 is the point (—2, —3, 6), find B. Theory and Applications 4. Linear combination Let w= 24+ j.v= i+), and w= i ~ j. Find scalars @ and 6 such that w = av + Bw. 42, Linear combination Let u =i ~2),v = 21+ 3}, and w= 1 J. Write w = uy + up, where wis parallel to Wand us is par- allel to w, (See Exercise 41.) 43. Force veetor You are palling on a suitease with force F(pic- ‘ured here) whose magnitude is (F| = 10 Ib. Find the tnd j- components of F 44. Force vector A kite string exerts a 12-b pull (|| = 12) on a kite and makes a 45° angle with the horizontal. Find tbe horizon- ‘al and vertical components of F.B46 Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space 45, Velocity An airplane is fying inthe direction 25° west of north at $00 km/h, Find the component form of the velocity ofthe air- plane, assuming tha the positive x-axis represents due east and the positive yas represents due north, 446. Velocity An airplane is lying inthe direction 10° east of south 2 600 km/s, Find the component form ofthe velocity of the ai plane, assuming tha the positive x-axis represents due east and the positive y-axis represents due noth 47. Location bied Mies from its nest $ km in the direction 60° north of east, where it stops to nest ona tree. I then Mies 10 km in ‘the direction due southeast and lands atop a telephone pole, Place ‘an xy-coordinate system so thatthe origin is the birds nest, the -canis points eas, athe s-axis points north a. Atwhat point isthe tre located? . At what point is the telephone pole? 48. Use similar triangles to find the coordinates of the point that di- vides the segment from P\(xjyis2i) to Paley. y2, Tengths whose rato is pfg = r 49. Medians ofa triangle Suppose that 4, 8, and € are the comer points ofthe thin triangular plate of constant density shown here, ‘8. Find the veetor fom Co the midpoint M of side AB. '. Find the vector fom Ct the point that lies two-thirds ofthe ‘way ftom Co.Afon the median C¥ The Dot Product ‘Find the coordinates of the point in which the medians of ‘AABC intersect. According to Exercise 33, Section 64, this Point is the plate’ center of mass. ey AG.2.0) ‘50, Find the vector from the origin to the point of intersection of the ‘medians of the triangle whose vertices are AC,=1,2), BQ,1,3), and C11, SI. Let ABCD be a general, not necessarily planar, quadrilateral in space, Show that the two segments joining the midpoints of oppo- site sides of ABCD bisect each other (Hint: Show tha the sex ‘ments have the same midpoint.) ‘52, Vectors are drawn from the center ofa regular n-sded polygon in the plane to the vertices ofthe polygon. Show thatthe sum of the vectors is zero. (Hint: What happens to the sum if you rotate the polygon about its center?) 53. Suppose that 4, B, and C are vertices ofa triangle and that a, 6, and care, respectivels the midpoins of the opposite sides. Shows that da + Bb + Ce = 0. ‘54, Unit vectors in the plane Show that aunt vector in te plane ‘can be expressed as u = (c0s 0) + (sin, obtained by rotating Through an angle @ in the counterelackwie direction. Explain ‘why this form gives every unit vector in the pane. Ifa force F is applied toa particle moving along a path, we often need to know the magn: tude of the force in the direction of motion. If v is parallel to the tangent line tothe path at | thin whee F's apd hen we wnt git oh deton oie | 12.18 shows thatthe scalar quantity we seek i the lenath |F| e088, where i the ane In this section, we show how to calculate easily the angle between two vectors directly fiom their components. A key part of the calculation is an expression called the lot prod- gE 4 é between the two vectors F and v. Lenath = [F cos FIGURE 12,18 The magnitude ofthe force F in the direction of vector vis the length | F| c08 8 ofthe projection of Fonwo uct. Dot products are also called inner or scalar prduets because the product results in a scalar, nota vector. After investigating the dot product, we apply ito finding the projec- tion of one vector onto another (as displayed in Figure 12.18) and to finding the work done by a constant force acting through a displacement.ow FIGURE 12.19 The angle berwoon wand v FIGURE 12.20 The paralllogram law of addition of vectors gives Ww = w ~ ¥. 12.3 The Dot Product = B47 Angle Between Vectors When two nonzero vectors w and v are placed so their initial points coincide, they form an angle @ of measure 0 = 6 = m (Figure 12.19). If the vectors do not lie along the same line, the angle @ is measured in the plane containing both of them. If they do lie along the same line, the angle between them is 0 if they point in the same direction, and 77 if they point in opposite directions. The angle 0 is the angle between w and v. Theorem I gives a formula to determine this angle. THEOREM 1 Angle Between Two Vectors The angle between two nonzero vectors w= ( (5 v2.73) sven by and v | on (ea) Bofore proving Theorem 1 (which is a consequence of the law of cosines), let's focus attention on the expression 14 + tv2 + as0 in the ealeulation for 0 DEFINITION Dot Product The dot produet u-y (*u dot ¥") of vectors u = (ur, uo, ts) and v = (v4, v2, vs) wey = anys + aby + Hays, EXAMPLE 1 Finding Dot Products (a) (1, -2,-1)+{—6, 2, -3) = (1-6) + (22) + (-1)(-3), 6-443 = 7 © (fie +k) -j += (y= ern+Me=1 . ‘The dot product of a pair of wwo-dimensi al vectors is defined in a similar fashion: (um, ) (vive) = wrvy + ava, Proof of Theorem 1 Applying the law of cosines (Equation (6), Appendix B.3) to the tri- angle in Figure 12.20, we find that Iwi? = Jul? + [vl — 2[u||¥] cos@ Law of cosines 2\u\|v| cose = ful? + |v]? = Jw]?B48 chapter 12: Vectors andthe Geometry of Space Because w = u — v, the component form of w (i — vig = vas — vy). So (Vuk ak ag =u? + af ba? (Wor Foe + ef = ve + hte Vaca eae = (wy — 9) + (ua = wa + is = 9) = ut — Qnyyy + ve + aa? = Qtave + ve + — inns + vF and [uf + fol? = fw]? = 2levy + anny + san) ‘Therefore, 2u| |v] cos = Jul? + |v]? — [wl = 2(ay) + ava + Hos) Jul |¥| e086 = evn + nave + aes aun + tne + us cos @ Fi eae So ol (es sve + wt) . [uli With the notation of the dot product, the angle between two vectors w and ¥ can be written as cos! (i im) EXAMPLE 2 Finding the Angle Between Two Vectors in Space ~ 2] — 2kandv = 61 + 3) + 2k Find the angle between w Solution We use the formula above ey = ()(6) + (-2)G) + 232) = aaa Jul = VP + (2P + C3 = VO =3 Il = VG? + GP + GF = Van =7 o= (Git) a4) ians. (cGy) = 008 i ‘The angle formula applies to two-dimensional vectors as wellFIGURE 12.21 "The triangle in Example 3 123 The Dot Product 849 EXAMPLE 3. Finding an Angle of a Triangle Find the angle @ in the triangle ABC determined by the vertices 4 = (0,0), 8 = (3,5), and C = (5, 2) (Figure 12.21). Solution — The angle 6 is the angle between the vectors CA and CB. The component forms of these two vectors are Zh=(-5-2) nd B= (-2;3) Flt we calculate the dot product end magainudes ofthese rwo vector. ZiT = (~5)(-2) + (293) = 4 (P= Vo |G) = Vs \G| = VE OF = VB ‘Then applying the angle formula, we have (Cay ad SRSRSIEEE "HSIREES: cs (wate = 781° or 1.36 radians. . Perpendicular (Orthogonal) Vectors ‘Two nonzero vectors u and v are perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between them is 1/2. For such vectors, we have u+¥ = 0 because cos (77/2) = 0. The converse is also true. If w and v are nonzero vectors with u+v = |u||v| cos = 0, then cos@ = D and, 0 = cos!0 = 7/2. DEFINITION Orthogonal Vectors Vectors u and ¥ are orthogonal (or perpendicular) ifand only if w EXAMPLE 4 — Applying the Definition of Orthogonatity (a) w= (3, -2) and v = (4,6) are orthogonal because uv = (3)(4) + (—2)(6) (b) w= 3i— 2) +k and v= 25+ 4K are orthogonal because w-y = (3)(0) + (92) # DA) = 0. (©) Dis orthogonal to every vector u since ow (0.0, 0} + (uy. uss us) = (ON) + (OMlus) + (Olu) =o. .B50 Chapter 12: Vectors andthe Geometry of Space Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections The dot product obeys many of the laws that hold for ordinary products of real numbers (scalars. Properties of the Dot Product Iu, ¥, and w are any vectors and e is a scalar, then ows ven 2 (eu)rv = arlev) = e(uey) 3 ouly tw Surv uew 4. uew= |ul? S Ou=0. Hisroniest Brocka Proofs of Properties 1 and 3. The properties are easy to prove using the definition. For fone instance, here are the proofs of Properties | and 3 (1771-1853) Be wey = ayy Fava + tsvs = vite + Velez + v5uts Be oue(y + w) = een, uta, us) + dvi + wy, v2 + wa, vs + ws) ‘ 0 atm tan 1 an(oy + wy) + anton + 9) + lon + 9) i unm + mim + anv + aie + ans + am 4 pt = (+ aes + ge) + Gari + am + gm) wee ww . ° Pe We now return to the problem of projecting one vector onto another, posed in the | opening to this section, The vector prajetion of w = PO onto a nonzero vector v = PS , (Figure 12.22) s the vector Pf determined by droppinga perpendicular fom Oto he line if : “SPS. The notation for his vector is FIGURE 12,22 The vector projection of projy a (“the vector projection of u onto v"). If w represents a force, then projy w represents the effective force in the dreetion of v (Figure 12.23), If the angle @ between w and v is acute, projy w has length |u| cos @ and direction vi [| (Figure 12,24), 10 is obtuse, cos @ < 0 and proj w has length ~|u] cos and di- rection vj || In both eases, Projy w = (|u| c08 0) 7 “Ge manele: FIGURE 12.23 If we pull on the box with W/W Ww i Kamen ester eat bon fora inthe Geto vtheprojestion - (3) of w onto v. Ive ee123 The Dot Product 851. Length = jl cos Length ~ cos @ @ » FIGURE 12.24 The length of proj is (@) |u| cos @ feos @ = 0 and (6) —|u| e0s0 ifcos <0. ‘The number |u| cos is called the scalar component of u in the direction of v. To sum- Vector projection of u onto ¥: projyn = (uz) a ‘Scalar component of u inthe direction of ¥ @ Note that both the vector projection of w onto v and the sealar component of u onto ¥ de- pend only on the direction of the vector ¥ and not its length (because we dot u with v/|¥|, which is the direetion of v), EXAMPLE 5 Finding the Vector Projection Find the vector projection of u = 61 + 3j + 2k onto y = i ~ 2j ~ 2k and the scalar ‘component of w in the direction of v Solutfon We find proj, u from Equation (1): ~ 2k) ; : ofa ay =H ‘We find the scalar component of win the direction of v from Equation (2): : sas m.(ti-3—3) 4 3 Equations (1) and (2) also apply to two-dimensional vectors.B52 Chapter 22: Vectors and the Geometry of Space FIGURE 12.25 The work done by a constant free F during a displacement D is ({F] cos 8)1D| EXAMPLE 6 Finding Vector Projections and Scalar Components Find the vector projection of a force F = Si + 2] onto y = 1 ~ 3) and the scalar compo- nent of F in the direction of v. Solution ‘The veetor projection is Work La Caper 6, cle ews done ya rsa fe of maps Fin moving wr ctpetceh dace de WF That rll en feos eed dhl fron afc # mong en et rg dsparnst DS PB iene he dcton he wk pera te comerst Fa Secon o Drone ge tac Ftd ae 22) en _ sar emponent oF won = (fe Sms)! |F| cos 4)|D| ED DEFINITION Work by Constant Force i} “The work done by a constant force F acting through a displacement D = PQ is Weed F|[D| cos, | where isthe angle between F and D. EXAMPLE 7 Applying the Definition of Work If |F| wo 40 N (newtons), [D] = 3 m, and @ = 60), the work done by F in acting from P Work = |F|[D|cos@ ——dativiton = (40913) 08.60% Given atic = (120)(1/2) = 1 (joules) .roy FIGURE 12.26 Writing was the sum of ‘vectors parallel and orthogonal tov. 12.3. The Dot Product 853 ‘We encounter more challenging work problems in Chapter 16 when we learn to find the work done by a variable force along a path in space. Writing a Vector as a Sum of Orthogonal Vectors We know one way to write a vector w = (1,13) oF w= (1, 3,43) as a sum of two oF- ‘thogonal vectors: us mit) or (ince ok = jek = 0). Sometimes, however, it is more informative to express w as a different sum. In me- chanics, for instance, we often need to write a vector u as a sum of a vector parallel to a given vector v and a vector orthogonal to ¥. As an example, in studying the motion of a particle moving along a path in the plane (or space), it is desirable to know the components Of the acceleration vector in the direction of the tangent to the path (at a point) and of the normal to the path. (These tangential and normal components of acceleration are investi- ated in Section 13.4.) The acceleration vector can then be expressed as the sum of its (vector) tangential and normal components (which reflect important geometric properties about the nature ofthe path itself, such as curvature), Velocity and acceleration vectors are studied in the next chapter. Generally, for vectors u and ¥, itis easy to see from Figure 12.26 that the vector (uj + usk) uw proj. w is orthogonal tothe projection vector projy u (which has the same direction as v). The fol- owing calculation verifies this observation: Equation (1) ‘product properies and 3 voy = |v}? cancels So the equation w= projy w+ (w= projyu) expresses was a sum of orthogonal vectors How to Write u as a Vector Parallel to v Plus a Veetor Orthogonal to ¥ u = projy u + (u — projyu) te Panibiiow ‘those854 (Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space EXAMPLE 8 Force on a Spacecraft A force F = 21 + j — 3k is applied to a spacecraft with velocity vector v = 31 ~ j Express F as a sum ofa vector parallel to v and a veetor orthogonal to ¥ Solution F = projy F + (F ~ projy F) «Sern + (ari-a- Serv) @1-41) + (1431-2) ‘The force (3/2)i — (1/2)j is the effective force parallel to the velocity v, The force (2/2) + (3/2)] ~ 3K is orthogonal to v, To check that this vector is orthogonal to v, we Find the dot product: i+ disk) 01-9 Dot Product and Projections Hi Angles Between Vectors In Exercises 1-8 find Find the angles between the vectors in Exercises 9-12 10 the nearest a. vou, Ifa i, the cosine ofthe angle between Vand «the scalar component of win the direction of ¥ 4. the vector proj hundredth ofa radian, Busa+y veity—k 10,0 = 2-2 +k v= tak Meus V3i~ 7, v= V3 + I~ 2k 1-44 V5 eae Rw Vij - Vik, v=-iti+k SIN Eee eS Ne a ae 13. Triangle Find the measures of the angles of the triangle whose /SH + (A/S, w= 5+ 125 vertices are A = (~1, 0), B = (2,1), and © = (1, ~2) Wi + Hj — 2k, w= 3p + 4k ‘14, Rectangle Find the measures of the angles between the diago- Vai+ Vij 42K 15, Direction angles and direction eusines The direction angles vid Bee area rg ae ‘ys the angle betwoen wand the postive =axis (0 = y =g a Show that = cop =, oma = 5 aac a + cos! B+ cos? y = 1. These cosines are called the direction casines of . Unit vectors are built from direetion cosines Show that if v= ai + 6j ~ ck isa unit vector, then a, 6, and care the direction cosines oF 16. Water main construction A ator main is 10 be constructed with a 20% grade in the north drestion and a 10% grade in the east direction. Determine the angle @ required in the water main for the sen from north east Decomposing Vectors In Exercises 17-19, wt was the sum ofa vector paael to v and sector orthogonal = 3) + A, uapek vate] M+ 4)- 1k, vate aK = 1+ (J + W feabendy he sum ofa vector and a vector orthogonal to IFyou se ¥ = bin the de- omponiion w= proj + (a — pre) do yo get pra = 1 and (a — proj) = + hk? Try ana find out +i Geometry and Examples 24. Sums and differences Inthe accompanying fre, i looks as ify, + vend yy ~ ¥: are orthogonal, Is this mere coincidence, or ae thee eirumstanes under which we may expect the sum of 2, 2. 4, 25, 26, a. 28, 123. The Dot Product — 855 to vectors to be orthogonal ta ther difference? Give reasons for Orthogonality ona cele Suppose that 4B ithe diameter of a cirele with center O and that Cis point on one ofthe two ares joining A and 8. Show that C4 and CB are orthogonal. Diagonals ofa rhombus Show that the diagonals ofa rhombus (parallelogram with sides of equal length are perpendicular, Perpendicular diagonals Show that squares are the only rec tangles with perpendicular diagonals. When parallelogram are rectangles Prove that a parallelo- ‘ram isa rectangle if and only its diagonals are equa in length, (This Fact is often exploited by carpenters.) zonal of parallelogram Show thatthe indicated diagonal of the parallelogram determined by vectors wand v bisects the angle Projectile motion A gun with muzzle velocity of 1200 f'fs0e is at an angle of 8° above the horizontal. Find the horizontal and vertical components ofthe velocity: Inclined plane Suppose that a box is being owed up an inclined plane as shown in te figure, Find the force w needed to male the ‘component ofthe foree parallel the inclined plane equal to 2.8 1bB56 chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometiy of Space Theory and Examples 29. a, Cavehy-Sehwarte Inequality Use the fact that u-v = |ul|v| cos to show thatthe inequality [uv] = |v] lis for any vetrs wand w b, Under what circumstances, ifany. does Ju- | equal |u| ||? Give reasons for your ans. 3, Copy the axes an esto shown here, Ten sein the pis ()) facubich (a1 +) =O, usy your answer. 31, Orthogonal unit vectors If; and ws are orthogonal unit vee- torsand v = a + buy, find v= 32. Cancellation in dot produets In real-number mukiplication, it 4m, = ay and u % D, we can cancel the w and conclude that vy = vp. Does the same rule hold for the dot product: If ta-vy = uey> and w +B, ean you conclude that vj = v2? Give reasons for your answer, Equations for Lines in the Plane 33. Line perpendicular to a vector Show that the vector ¥ = ai + Bj is perpendicular tothe line ax + Ay = e by establishing that the slope of v is dhe negative reciprocal of the slope of the ven line 34. Line parallel to a vector Show that the vector ¥ = ai + Bj is parallel othe line x = ay = ¢ by establishing thatthe slope of | the line segment represeting ¥ is the same asthe slope of the given fine ln Exeroises 35-38, use the result of Exercise 33 to find an equation for the lin through P perpendicular toy. Then sketch te line. Include in your sketch asa vetar staring atthe agin vane 2, y=-2I-4 1), y=-U+j 38, PUIILIO, v= 21-3) In Exercises 39-42, use the result of Exercise 3410 Find an equation or the line through P pall v. Then sketch the line. Include v in your sketch a vector starting a the origin 39-21, ¥=1- J 4 PO,-2, v= FH 41 PUL2, ve 1-3 4B PUB. v= 2 Work 43, Work along a line Find the work done bya force F = Si (mag nitude 5 N) in moving an objec along the line from the origin to the point (1,1) (distance in meters). 44, Locomotive The union Pacifies Big Boy locomotive could pull, {6000-ton trains with a tractive effort pull) of 602,148 N (135,375 Ib. AL this level of effort, about how much work did Big Bov do on ‘the (approximately straight) 605-4 journey from San Francisco 10 Los Angeles? relined plane Howe much work does it fae to slide a erate 20 m along a loading dock by pulling on it witha 200 force at An angle of 30° from the horizontal? 46. Sailboat The wind passing over a boat's sail eerted 2 1000-1b magnitude force F as shown here, How much work did the wind perform in mewing the boat forward | mi? Answer in oot pounds 45. magnitode fee p Angles Between Lines in the Plane The acute angle between intersecting lines that do not eros at right angles is the same as the angle determined by vectors normal c the lines or by the vectors parallel tothe lines. Use this fact and the results of Exercise 33 of 34 to find the acute an- tes herwoon the lines in Exercises 47-52. Marty 48. y = Var 9. Vix x- Vy 50. x + Viy= 1, (I~ Vale4 (14 Vily= ae 7 2. 126+ S9= 1 Be BAS Angles Between Differentiable Curves The angles between two differentiable cures aa point of intzrsection are the angles between the curves’ tangea Lines a these points. Find124 The Cross Product 857 the angles between the curves in Exercises $3-S6. Note that if y= ai + bj is a vostor in the plane, then the vector has slope b/a provided « #0. 83. y = (3/2) - ~ (3/4) (ovo points of intersection) (vo points of intersection) y= Vi (two point oF intersection) {ove points of intersection) . The Cross Product In studying lines in the plane, when we needed to describe how a line was tilting, we used the notions of slope and angle of inclination. In space, we want a way to describe how a plane is tilting, We accomplish this by multiplying two vectors inthe plane together to get ‘third vector perpendicular to the plane. The direction of this third vector tells us the lination” of the plane. The product we use to multiply the vectors together is the vector oF ‘crass produet, the second of the two vector multiplication methods we study in calculus. ‘Cross products are widely used to describe the effects of forces in studies of electric ity, magnetism, fluid flows, and orbital mechanics. This section presents the mathematical properties that account for the use of crass products in these fields. The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space “a We start with two nonzero vectors u and in space. If and ¥ are not parallel, they det ‘mine a plane. We select « unit vector w perpendicular to the plane by the right-hand rule. ‘This means that we choose m to be the unit (normal) vector that points the way your right thumb points when your fingers curl through the angle @ from w to v (Figure 12.27), Then the eross produet uw X v (“u cross v") is the vector defined as follows, DEFINITION Cross Product | wy = (ul |y| sind» FIGURE 12.27 The construction of axy aaa cna NN cpa Rn paces InRenteeG Unlike the dot product, the cross product is a vector. For this reason its also called the veetor product of u and ¥, and applies only to vectors in space, The vector u Xv is oF thogonal to both w and v because itis a scalar multiple of. ‘Since the sines of O and a are both zero, it makes sense to define the cross product of ‘ovo parallel nonzero vectors to be 0. If one or both of w and ¥ are zero, we also define wv to be zero. This way, the cross product of two vectors w and v i zero if and only if w and v are parallel or one or both of them are zero, Parallel Vectors Nonzero vectors w and v are parallel if and only if X v = 0. “The crass product obeys the following laws,B58. chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space FIGURE 12.28 The construction of xk= te) FIGURE 12.29 The pairwise cross products off, j and ‘wa = base “heh Y= wasn FIGURE 12.30 The parallelogram determined by wand v. Properties of the Cross Product Iu, ¥, and w are any vectors and,» are scalars, then 1. (ru) X (sv) = Gs} ¥) 2 ux(vtw)suxvtuxw 3 ew) XusvxutwxXo 4. yx w= -(uxv) 5. 0Xu=0 ‘To visualize Property 4, for example, notice that when the fingers ofa right hand curl through the angle @ from v to u, the thumb points the opposite way and the unit vector we ‘choose in forming v X u is the negative of the one we choose in forming w x v (Figure 12.28). Property | can be verified by applying the definition of eross product to both sides of the equation and comparing the results. Property 2 is proved in Appendix 6. Property 3 follows by multiplying both sides of the equation in Property 2 by ~1 and reversing the order of the products using Property 4, Property 5 is a definition. As a rule, cross product ‘multiplication is nor associative so (w Xv) X w does not generally equal w X (¥ > w). (See Additional Exercise 15.) When we apply the definition to calculate the pairwise cross products of, j, and Kk, se, ; jxk= (kx) =i “xi Diagram fe ecaliag mi ui tose pres and IXtapxpokxk=0 |u X v| Is the Area of a Parallelogram Because m is a unit vector, the magnitude of w vis. Ju xv] = July] [sin df|n] = [ul |v] sina ‘This isthe area of the parallelogram determined by w and v (Figure 1230), |u| being the bbase ofthe parallelogram and || |sin 0] the height. Determinant Formula for u x v Our next objective is to calculate u X v from the components of w and V relative 10 a Cartesian coordinate system.Determinants 2% Qand 3 > 3 determinants are evaluated as follows ja i raneus Pa | | a jer es ler ea wri a 21 =csf | -4 3 | ee -o2 feos (For more information, see the Web at wwwawt-be-com/thomas.) FIGURE 12.31 The area of wiangle POR ishalfot [PO X PR| (Example 2). 124 The ross Product © 859 Suppose that Smit mp tuk ve vb ft ok. ‘Then the distributive laws and the rules for multiplying i j and k tell us that uxy jh + aaj + usk) x (yi + aj vk) wid AE val Xj esd Xk + gy) E+ upva§ Xf + ws | Haymk Xb + usmk Xj + yk XK = (uzvs ~ uve) = (ny — ay + (ve ~ avid ‘The terms in the last line are the same as the terms in the expansion of the symbolic determinant 1 | 2 nm pews We therefore have the following rule, culating Cross Produets Using Determinants Li vy + sk, then foi uxve ti wa mf. Iu = qi + uj + ukandy EXAMPLE 1 Calculating Cross Products with Determinants Find ux vandv X wifu=21+j + kandy = —4i+3j+k Solution ia k ef 2 4 axvef2 rt b=) 2 the vara if* |-4 3 = -21- 6) + 10k VX w= (uv) = 24 + 6 ~ 10k . EXAMPLE 2 Finding Vectors Perpendicular to a Plane Find a vector perpendicular 1 the plane of P(1,—1,0), 00, 1, —1), and R(1, 1,2) (Figure 12.31).860 chapter 22: Vectors andthe Geometry of Space Solution ‘The vector PO x Pits perpendicular to the plane because itis perpendicular to both vectors. In terms of components, PO=(2- D+ + D+ Cl - Ok = + 2 - Kk PR = DEF (+ Dj + 2 = Ok = -2 + 3 +2k Tajo) asace PoxPR-|1 2 -1 B -|4 22 = 6+ Ok . EXAMPLE 3 Finding the Area of a Triangle ind the area of the triangle with vertices P(1, ~1,0), Q(2,1,—1), and R(—1, 1,2) (Figure 12.31). Solution The area ofthe parallelogram determined by P, Q, and R is \PO x PR| = |6i + 6k) ‘ues fom Exanple 2. = Vier ¥ 6 ‘The triangle’s area is half of this, or 3/2 . EXAMPLE 4 Finding a Unit Normal to a Plane Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plone of P{1,—1,0),00,1,-D), and R=, 1,2) Solution Since PO x PR is perpendicular to the plane, its direction m is a unit vector Perpendicular tothe plane. Taking values from Examples 2 and 3, we have Toe, ty nn SORE Gee 1, I \POxPR 6V2 V2 V2 For case in calculating the cross product using determinants, we usually write vectors in the form ¥ = vji + vaj + vsk rather than as ordered triples ¥ = (v1, ¥2,¥5) Torque ‘When we turn a bolt by applying a force F to & wrench (Figure 12.32), the torgue we pro- duce aes along the axis ofthe bot to drive the bolt forward. The magnitude ofthe torque