Vesting ys wi Book <> wilThe Educator as Assessor SECOND EDITION Johann Dreyer EDITOR Van Schaik PUBLISHERSPublished by Van Schaik Publishers 1059 Francis Baard Street, Hatfield, Pretoria All rights reserved Copyright © 2014 Van Schaik Publishers No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise ~ without the written permission from the publisher, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act, 98 of 1978. Please contact DALRO for information regarding copyright clearance for this publication. Any unauthorised copying could lead to civil liability and/or criminal sanctions. 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Website addresses and links were correct at time of publication.INTRODUCTION Learning is not attained by chance, it must be sought for with ardor and attended to with diligence. ~ Abigail Adams in a letter to her husband, US President John Adams The assessment journey for lifelong learners - an assessor’s perspective ‘Assessment and learning are inextricably intertwined, as assessment determines whether learning is taking place, what learning took place, and what learning still needs to take place. -ssment activities act like Gl tructions. They tell us where we are, where we went wrong, how to get back on the correct route and where we have to go to reach our learning destination. Assessment also tells us if the learning and teaching taking place are sound, Assessors are constant companions of learners throughout their liv ape the learning pathways and even determine the pace of learning. Assessment criteria guide the learners and assessment performance requirements determine the intensity and level of learning that must take place. A een as the vehicle that makes the learning journey possible — with the assessor in the driving seat. In the early years learners have to get used to this new and sometimes perilous journey. Therefore assessment in these years is customised to suit their needs. It is like a special car seat with special seat belts to provide extra protection against anything that may go wrong. In their later school years, when they are more used to assessment, the learners graduate to an ordinary car seat that is more in tune with their needs at that time. When they near the end of Matric they become learner drivers that take more and more responsibility for their own learning and for the extremely high-stakes assessment event in their lives — the Matric examination. ssment can therefore be As students in higher education they sometimes have the opportunity to drive on their own as they get the chance to participate in the planning and execution of assessment and shape their own learning while the assessor becomes the navigator. This book describes the assessment journey and provides information and guidelines to make the journey easier. In Chapter 1 there is an overview of assessment while the rest of the chapters each focus on a learning phase or learning sector.‘This is a book for a variety of assessors, as it covers assessment from Grade R to Grade 12. It introduces the reader to a wide variety of aspects, matters and issues around ass several phases of a learner's life. sment in + Assessment scholars will find a number of issues that will stimulate the debate around unresolved and disputed assessment matters. «+ Assessors at several levels of learning will find information on assessment for their particular specialist field or phase. + Assessors in training will find it a useful guide and companion in learning to become better assessors. Enjoy the journey. Johann Dreyer EditorEDITOR Professor Johann Dreyer joined the University of South Africa after a teaching career of 10 years, and has been involved in the training of teachers for the past 21 years. Johann was a member of several teams that developed curriculum documents for the Department of Education. He has read several papers at international and national conferences and has published several articles on this and other topics. He is a member of the South African Qualifications Authority Standards Generating Body for Assessors and is developer/co- developer and presenter of several courses on assessment at Unisa (including an assessment course for lecturers).CONTRIBUTORS Marike de Witt is a research professor in the College of Education at the University of South Africa. She has 35 years’ experience in teaching undergraduate as well as. postgraduate students in Early Childhood Education. She is a study leader for students in Master's and Doctoral studies and more than 35 students completed their studies under her supervision. Her research interests include teacher education, postgraduate supervision and examination, preschool programmes, initial reading, second-language learners, outcomes- based education and child-headed households. Eldrie Gouws is a professor in the Department of Psychology Education at the University of South Africa. Her research and teaching focus primarily on the adolescent. She is a qualified, registered assessor and moderator. Her academic fields of interest are adolescent development, multiple intelligences, life skills education, career guidance and counselling, entrepreneurship education, assessment and issues around the National Curriculum Statement. She has authored and co-authored numerous books and articles on the above topics. Marietha Nieman, professor in the College of Educational Studies at the University of South Africa, has been involved in teacher training since 1990. She is a qualified, registered assessor and moderator and has been involved in the development and teaching of a number of assessment courses for education, training and development practitioners. Her academic fields of interest are assessment, language teaching and children’s literature.LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ABET ANA AS 2005 CAEL CAPS CASS CBE CHE CPD CTA DBE DHET DoE ESASS ETQA FET FETC GET GETC HEQC HEQF HL ICASS ISAT KSVA LO LoLT LSEN MARRA MI Adult Basic Education and Training Annual National Assessment assessment standard Curriculum 2005 Council for Adult and Experiential Learning Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements continuous assessment content-based education Council on Higher Education continuing professional development Common Task for Assessment Department of Basic Education Department of Higher Education and Training Department of Education external summative assessment Education and Training Quality Assurance Further Education and Training Further Education and Training Certificate General Education and Training General Education and Training Certificate Higher Education Quality Council Higher Education Qualification Framework Home Language internal continuous assessment integrated summative assessment task knowledge, skills, values and attitudes learning outcome Language of Learning and Teaching learners with special educational needs monitoring, ass ssment, recording, reporting and accountability multiple intelligencesNCS NC(V) NQF NSC OBE PIRLS RNCS RPL SAOU SAQA SAT SETA SMT SOLO. TIMMS. National Curriculum Statements National Certificate (Vocational) National Qualification Framework National Senior Certificate outcomes-based education Progress in International Reading Literacy Study Revised National Curriculum Statements recognition of prior learning Suid-Afrikaanse Onderwysersunie (South African Teachers Union) South African Qualifications Authority school assessment team School-Based Assessment Sectoral Education and Training Authority school management team structure of the observed learning outcome Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingChapter objectives In this chapter we aim to + look at the evolution of assessment + focus on different kinds of assessment + understand the process of assessment better + reflect on ways to improve not only assessment, but also our teaching. L.Lntroduction 1.2 Starting at the 1.2.1 The evolution of assessment 1.2.2 Assessment versus evaluation, 1.2.3 What is assessment? 13 Starting at the end 1.3.1 Assessment and CAPS 1.3.2 Starting with the curriculum or subject aims 1.4 Road map 1.4.1 Planning assessment 1.4.2 Assessment criteria 5 Taking everyone along 1.5.1 Assessors 15.2 Learners (and their families) 1.5.3 Teaching and learning providers 1.5.4 DBE and Umalusi 1.5.5 Council for Higher Education (CHE) and the ti Education Quality Couneil (HEQC) 1 wuth African Qualifications Authority (S/ 1.5.7 ETQAs in the form of SETA 15.8 Employers and professional bodies L6.1 Assessment in teaching and learning1.6.3 Authentic assessment 1.7.1 Assessment principles 1.7.2 Assessment guidelines 1.7.4 Baseline assessment 1.7.5 Formative assessment 1.7.6 Summative ment 1.7.7 Diagnostic assessment 1.7.8 Recognition of prior learning (RPL, 1.9.1 Collecting evidence 1.9.2 Recording 1.9.3 Reporting 1.11.1 Driver fatigue 1.11.2 Overloading 111.3 Speeding 1.11.4 Taking a wrong turn 1.12.1 Standardised assessment 1.12.2 High-stakes assessment, 1.12.3 Recognition of excellence 1.13 Stoy 1.13.1 Take a breather 1.13.2 Refuel 1.14 Reaching the destination 1.14.1 Assessment of learning 1.14.2 Assessing performance 1.14.3 Promotion/certification 1.15.1 Reflection1.15.2 Assessing the system 1.15.3 Assessing the teaching/delivery 1.15.4 Getting feedback 1.15.5 Improving 1.16 The way forward 1.17 Conclusion References1.1 INTRODUCTION Some educators will tell you that assessment can be the most tedious and most boring of their tasks, and that it also involves the most administration. Some learners will tell you that the aspect of their schooling they hate most is assessment. But assessment can also be a positive experience. If we as educators give learners an opportunity to demonstrate what they know and can do instead of trying to find out what they don’t know or understand, the learners might even look forward to the experience. If the assessment tasks are meaningful and exciting, learners might put in more effort, and if learners are given the freedom to be creative and to use their own learning strengths the results may well be astounding. This will not only benefit the learners but will also make our task as assessors more interesting and fulfilling, ‘The sheer numbers we have to deal with might easily make us despondent and there might be real concerns about the introduction of yet another assessment system. ‘There were, for instance, very legitimate concerns about the use of the previous outcomes-based education (OBE) approach and outcomes-based assessment in an education environment like South Africa. Some of these concerns were + the overcrowded schools and classrooms + the large numbers of unqualified and under-qualified teachers + the limited resources + the big gap between under-resourced, poor schools and well-resourced, rich schools + the complexity of the system and its vocabulary + the heavy burden of assessment + the lack ofa learning culture in many schools (Combrink, 2003; Dreyer, J.M., 2000; Venter, 2000; Jansen, 1997). Eventually it was realised that changes had to be made as assessment was not effective and did not support learning as envisaged. The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) introduce a number of changes to assessment practices, although many of the concerns with the previous assessment approach and associated challenges in South African education were not addressed. The question can therefore be asked: why would a new assessment approach make any difference? However, as educators, we cannot in good conscience allow the above to keep us from making the best of the system we are working in. Of course we should be critical and cannot accept everything about the CAPS as gospel, but we have a duty towards our learners to use the system to their best advantage. People react differently to the introduction of a new education system (and its assessment approach). Some + try to ignore it and keep doing what they have always done+ will make a token effort to change but will in fact not change anything substantial + will be very positive and will support changes but nothing much will change in their classrooms (mostly because of a lack of ability) + (despite misgivings they might have) will do their best to master it and implement it successfully (usually by combining their own best practice with the new requirements). Educators who put their learners first can only fall into the last category; they will strive to master the system, as the successful implementation of a new education and assessment system depends upon knowledge of the new approach and comprehensive training (Combrink, 2003: 60). This includes comprehensive training in assessment. This book is aimed at practising asscssors as well as students wanting to learn more than just the basics of assessment. This will stand them in good stead when they face the challenges of assessment in practice.1.2 STARTING AT THE BEGINNING As indicated in the introduction to the book, assessment can be seen as the vehicle that takes learning forward. This analogy is used to structure Chapter 1. So, if assessment is the vehicle, the driver must be the assessor, the passengers will be the learners and other role- players in assessment, and so on. Assessments can be seen as GPS waypoints and destinations as they indicate the way to go, and also how to get back on track when learners have lost their way so that everyone can arrive at the intended destination. 1.2.1 The evolution of assessment Assessment in education and training has undergone major changes worldwide over the past 30 years. The changes were most obvious and significant in countries using an outcomes-based education or related system, such as the United States, England, Australia and New Zealand. Similar changes also took place with the introduction of outcomes-based. education in South Africa, and now with the introduction of the CAPS we experience yet another change. Changes in assessment are mostly linked to changes in the curriculum, as curriculum and assessment are interlinked. Over the past 20 years, South Africa has experienced many such changes. It is usually the intention of policy makers to introduce changes in order to improve teaching and assessment, but in practice the changes do not always bring improvements. These changes can be summarised as follows: = PRE-CURRICULUM 2005 The curriculum during this period was known as a content-based curriculum because content was described in such detail as to leave no room for schools to do anything else. Learning intentions were described as broad learning/teaching aims and more specific learning objectives that had to be achieved. The focus of assessment (which was described as evaluation) was on the achievement of learning objectives, with a lot of attention given to the mastering of content. The frequency and types of assessment tasks were mostly decided by teachers/schools, and inspectors visited schools to determine whether teaching and assessment were done to their satisfaction. =» CURRICULUM 2005 Curriculum 2005 was developed to change “apartheid education” completely and was based on the outcomes-based education (OBE) approach which was then in vogue in several highly developed Western countries. The outcomes that had to be achieved were described in outcome statements, with associated assessment criteria. Teachers were seen as curriculum developers and were expected to choose their own appropriate content associated with learning organisers. Assessment was described in terms of formative assessment (which had to be applied to support future learning) and summative assessment(which was done at the end of the learning period). As in many of the other countries where OBE was practised, assessment failed in South Africa partly because the guidelines were not clear and precise enough. = NATIONAL CURRICULUM STATEMENTS (NCS) ‘The OBE curriculum was revised and Revised National Curriculum Statements (RNCS) were developed for the General Education and Training Band, and National Curriculum Statements (NCS) were developed for the Further Education and Training Band. Learning intentions were still described as outcomes with associated assessment criteria, but importantly, prescribed content was described as the “content and contexts” for the attainment of what were called assessment standards. Assessment standards described the depth and level of achievement required, and assessment still consisted of formative and summative assessments. These guidelines were more specific than before and gave better guidance to teachers regarding the assessments they were required to do with learners. In fact, one of the major problems with this curriculum was the excessive assessment administration involved. =» CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY STATEMENTS (CAPS) Although the impression is given that the CAPS are merely an operationalisation of the NCS, they differ in many ways from the original NCS. Although the curriculum documents are headed National Curriculum Statements: Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements and their purpose is described as Helping teachers unlock the power of NCS, the language of OBE is done away with almost entirely and learning intentions are described as aims and topics. What is most significant and totally the opposite of the transformational OBE, is that content is prescribed very specifically and in great detail. There are also meticulous prescriptions regarding the types, weights and numbers of assessments, and many as ent guidelines are given. Assessment is described in terms of classroom assessment, non-formal assessment, formal assessment, assessment for learning, assessment of learning, external assessment, etc. Because non-formal assessments do not have to be recorded, there is supposedly less assessment administration involved. Tt is too soon to decide whether the changes are in fact beneficial, but it is perhaps better to have a system with comprehensive and precise guidelines in the South African context, where there are many schools with teachers who are teaching without proper training. It seems that most teachers would be in a better position to at least understand what the Department of Basic Education requires of them regarding teaching and assessment. 1.2.2 Assessment versus evaluation ‘There is no agreement among educationists worldwide on what the difference is between assessment and evaluation. Sometimes these terms are used interchangeably, and even when a distinction is made between them there are divergent views on these differences. Some seeassessment as the data gathering prior to evaluation, and the latter as entailing judging performance relative to some standard or baseline. For example: Evaluation usually occurs when students have finished a task, whereas assessment goes beyond evaluation to include gathering information about student performance as they work and also when they are finished (AASL & AECT, 1998: 173) ‘The term “assessment” refers to the systematic gathering of information about component parts of the thing or object to be evaluated. The evaluation process is broader than assessment and involves examining information about many components of the thing or object being evaluated and making judgements about its worth or effectiveness (MCLI, 1998), According to Siebérger and McIntosh (2002: 5), evaluation and assessment sometimes mean the same thing, but generally evaluation means to determine the effectiveness of teaching, while assessment means to measure the extent of learning that has taken place. This also seems to be the view of Hodnett (2001): Evaluation is to determine significance or worth or judging the effectiveness or worth of educational programs. Assessment is to determine a rate or amount and is used as an activity to measure student learning and other human characteristics. Sometimes the distinction is made between the learner and the learner's work: assessment is also usually done with the student, while evaluation is done of the students’ work (AASL & AECT, 1998: 173). Put more simply, we assess people and evaluate things or objects (Hodnett, 2001: 1). One way of looking at the difference is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Ajudgement of A value judgement performance measured against criteria s zg How good? How well? Has it been achieved’ Figure 1.1 The difference between evaluation and assessment According to this view, both assessment and evaluation take place in the South African education and training system. Both determine whether learning intention/aim has been achieved and how well it was done.In the CAPS, assessment is seen as the gathering of evidence of learner performance, which is then evaluated by the teacher to make a decision on a learner's achievement. 1.2.3 What is assessment? The word “assessment” means measuring or estimating (the value of something) and is used widely in all walks of life. An assessor will, for instance, estimate the value of your home if you wish to borrow against it. In the context of this book, we look at assessment from an educational perspective. Assessment is important in the teaching-learning process at all levels of education and training. Assessment not only determines what learners learn and the way in which they do this, but also what is taught and how it is taught. 1.2.3.1 Defining assessment Many definitions of (educational) assessment can be found in the literature. The following is a comprehensive and descriptive example: Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information from multiple and diverse sources in order to develop a deep understanding of what students know, understand, and can do with their knowledge as a result of their educational experiences; the process culminates when assessment results are used to improve subsequent learning (University of Delaware website) So, at the academic unit level, assessment is an ongoing process in which the teachers at faculty level: «+ Establish clear, measurable expected outcomes of student learning. + Ensure that students have sufficient opportunities to achieve those outcomes + Systematically gather, analyse, and interpret evidence to determine how well student learning matches our expectations + Reformulate educational outcomes based on the results of their assessment (University of Delaware website) ‘The definition used by the Department of Basic Education in the CAPS documents states: Assessment is a continuous, planned process of identifying, gathering and interpreting information about the performance of learners, and may take various forms. It involves four steps: generating and collecting evidence of achievement; evaluating this evidence; recording the findings; and using this information. The information is particularly used to understand and thereby assist the learner's development in order to improve the process of learning and teaching (Department of Basic Education, 2011: 49).1.2.3.2 Why assess? ‘There are many answers to this question. A simple answer would be that we assess to hold learning providers accountable for doing their jobs, or that we asst to provide learners with certificates which they can use to advance to the next level or to gain employment. But assessment goes way beyond these goals. A much more comprehensive answer is provided by the Virtual Assessment Centre (2006). According to this institution, we assess for the following reasons: + To find out whether instruction was effective + To find out whether learners need more instruction + To find out whether learners are ready for the next step + To find out whether a different approach is required «+ To find out how instruction can be improved the next time this lesson is taught Teachers need to + provide diagnostic and formative feedback to learners + gather information for reporting purposes (grades) + identify the appropriate level for a new learner (placement) + determine whether or not a learner meets programme requirements (certification) + motivate learners to study and make steady progress. Learners need to + know what is expected of them + know what they can do to improve their performance + understand what will comprise their course grade + perceive assessment as fair and meaningful. ‘The following description is a good summary of the purpose of assessment: ‘The purpose of assessment in education is to provide all stakeholders with sufficiently dependable information and feedback to inform judgements, choices, and decisions about learning, and to inform planning for improvement (Hutchinson, 2004: 2). 1.2.3.3 Who assesses? Most instructors, teachers and lecturers are involved in assessment of the learners they train or teach. There are also moderators and external examiners who assess the work of learners they themselves did not teach. Everyone who is involved in assessment is called an assessor, although we know that not everyone is equally well equipped for this task. In South Africa and many other parts of the world, a distinction is made between registered/trained assessors ~ those who underwent specific standardised training - andnon-registered assessors - those who did not undergo such training but may have learned how to assess through experiential learning. The level of skill among the latter group ranges from those who can “assess a bit” to those who are proficient at doing so. Ensuring quality assessment remains a challenge. ‘Teacher education programmes need to include comprehensive assessment training. It is also an acknowledged fact that teachers with better content knowledge about their subjects are better at selecting and designing quality assessments tasks (Webb, 2012). Institutions of learning are continuously involved in assessment and there are also professional bodies involved in assessment, such as Umalusi, the HEQC and the SETAs. ‘These are discussed in paragraph L.5. 1.2.3.4 What is assessed? ‘We all want to find out whether our learners have learned and what they are meant to have learned. Firstly, it is important to us to determine how learners are progressing towards the intended learning aims or outcomes and whether they eventually achieve them. At the same time, it is important to find out whether our instruction is assisting learners in their progress towards these aims or outcomes. This is illustrated in Figure 1.2. We xe assess ™, Learning achievement or progress of The learning process or how learners: learners towards achievement of the are assisted to reach the Ne bearing 27” intentions. Figure 1.2 What is assessed? Secondly, we need to know whether learners have learned what was expected of them and whether they have learned enough at a specific time or level before progressing further or to the next level. To assist us in this, we devise curriculum/lesson aims and competencies (knowledge, skills, values) to be achieved, and we use assessments with associated assessment crileria o determine whether learners are on the right rack, and ultimately the extent to which they have managed to achieve these.1.3 STARTING AT THE END 1.3.1 Assessment and CAPS In South Africa, assessment (as a “substitute” for “traditional” evaluation) is a more recently used concept and was closely associated with OBE, as it was introduced as part of the OBE curriculum, Curriculum 2005. However, this is a misconception, as “assessment” is not directly or only linked to OBE, but is used worldwide regardless of the education system or approach being used. The CAPS use a distinct interpretation of assessment and the types of assessment to be used in South African schools. 1.3.2 Starting with the curriculum or subject aims As is usually the case with any curriculum development, one starts with the aims of learning ina subject. An aim is like a GPS destination, as it guides the teacher and learner towards that which needs to be achieved. Aims are in fact descriptions of the learning intent. Assessment planning is totally integrated into the curriculum planning, as only assessment can tell us how learners are progressing and also whether and to what extent the learning intentions/aims are eventually attained at the end of the learning period. Assessment is continuous in nature and takes place throughout the learning period.1.4 ROAD MAP If you fail to plan you plan to fail. Anonymous 1.4.1 Plan g assessment Much emphasis is placed on the thorough planning of assessment. This starts right at the beginning when we start planning for teaching and learning. As assessment is continuous, it must be planned for at all levels and steps in the teaching and learning process. Table 1.1 illustrates this: Table 1.1 The importance of planning Planning for teaching and learning Planning for assessment Learning intentions/aims are determined fora subject An assessment strategy is determined (how many assessments, types of assessment, etc) for different levels and grades Decide on the level of learning to take place (competencies - knowledge, skills and values) for different levels and grades Specify levels of assessment required for different levels and grades (percentages for knowledge, understanding/ application and analysing/evaluating/creating questions) Develop a lesson plan Simultaneously develop an assessment plan integrated 10 the lesson plan (formal and informal classroom assessments) Choose/develop learning activities (e.g do an experiment) Choose/develop assessment activities (e.g. develop an assessment instrument with assessment criteria to assess the experiment) Planning of assessment will be different in different contexts and at different levels of education, as indicated in the other chapters.1.4.2 Assessment criteria In SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) documentation (e.g. SAQA unit standards), assessment criteria are defined as descriptions of the required type and quality of evidence against which candidates are to be assessed. Assessment criteria are specific in terms of a learning intention. Each learning intention will therefore have one or more assessment criteria that describe what a learner must know or do before it is achieved. Assessment criteria indicate the road ahead and determine and shape the expected learning that should take place. Without assessment criteria there can be no standardised assessment guidelines that can be used by + educators to determine what should be taught * assessors to determine what should be assessed + learners to determine what should be learned. This is illustrated in Figure 1.3. | Learning intentions Teach to guide leamers towards + * 4 | Educator Loarner Assessor Learn to achieve Assess against Figure 1.3 The function of assessment criteria1.5 TAKING EVERYONE ALONG ‘There are many role-players in assessment and they all have an interest in it. Except for the obvious participants, the assessor and the learner, there are the institutions that provide teaching and learning. ‘Then there is the government, represented by all its structures, such as the Department of Education (DoE), the Council on Higher Education (CHE), the South African Qualification Authority (SAQA), and Education and Training Quality Assurance (ETQA) bodies, such as Umalusi and the Sectoral Education and Training Authorities (SETAs). There are also employers or professional bodies that have an interest in the standard of education or training and the assessment associated with it. Not all the role players have a direct influence on the assessment taking place, but they might have legitimate expectations in regard to its outcome. 1.5.1 Assessors Assessors need to know whether learners are learning, at what level they are learning, whether they understand what they are learning, and what they still need to learn. 1.5.2 Learners (and their families) Learners need to know whether what they have learned is correct and at the right level, and what they still need to learn. Eventually they and their families also need to know whether what they have learned is enough and at the right level for them to be promoted to the next level. 1.5.3 Teaching and learning providers The providers that make their learning programmes available need to know whether the learning programmes are suitable and whether learners are learning successfully in order to be awarded the qualifications. 1.5.4 DBE and Umalusi As a provider of General Education and Training (GET) and Further Education and ‘Training (FET) learning programmes, the Department of Basic Education needs to know whether the teaching taking place in schools is sound, and whether learners are learning successfully. Umalusi is the quality assurer that has to determine whether the standard of learning taking place in schools is high enough to satisfy receivers of the certificated learners, such as higher education institutions and employers.1.5.5 Council for Higher Education (CHE) and the Higher Education Quality Council (HEQC) ‘The HEQC has to make sure that the standard of programmes and programme delivery by providers in the higher education field is good enough to ensure successful learning, and that graduands are equipped with enough knowledge and skills to succeed in their chosen occupational fields. 1.5.6 South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) SAQA is responsible for the development of unit standards and qualifications, which are mapped on the National Qualification Framework (NQF). To offer learning programmes, providers and their learning programmes have to be registered with SAQA. 1.5.7 ETQAs in the form of SETAs SETAs must monitor the quality of training taking place in different fields. They also \stitute learnerships in different training fields. 1.5.8 Employers and professional bodies Employers have certain requirements of school leavers or graduates entering the workplace, depending on the type of business or industry, In some occupations, there are professional bodies that require members to complete certain qualifications and/or workplace experience before certifying them. The quality of the learning that has taken place is a huge concern for them.1.6 MOVING ALONG 1.6.1 Assessment in teaching and learning People learn all the time and we do not formally assess everything they are learning, One can, for instance, observe that someone learned to speak without having to set a formal assessment task. In contrast, formal assessment in teaching and learning is deliberate and planned. ‘There are indications that learning has taken place when there is understanding or an ability to perform. To determine whether such understanding or ability to perform exists, we assess it against predetermined and agreed-upon criteria. 1.6.2 Assessment for learning Where assessment for learning takes place, teachers continually adapt instruction to meet learner needs. Assessment is therefore used to support instruction — assessment for learning rather than assessment of learning (Leahy, Lyon, Thompson & William, 2005: 19). According to these authors, there are five assessment-for-learning strategies: * Clarify and share intentions and criteria. + Engineer effective classroom discussion. + Provide feedback that moves learners forward. + Activate learners as instructional resources for one another. + Use evidence of learning to adapt instruction. When they assess for learning, teachers use the classroom assessment process and the continuous flow of information about learner achievement which it provides in order to advance, not merely check on, student learning. They do this by * understanding and articulating in advance of teaching the achievement targets that their learners are to reach informing their learners about those learning goals, in terms that learners understand, from the very beginning of the teaching and learning process becoming assessment literate and thus able to transform their expectations into assessment exercises and scoring procedures that accurately reflect learner achievement using classroom assessments to build learners’ confidence in themselves and help them take responsibility for their own learning, so as to lay a foundation for lifelong learning translating classroom assessment results into frequent descriptive feedback (versus judgemental feedback) for learners, providing them with specific insights as to how to improve continuously adjusting instruction based on the results of classroom assessments+ engaging learners in regular self-assessment, with standards held constant so that learners can watch themselves grow over time and thus feel in charge of their own success + actively involving learners in communicating with the teacher and their families about their achievement status and improvement. In short, the effect of assessment for learning, as it plays out in the classroom, is that learners keep learning and remain confident that they can continue to learn at productive levels if they keep trying to learn. In other words, learners do not give up in frustration or hopelessness (Stiggens, 2002). Assessment for learning is illustrated in Figure 1.4. Assessment Desired destination/aim Figure 1.4 Assessment for learning Assessment will tell learners where they are (e.g. at point A). In assessment for learning it will also tell them how to get from A to the desired destination (i.e. how to close the gap between where they are and where they are going). Some feel that assessment for learning goes even further and that assessors must ask themselves how assessment can be used to help all learners ta want to learn and haw they can be helped to feel that they are able to learn (Stiggens, 2002). 1.6.3 Authentic assessment ‘The best way to achieve an authentic, balanced and fair assessment of the progress of a learner is to provide each learner with a variety of opportunities to demonstrate his or her competence in different ways and in different contexts. Authentic assessment is realistic and relevant and involves learner performance in real-world situations or simulations thereof (Dreyer & Loubser, 2005: 148-149). Assessment is authentic when learner performance on worthy tasks is assessed. It requires learners to perform effectively using their acquired knowledge. Authentic assessments present the learner with tasks that simulate real-world “tests” of ability to determine whether they can present polished, thorough and justifiable answers, performances or products. Authentic tasks involve “ill-structured” challenges and roles that help learners prepare for the real world. Authentic assessment also has the advantage of providing parents and community members with directly observable products and understandable evidence concerning learners’ performance (Wiggins, 1990). On an individual level, authentic assessment takes into account individual learning styles, aptitudes and interests; it makes provision for learners with barriers to learning and reflects local values, standards and contexts (Dreyer & Loubser, 2005: 149).On a more practical level, authentic assessment elicits higher order thinking, is holistic and is not limited to classroom activities. Samples of learner work are collected over an extended time period and these are personalised and flexible. It allows learners to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, or competencies in ways they find appropriate and gives them the opportunity to be creative. The collective abilities of a learner are assessed, as it requires integration of what was learned.1.7 ROAD SIGNS 1.7.1 Assessment principles In each of the assessment unit standards of SAQA, the following are listed as assessment principles: 1.7.1.1 Methods or activities of assessment + Appropriate. The method of assessment is suited to the outcome being assessed. In other words, it is capable of gathering evidence in relation to the intended outcome, and not something else. + Fair. The method of assessment does not present any barriers to the achievement of the outcome at hand. + Manageable. The methods used allow for easily arranged, cost-effective assessments that do not unduly interfere with learning. + Integrated into work or learning. Evidence collection is integrated into the work or learning process where this is appropriate and feasible (often referred to as “naturally occurring evidence”). 1.7.1.2 Evidence + Valid. The evidence focuses on the requirements laid down in the relevant standard and matches the evidence requirements of the outcome/s at hand under conditions that mirror the conditions of actual performance as closely as possible. + Current. The evidence is sufficient proof that the candidate is able to perform the assessment outcomes at the time the assessor declares the candidate competent. + Authentic. The assessor is satisfied that the evidence is attributable to the candidate being assessed. + Sufficient. The evidence collected establishes that all criteria have been met and that performance to the required standard can be repeated consistently in the future, ie. the performance to standard is not a “once-off” occurence. Validity also describes the extent to which assessment measures what it purports to measure (University College of Dublin). Cannon and Newble (2002) maintain that validity can be improved by + carefully matching the assessment with learning objectives, content and teaching methods + increasing the sample of objectives and content areas included in any given assessment + using assessment methods that are appropriate for the objectives specified + employing a range of assessment methods+ ensuring adequate security and supervision to avoid cheating in examinations + improving the reliability of the assessment. Validity (meaning meaningfulness and defensibility of assessment results) is especially important in high-stakes decision-making assessments like the Grade 12 final examination (Chatterji, 2013: 4-6). 1.7.1.3 Overall assessment process + Systematic. The overall process ensures that assessment is fair, effective, repeatable and manageable. + Open. The process is transparent, i.e. assessment candidates understand the assessment process and the criteria that apply, and can contribute to the planning and accumulation of evidence. + Consistent. The same assessor would make the same judgement again in similar circumstances, and judgements match judgements made on similar evidence. 1.7.1.4 Other principles Other principles that can be found in the literature include reliability, which is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. Cannon and Newble (2002) maintain that reliability can be improved by + ensuring the questions are clear and suitable for the level of the students + ensuring time limits are realistic + ensuring that instructions are simple, clear and unambiguous + developing high quality marking schemes (including the use of explicit and agreed criteria and the establishment of a robust regime for checking marks). To this can be added that assessment must be educative in that it should make a positive contribution to student learning through feedback (RMIT University, 2013). In addition to these lofty goals, there are also principles of assessment to ensure its successful application in practice: + There should be a direct and clear link to the learning intentions. + Assessment should be integral to teaching and learning (not an “add-on’). + Itshould be balanced, comprehensive and varied. + Itshould be fair. + Learners should be engaged by it. «+ Itshould be time-efficient and manageable. + Individual achievement and progress should be recognised through it. «+ Parents should be actively involved in assessment. + It should cater for all learners.+ It should be free from bias and sensitive to gender, race, cultural backgrounds and learners’ abilities. + It should improve the quality of learning. 1.7.2 Assessment guidelines Although assessment criteria are guidelines in themselves, the assessor may want to give additional guidelines to assist the learner. These may be guidelines on how to answer multiple-choice questions or guidelines on layout of a presentation. As learners gain experience they may rely less on these guidelines. 1.7.3 Continuous assessment (CASS) ‘The term “continuous assessment” is used to describe the constant process of assessment that spans the entire learning process. Assessment starts when learning starts and is ongoing throughout the learning process. This is illustrated in Figure 1.5: Diagnostic Diagnostic Diagnostic > > > Baseline Formative Summative => > _> Continuous assessment Figure 1.5 Continuous assessment Puhl (1997) contrasts traditional assessment with continuous assessment in the following way:Table 1.2 Traditional vs continuous classroom assessment Dimension | Traditional assessment Continuous assessment Purpose of Summative: it’sums up”what | Formative: it generates input to inform and guide test has been happening teaching Judgemental:it forces learners | Developmental: itis diagnostic, ie. it directs to study instructional attention Focus Product of instruction Process of instruction Teacher-created activity Learer-created activity Emphasis on memorisation _| Emphasis on thinking, integration Decontextualised Holistic Feedback Ascore or mark: final, cannot | A range of comments from peers, teachers: be changed happens during the process while still time to change Test task Typically written work Typically a range of tasks Medit : paper and pencil Multimedia Narrow focus Multidimensional Exercises (for the future) Authentic (real-life tasks for now) Formal InformalClassroom | Intrusive; interrupts class Integrate: management | process art of class routine One-shot; only one chance to_| Over time; chance to revise, improve, add show competence Results need time to be Feedback comes quickly determined Books closed Reference material available Frame of Norm-reference Criterion-reference reference Learner compared with norms | Learner compared with specified criteria of based on other test-takers achievement Stakeholders | Learners, parents, principal _| Learners, parents, principal invited to help assess receive results Source: Publ (1997). This material is being used by the permission of the United States Department of State, English Teaching Forum 34(2), 1.7.4 Baseline assessment Baseline assessment takes place before learning commences and is used to determine what learners know and can do. It informs one about where to begin the teaching and learning process. 1.7.5 Formative assessment Formative assessment determines the progress of learners towards achieving the outcomes, and the appropriateness of learning acquired. It takes place during the learning process and it informs the planning of future learning activities. Recently, this has been expanded to dynamic assessment, which involves determining the deficient cognitive functions of a learner and selecting mediation strategies best suited to the learner’s abilities and learning preferences, in order to remedy the situation (Tzuriel, 2013). 1.7.6 Summative assessment Summative assessment determines the overall achievement and learning success of learners. It takes place at the end of a learning cycle, programme or phase.1.7.7 Diagnostic assessment Diagnostic assessment takes place at any time during the learning process. Diagnostic assessment determines barriers to learning, learning difficulties and/or learning gaps that must be attended to. 1.7.8 Recognition of prior learning (RPL) In practice, RPL takes place in different ways. One way has to do with portability of formal (completed or uncompleted) learning between institutions of learning. A learner can, for instance, get recognition for modules (as part of a qualification) completed at one institution when enrolling at another institution offering similar modules or units of learning. Another aspect of RPL is when a learner seeks recognition for experiential learning. In this case, the learning took place in the workplace and not formally at a learning institution. The institution where recognition is sought has to determine whether the learner has acquired the learning at the same level and range as that required from learners in the formal system. This can be done by observing the learner at work, by compiling a portfolio of evidence, or by setting a challenge examination (or a combination of these). In all cases, the learner has to demonstrate that the required learning outcomes (and associated assessment criteria) have been achieved. 1.7.9 CAPS assessment In the CAPS, a distinction is made between internal assessment (assessment in the classroom) and external assessment. «» INTERNAL/CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT Internal or classroom ass sment is school-based and is done by the teacher as an integrated part of the learning process. In the CAPS, the number of assessments for a particular subject and grade is prescribed and also how much each will contribute to the final mark. Classroom assessment consists of informal and formal assessments. Informal ass: sment is done during the lesson through informal tasks and questions, and is not marked or recorded. Formal assessments are assessment tasks (e.g. projects, oral presentations, demonstrations, performances, practical tasks) and tests that take place after a topic has been completed. They are marked and recorded by the teacher. =» EXTERNAL ASSESSMENTS External assessments are done at the end of a phase to determine what the standard of learning was in the phase for the whole country. They are externally set but internallymarked. The Grade 12 end-of-year assessment is nationally set and internally moderated, but marked at provincial marking centres. Umlasi, the Quality Assurance Council, sees to the external moderation of the examination papers.1.8 MILE POSTS 1.8.1 Criterion-based assessment Criterion-based assessment is the practice of comparing a learner's performance with a well-defined standard (criterion). Criteria are used in assessment instruments such as rubrics. Learners are informed of the criteria before the assessment takes place to ensure that they know which levels of performance are required. “The levels of performance function like mile posts; they indicate how far the learner has progressed and what is still required to complete the journey.1.9 TAKING PICTURES OF THE JOURNEY 1.9.1 Collecting evidence Assessment must be based on evidence. This evidence can and should be in a variety of formats and may include portfolios and artefacts. Recorded observations of presentations, participation and performances may also be forms of evidence. 1.9.2 Recording Accurate recording of evidence is of prime importance. Every formal assessment mark or judgement must be traceable. Comprehensive records will ensure the quality of the judgements made. 1.9.3 Reporting When preparing assessment reports, teachers should + determine how individual, group and institutional results will help the institution to improve instruction and learning determine the audience for the reporting activity, which may include learners, parents, etc. be clear about why assessment results should be reported to these audiences; a clear statement of rationale is important be equally clear about what information is to be communicated, for what purposes, and the reporting techniques that are being used; multiple strategies are likely to be more effective (Roeber, Donovan & Cole, 1980).1.10 KEEPING ON TRACK Assessment should be used to provide information that can be used by learners and teachers to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged in order to better meet learners’ needs. In other words, assessment is used to “keep learning on track” (William, 2006: 1). Assessment feedback (together with “feedforward”) is an excellent tool to accomplish this. Feedback is our most important opportunity to influence, shape, direct and improve the learning process. To provide good feedback is a skill that should be acquired and is largely dependent on our attitude towards our learners and their needs. Feedback must always be constructive; never destructive or counterproductive (Dreyer, 2007). Table 1.3 gives guidelines for constructive feedback.Table 1.3 Guidelines for constructive feedback Counterproductive Constructive Delayed feedback Most likely to be ignored if learners have already moved on toa new topic Prompt feedback The ideal is immediate feedback provided during performance, so that learners have an opportunity to implement what they have learned before the work is completed Marks and grades A powerful form of feedback which “overrides” comments. May encourage complacency in the able and despondency in theless able Written comments When used to provide a clear explanation of ways in which work is successful and how future performance. could be improved Ego-involving feedback Encourages learners to focus on themselves, how well they are performing, and to compare themselves to others Task-involving feedback Focuses on the knowledge, skills and concepts relevant to succeeding with a task Criterion-weak assessment Criteria are muddled, vague or have to be inferred Criterion-referenced assessment Assessments linked to explicit criteria which are clarified before learners embark on a task Corrective feedback Least helpful where teachers correct every error so that learners are not encouraged to think about or apply the feedback Scaffolded feedback Creates a positive state of mind with regard to the feedback, giving learners as much help as they need to progress but no more Unbalanced feedback Dwells on either the positive or the negative without properly acknowledging the other dimension Balanced feedback Strengths and achievements are set against areas for improvement, without dwelling unduly on either Negative tone Can be created by drawing attention to what is wrong with work frst or offering critical comments with no indication of how to improve Positive tone Can be created by acknowledging achievements first and treating weaknesses as targets for development Feedforward absent If teachers neglect the links between feedback and future performance, learners are encouraged to do likewise Feedforward Can be achieved by providing time for learners to read and respond to feedback and by following up on previous feedbackSource: Brooks, Abbott & Huddleston (2012: 120). Reproduced with the kind permission of Open University Press. All rights reserved.1.11 POTHOLES Assessment is complex and many things can go wrong, some of which can be avoided. 1.11.1 Driver fatigue Assessment forms a large part of a teacher's work. Too much marking can overburden teachers and might lead to less teaching. Careful planning to avoid duplication of assessments or duplication of the attainment of learning intentions can decrease the marking load. Teachers can also try and make as ment more interesting. We determine our own fate as assessors. If we set a dreary, boring assessment task, we must expect to be bored and fed up. If we set an interesting, challenging, creative assessment task, we can expect to be interested and challenged. One’ attitude towards as sessment is also important. Your attitude towards your role as assessor will set the tone for the assessment activities that learners have to complete and that you will have to assess. 1.11.2 Overloading Although assessment is central to learning, an overload of assessment or assessment practices that induce anxiety can lead to learners taking a superficial approach to their learning (Middlesex University, 2002: 6). This results in assessment fatigue and can lead to loss of focus in preparing for assessment. 1.11.3 Speeding Not taking enough time to do proper assessment results in rushed assessment and can create problems of its own. When the learner is rushed while doing the assessment task or the assessor is rushed while doing the assessment, no thorough assessment can take place. We have already stressed the importance of proper planning of assessment, which should include enough time to do careful assessment. 1.11.4 Taking a wrong turn Assessment can be meaningless and can lead to nowhere for a number of reasons. The assessment task may be unsuited to the purpose or may not assess what was intended. The assessment guidelines may be too vague or may be absent. The assessment preparation may also have been flawed.‘To remedy this one should be clear about the purpose of the assessment and set unambiguous criteria for achieving it. Four elements common to specific and unambiguous criteria are: + Dimensions. One or more traits serve as the basis for judging the learner response. + Definitions and examples. These are provided for the various criterion levels to clarify the meaning of each trait or dimension. + Scale. A scale of values or counting system, usually with four to six points on the scale (in the CAPS there are seven), is used to rate each dimension. « Standards of excellence. These are described for specified performance levels and are accompanied by examples or benchmarks at each level (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 2006).1.12 STEEP HILLS ‘There are a number of contested issues or problem areas that should be considered when. dealing with assessment. 1.12.1 Standardised assessment Learners, parents, institutions, the state, employers and other stakeholders want to know what the quality of an educational achievement is and who should be held accountable for it (WestEd, 2001). This information can only be gathered through standardised assessments. In the CAPS, such assessments are done at the end of each phase of the GET band and at the end of the FET band. Accurate information on learner performance (measured against national or international standards) is seen as one way of preventing “grade compression” or “grade inflation” in one area, province or country (Educational Psychology Web Pages, 1997). 1.12.2 High-stakes assessment ‘There is a concern about high-stakes assessments (such as the Matric examinations) becoming over-important or weighing too much in relation to continuous assessments. In the CAPS, the cl. counts 75%, Purposes and benefits of high-stakes assessment programmes include the following (Education Commission of the States, 2007): ‘They as hold ins + They motivate learners to learn and increase the emphasis on learner achievement. sessments in Grade 12 count 25% and the external examination sroom, ure that standards are taken seriously, motivate teaching of the standards and itutions accountable for learner performance. + They provide the same (high) expectations and the same basis of evaluation for all learners. + They provide information that can inform policy makers on the quality of education. + They make it possible to monitor efforts by the i stitution to improve. + They identify learner strengths and weaknesses to target instruction. « They allow for recognition of institutions and teachers of learners who perform well or significantly improve their performance. High-stakes assessment also has limitations, such as: + What you test (and how you test it) is what you get; you cannot uncover what is not tested. + It places too much emphasis on a single test score, which may not reflect true changes in learner achievement. + Nationwide assessment leads to a more narrow nationwide curriculum.+ The tests + High-stakes assessment results in too much time spent on preparing learners to take the test. re unfair to low socioeconomic learners and schools. + High-stakes assessment does not provide information that can improve instruction (Education Commission of the States, 2007). 1.12.3 Recognition of excellence Much emphasis is placed on minimum standards and their achievement in South Africa (and countries such as the United States). Because of this, one of the criticisms is that minimum standards may lead to “dumbing down’. This concerned Canada so much that it changed from OBE to a system of “high achievement” (Dreyer, J.M., 2000). In the drive to ensure that “no learner is left behind” and “all learners can succeed’, there is the danger of focusing so much on at-risk learners that high achievers are overlooked and excellence is not recognised. In the 21st century workplace, the following (among others) are required from workers: + Creative thinking - generation of new ideas + Decision-making - specifying goals and constraints, generating alternatives, considering risks, and evaluating and choosing best alternatives + Problem solving - recognising problems and devising and implementing a plan of action Enabling learners to acquire these skills requires assessment that is “concurrent, embedded, and transformative; that is, it is just-in-time, available on demand, and comprehensive enough to support higher-order achievements across the full range of 21st century skills, from elementary through to tertiary education. As such it enables continual improvement, with feedback to work as it proceeds, rather than at the end of a unit or term when it is too late to make adjustments” (Scardamalia, Bransford, Kozma & Quellmalz, 2013: 1). Excellence is associated with originality, innovation, significance, depth, quality and rigour. Can we afford to neglect learners with these qualities and leave their potential untapped? ‘These learners should also be challenged and be given the opportunity to excel way beyond the minimum expectations.1.13 STOPPING ALONG THE WAY 1.13.1 Take a breather Assessment should not take the place of learning. Learning should also not become driven by assessment only, because then learners may focus only on those things that are assessed. ‘There is a danger that placing too much emphasis on any form of assessment will result in teachers “teaching to the test”. In other words, when assessment results are used to make important decisions, there is a danger that instruction will narrowly focus on what is assessed, while other important curricular goals and content are neglected (Romberg, Zarinnia & Williams, 1989). 1.13.2 Refuel Learning is the fuel that keeps the assessment vehicle going, and the better the fuel, the better the performance. Purposeful, quality teaching and learning make it easier to conduct proper assessment and promote good performance.1.14 REACHING THE DESTINATION 1.14.1 Assessment of learning While formative assessment can be seen as assessment for learning, summative assessment can be seen as assessment of learning. As mentioned earlier, summative assessment takes place after a learning event or period, usually a semester or year, or a specific phase of learning. ‘The difference in assessment lies mainly in the fact that the assessment results are now tested against a set of criteria that set out the minimum standard required to continue to a next grade or phase, or to fulfil the requirements for a certificate, diploma or degree. Because of this, summative a: ent is usually a more “high-stakes” assessment event. 1.14.2 Assessing performance Performance assessment is the application of what the learners learned and is based on the instructional strategies and assessments done throughout the semester or year. In other words, learners are prepared to be able to perform tasks or apply knowledge and are readied for this type of assessment to take place. Performance requires integration of knowledge and skills in the context of producing something, solving a problem or presenting a case. When working with large numbers of learners, such as in the South African school system. countrywide, assessment of performance is a balancing act between observing performance and the requirements of time and costs to make this possible. 1.14.3 Promotion/certification Ina transformational OBE system, there are no grades, and promotion takes place automatically. In countries applying this type of OBE, there is no failure and no minimum. standard to which to adhere. In such countries, universities and some employers set their own entrance examinations to determine whether applicants (students and workers) have the required knowledge and skills. In countries such as New Zealand, private schools and those with a choice have opted for curriculum-based systems (Donnelly, 2005) rather than OBE. In South Africa, there are specified performance levels for promotion or entrance to a next level, and learners fail if they do not meet them. These standards are set by the Department of Basic Education (DBE) for schools, by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET/CHE) for universities and TVET colleges, and by SAQA for other learning institutions. All standards and qualifications are registered by SAQA and qualifications are mapped on the National Qualification Framework or NQF. Only registered providers may award the certificates, diplomas and degrees contained in the NQF.1.15 IMPROVING YOUR NEXT JOURNEY Changing assessment forms and formats without changing the ways in which assessments are used will not change the end result of education. In order for assessment to support student learning, it must include teachers in all stages of the process and be embedded in curriculum and teaching activities. Assessment must also be an integral part of ongoing teacher dialogue and school development (Darling-Hammond, 1994: 25). 1.15.1 Reflec' Through reflection the assessor begins the ongoing process of blending the art and science of good assessment practice. Reflection requires thoughtful and careful reporting and analysis of assessment practice, philosophy and experience. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires time, practice and an environment that supports the development and organisation of the reflection process (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2006). 1.15.2 Assessing the system It is important to find out whether the education system is actually delivering the envisaged results. The following questions may assist us in doing so: + Are learners actually learning? How does learner engagement in the learning process relate to actual learning? How do teachers conceptualise the learning process? How do learners perceive the value of learning? How does assessment contribute to learner reflection on learning? Can alternative assessment tools offer the credibility that is associated with tests? Do they need to? What is accepted as evidence of effective learner reflection? How can reflective opportunities be deep and transformative experiences for learners? Does the assessinent process reflect the value of assessing as if understanding watered? (Diaz-Lefebvre, 2003) With this in mind, quality assurance is used to provide judgement on the education system in order to + provide feedback to teachers on the effectiveness of their teaching and assessment methods + assess the extent to which the learning intentions of a module, course or programme have been achieved + evaluate the effectiveness of the learning environment+ monitor the quality of assessment methods used (Edwards, 2005). 1.15.3 Assessing the teaching/delivery Because teaching is a complex activity, information for this type of assessment must be gathered from a variety of perspectives. This can include teacher self-assessment, learner feedback, peer and colleague review, administrative perspective, teaching and learning research, and learner performance (CIDR, 2006: 1). 1.15.4 Getting feedback Feedback can be in the form of the teacher’s own teaching portfolio or diary, from scrutiny of the teaching materials and/or from questionnaires. Reviewing different sources of feedback will give a comprehensive picture and may indicate patterns or limitations that can be altered or should be attended to. 1.15.5 Improving Improving the system or the effectiveness of your teaching is usually based on the feedback received. Assessor training may also improve your methods, as you may gain new insights and learn from other assessors.1.16 THE WAY FORWARD Best practice in assessment in other countries (as reported by the European Agency, 2006) may provide some useful suggestions for challenges we still face in South Africa. In Hungary, the assessment system of a learning institution is part of the pedagogical programme approved by parents, learners and teachers. In this way, parents can be involved in assessment as they take ownership of it, and learners are participants in the assessment process rather than recipients of it. Achievements of learners are highlighted and emphasised in reports. Good practices in France seem to be those that support learning and assist the teacher to teach rather than those exclusively aimed at making a selection or meeting a standard. Assessment is conducted against the background of a social science model in Germany. Good assessment practice is based on the belief that communication and cooperation, and subsequently human behaviour in the social community, essentially influence the learning and development proces: In the Netherlands, best practice in assessment focuses on pupils’ educational needs, while conclusions are formulated in terms of concrete actions described in recommendations, an Individual Educational Plan or an intervention plan. Assessment which promotes learning is defined as good practice in Norway. This is achieved through active pupil participation, clear information to parents and a culture of assessment in the school. They also believe that everything starts with relevant teacher education and ongoing in-service training within the field of assessment. In Sweden, it is believed that best practice in assessment starts when the educators and the learners know what will be assessed and why, for whom, by whom, and how. All role- players should also know how the assessment will be used and against what the result will be assessed. Swedish assessment is process oriented and aims at change or improvement. It is based on good communication with learners and parents, involving learners in the learning process, identifying needs to support learning, motivating the learners and finding ways to reach the outcomes Some of the features of best assessment practice in the United Kingdom are considered to be a range of opportunities for assessment, and assessment which gives information about the learner's learning to a range of people who contribute to assessment, including the parents/carers. Assessment should also include a range of activities, which are equally valued and in which children can show their achievement, and which provide opportunities to give feedback to pupils, opportunities for the learner to engage in self-. nent, and opportunities to give feedback to relevant adults so that they may change behaviours/ approaches to the learning of learners.For this to happen there needs to be the capacity to use assessment data to inform the pace, focus and mode of delivery of the curriculum for the individual and for the group, and opportunity for teachers to engage in moderation and the scrutiny of work produced. outside their own classroom - both elsewhere in the school and in other schools - in order to gain awareness of comparable standards. There also needs to be formal reporting which takes account of value-added rather than raw scores. In Finland, teachers are so well trained that they are considered to be professionals who are able to design and apply assessment suitable for learners with a range of abilities. There is a total devolution of power and teachers are trusted to choose learning materials and assessment tasks as they see fit in their unique contexts (Krzywacki, Koistinen & Lavonen, 2012). What we could perhaps take from these examples of good practice and adapt for the South African situation (if they are not already embedded in the CAPS) are: + What is assessed and how it is done must be very clear, purposeful and understandable to everyone involved. All role-players can contribute to the development and improvement of the assessment system. + Assessment should be focused on the educational needs of learners. + There should be a positive culture of assessment in each school. + Teacher training and continuous professional development of teachers should include relevant training on assessment, so that they can build the capacity to use assessment data to inform the pace, focus and mode of delivery of the curriculum. + Achievements of learners should be highlighted and emphasised in reports, which reflect value-added rather than raw scores.1.17 CONCLUSION The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living from the dead. Aristotle ‘As assessors we make a major contribution to the education of people. We determine success or failure and we open the way towards future learning pathways. We influence the growth and development of learners and we provide the mile stones of their success. 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Available at http:// www.journeytoexcellence.org.uk/resourcesandcpd/research/summaries/rsassessment.asp.Chapter objectives In this chapter we aim to * recognise the importance of observation as instrument of assessment understand the nature of observation as assessment tool + identify and apply the steps to systematic assessment of young learners + distinguish between objective and subjective recording * create an age-appropriate checklist or rating scale for young learners « reflect on using assessment practices to identify learners with special needs. 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Assessment during different phases 2.3 What to assess 4 to know about t 2.4.1 Assessing infants and toddlers 2.4.2 Assessing pre-schoolers 2.4.3 Assessing Foundation Phase learners 2.5 Why should we assess? 26 n_do we assess? 2.7 How should we assess? 2.7.1 How do we assess young learners? 2.7.2 Principles for assessment 2.7.3 Language and assessment 2.7.4 Reading and assessment 2.7.5 Physical development and assessment 2.7.6 Emotional development and assessment 2.2.7 Cognitive development and assessment 2.8 Who are the assessors? 2.8.1 What is assessment? 2.8.2 Where does assessment take place?2.8.3 Principles to guide assessment 2.9 The primary purpose of assessing young learners 2.10 What are the teacher's responsibilities? 2.11 Differences in assessment 2.11.1 Assessing learners from birth to Grade R 2.11.2 Assessing learners from Grade R to Grade 3 2.11.3 Steps in assessment 2.11.4 Play-based assessment 2.11.5 Coping with learner assessment 2.12 Observation as an assessment tool 2.12.1 Why is observation important? 2.12.2 What to know about observation 2.12.3 Things to remember about observation 2.12.4 The purpose of observation 2.13 Different types of assessment and their impact on the assessment of young learners 2.13.1 Baseline assessment 2.13.2 Formative assessment 2.13.3 Diagnostic assessment 2.13.4 Summative assessment 2.16.1 Phase one 2.16.2 Phase two 2.18 Different methods of assessment for the Pre-school and Foundation Phases 2.18.1 Self-assessment 2.18.2 Peer asses 2.18.3 Group assessment 2.18.4 The learner's profile ortfolios 2.19 Parent involvement2.22.1 Interpretation of observations 2.22.2 What about bias? 2.22.3 Caution against diagnosing a problem 22.4 Knowing the limitations of assessment 22.5 Knowing what is normal and what is not 2.22.6 Paying attention to individual characteristics 2.22.7 Distortions in language, movement, audible, visual and behaviour skills 2.22.8 Unfair comparisons 2.22.9 Overemphasis on norms 2.22.10 ‘Too narrow a perspective 2.22.11 Too wide a range 2.22.12 Too little or too much time 2.23 Checklist for assessment planning 2.23.1 Other questions relevant to assessment Issues to reflect on References2.1 INTRODUCTION Assessment in the Pre-school and Foundation Phases involves far more than testing learners or completing progress forms or reports at the end of a term. As assessment is one of the most difficult tasks facing teachers of young learners, it is one of the most crucial teaching skills to master (Davin & Van Staden, 2004: 224). Whitebread (2006: 117) sees it as the only certain safeguard to prevent children’ failure and secure progress and development. According to Johnston and Nahmad-Williams (2009: 282), assessment also helps to maximise the potential of children’s learning. According to Kostelnik, Soderman and Whiren (2004: 183), an effective assessment system should be more than just a collection of observations, tests and formal or informal assessments performed by a number of professionals at different stages of a child's life. According to Drake (2006: 168), observation, assessment and planning are the cornerstones of the teacher's role and an ongoing process of identifying and planning for children’s learning needs. Observation ‘The practitioner observes what children do and say during activities and experiences. / within the learning environment \ Learning experience Assessment and activiti a ae eatin ae “The practitioner makes iren actively engage seh assessments of children’s with the planned environment | (/euclel-ihiis ie eee and in planning actvitios or peers within the environment \ a é The practitioner uses assessments to plan an appropriate curriculum and next steps for individuals Figure 2.1 The assessment and planning cycle Source: Drake (2006: 169); Papatheodorou & Moyles (2012: 145) Assessment can therefore be seen as one of the most important building blocks of well- planned learning programmes, and as important in presenting developmentally appropriate activities to young learners (Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, 2009: 282). There is a need in modern education for well-designed assessment and evaluation strategies to help professionals make well-informed decisions in early childhood education, development and growth, and thereby prevent assessment results being used to hold teachers and schools accountable for children failing the system (McAfee & Leong, 2011: 7). Knowing howindividual children think, learn, develop and behave across time, is of the utmost importance to successful teaching (Hendrick, 2003: 114-124). Educators need to master the skill of collecting and documenting information to inform instruction and to identify children who might benefit from special help (Kostelnik et al., 2004: 183; McAfee & Leong, 2011: 18).2.2 ASSESSMENT DURING DIFFERENT PHASES ‘There is a slight difference between assessment in the later phases of schooling and that during the Foundation Phase and early childhood teaching. The methodologies used in the early phase are quite different from those used for older learners. The pre-school way of teaching is active, and emphasises the formation of emergent literacy and mathematic skills and concepts, as well as problem solving and decision-making skills (De Witt, 2012: 182- 184). In teaching young learners, play forms the basis of all learning (Brock, Dodds, Jarvis & Olusoga, 2009: 130). In using play, teachers need to show children how to learn by developing interesting projects for them, and by observing and questioning them (Feeney, Christensen & Moravcik, 2001: 169). Teachers establish what children know and can do through their instructions to them. By using their knowledge, teachers individualise instruction in this phase (Mindes, 2003: 257). Proper planning and observation by the teacher make multiple outcomes and levels of success possible. The following serves as an example: in the theme “Where Do We Live? Houses and Shelters’, learners are given the opportunity to develop their knowledge of the physical properties of their immediate family and home environment. With this theme, learners can also enhance through play their scientific inquiry into building materials (Mindes, 2003: 257). However, while teaching, the teacher should ask herself: + Is something happening for this child in his play? + What is this child’s agenda? + Does this particular child have the skills and resources available to accomplish his needs? (Gordon & Browne, 2011: 196) In presenting themes in this way, every learner who attempts this activity can be successful, as there is no right or wrong answer (Mindes, 2003: 257). Following this approach means that children are not forced into a “one size fits all” activity, and all learners can be successful. Learners get the opportunity to build confidence in themselves as learners, to try new things and to enjoy learning, ‘leachers should search for ways of stretching the minds of children, encouraging them as learners and achievers, and helping them to actualise their full potential. According to Mindes (2003: 257), successful pre-school teachers should “braid” assessment and teaching into a smooth coil.2.3 WHAT TO ASSESS Assessment can be described as an ongoing process by which professionals can look at all areas of a child’s development via a number of assessment instruments, with the purpose of identifying strengths and weaknesses in order to plan intervention strategies to support the child (Ahola & Kovacik, 2006: 9). Although one expects different countries to have different assessment outcomes, there seem to be similariti s between countries as to what teachers should assess in the Pre-school and Foundation Phases. For example, as in most other assessment approaches, the learning outcomes for The Head Start Child Outcomes Framework in the United States include language development, literacy, mathematics, science, creative arts, social and emotional development, approaches to learning, and physical health and development (Mindes, 2003: 257). The assessment strategies for the South African Pre-school Phase link closely to the criteria for The Head Start Child Outcomes Framework, while the assessment standards for the Foundation Phase include home language, first additional language, mathematics and life skills (Department of Basic Education, 201 1a; 2011b; 2011¢; 2011d). McAfee and Leong (2002: 35-40) stipulate the following domains as being important: + A learner's developmental status at a given time plays a major role in knowing which criteria to apply for the assessment. ‘A learner's progress and change over time are a measure of his or her growth. Significant child growth and development will help predict the learner's future progress. Expected outcomes of the programme for individual children form the focus of early childhood teaching. Unique patterns of development, knowledge, attitudes and interests should be noted. Problem behaviour may be an indicator of a need for special education.2.4 WHAT TO KNOW ABOUT ASSESSMENT Assessment in the pre-school and Foundation Phases can be divided into separate categories. The assessment of infants and toddlers differs from the assessment of pre-school learners, and also from that of five- to nine-year-olds. We need to ask the question: what makes the assessment of infants and toddlers different from the assessment of Pre-school and Foundation Phase learners? 2.4.1 Assessing infants and toddlers Observation - which is different from merely watching children — is the primary means of assessing infants, toddlers and young children. We observe young children to understand the true nature of the child, in order to plan for and support the child. The basic purpose of this technique is to + help us to understand the child + develop a relationship with the child + beable to plan for the child + support the observer to practise pedagogics + identify the child with special needs (Ahola & Kovacik, 2006: 4-5). In assessing infants and toddlers, the task of the assessor might be more difficult than assessing older children, as the following distinctive characteristics of infants and toddlers make their assessment different (Mindes, 2003: 237): Lacking expression and communication skills Having difficulty with separation or bonding issues Demonstrating a limited attention and concentration span Being influenced and motivated by extrinsic factors Adapting slowly to new and unknown surroundings Tiring easily and needing regular naps and meal intervals Refusing to cooperate Exhibiting a wide range of normal behaviours for young learners Demonstrating highly variable hour-to-hour behaviour and mood swings, despite behaviour and personality being, on the whole, stable over years Tending to use the testing material differently by, for example, putting it into their mouths and chewing on it (Mindes, 2003: 238)2.4.2 Assessing pre-schoolers ‘Two kinds of assessment can be distinguished in the Pre-school Phase. For learners under five years of age, the developmental characteristics can be used as criteria. These include cognitive, language, physical, emotional, social and conative attributes. For learners in Grade R, the nationally agreed assessment standards for the different learning programmes would be used, with the focus on literacy, numeracy and life skills (Department of Basic Education, 201 1a; 2011b; 2011¢; 2011). 2.4.3 Assessing Foundation Phase learners ‘The assessment criteria for learners in Grades 1 to 3 are prescribed by the Department of Education (Department of Basic Education, 201 1a; 2011b; 201 1c; 2011d). However, itis still important to observe and assess the developmental attributes of these learners, as valuable information on child behaviour can be obtained.2.5 WHY SHOULD WE ASSESS? During the pre-school and the early developmental phase, we assess to determine the individual learner's developmental status, such as his or her growth, development or learning at a given time, and his or her progress and change over time. Questions such as the following can be asked about a particular learner's status: « What does the learner know? « What can the learner do? + What is the learner's emotional status? + What is the status of the learner's physical health? + What is the learner's particular attitude and disposition? After determining the learner’s developmental status, the information can be used to plan for the individual learner's activities and learning (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 33; Drake, 2006: 169). In addition, assessment should provide information for classroom planning and decision- making relating to the following (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 34): + Identifying children who may be at risk and providing an intervention programme (McAfee & Leong, 2011: 18). Curriculum planning and assessment are integrated throughout the programme - assessment is congruent with and relevant to the goals, objectives and content of the programme (McAfee & Leong, 2011: 148). Children’s development and learning in all the domains should be assessed and should influence all decision-making about the teaching of these learners. Assessment should always result in benefits to the child in terms of instruction and programme improvement. Assessment provides teachers with information to fulfil successfully their responsibilities to support children’s learning and development. Assessment recognises the diversity in a group, and addresses the context of each individual learner, allowing for differences in styles and rates of learning (McAfee & Leong, 2011: 19). Assessment supports the learner’s development and learning. Because assessment informs parents of their children’s characteristics and progress, it supports parents’ relationships with their children. ‘True assessment demonstrates children’s overall strengths and progress and does not focus on weaknesses. Assessment is an essential component of the teacher's role as educator and directs all future planning (Drake, 2006: 169).2.6 WHEN DO WE ASSESS? Assessment makes most sense if it occurs on an ongoing basis as particular activities are taking place and as skills and content are being learned (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 42). Appraisal will usually provide a time frame according to which assessment needs to be completed, as the continuation of the learning programme will influence the intensity and rate of assessment. Keeping in mind that assessment should influence the content and pace of the programme, assessment should be a continuous process. For instance, if the teacher ‘wants to find out whether a child can use classroom tools ~ crayons, scissors, chalk, paintbrushes and pencils — assessment should be directed at the applicable skills and should happen authentically (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 41). In the Foundation Phase, the assessment should be directed at the outcomes of the learning programmes Literacy, Mathematics and Life Skills (Department of Basic Education, 2011a; 2011b; 201 1c; 2011d).2.7 HOW SHOULD WE ASSESS? ‘The way in which one would assess is influenced by the specific programme philosophy. According to Mindes (2003: 256), teachers should carefully select recording methods for assessing and the particular goal for observation, based on the programme's philosophy and goals of instruction. 2.7.1 How do we assess young learners? To successfully assess young learners’ behaviour and learning, we should use ways that are embedded in instruction and that guide it (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 1). This activity should be systematic while observing children at work and at play. Drama and socio-dramatic play, which enhance critical and creative play, offer the potential to get young children to see things from another's viewpoint and allow them to move into pretend worlds (Brock et al., 2009: 133). To get more authentic information about behaviour, development and learning, one can ask young learners to explain and describe their work and thinking processes, and combine this with collected and analysed samples of children’s work. It is also advisable to use and record results from performance assessments (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 1). 2.7.2 Principles for assessment To ensure the validity of assessment, its purpose should always be made explicit and a criterion-referenced approach should be used. Fundamentally, assessment has to be authentic, continuous, multidimensional, varied and balanced. Assessment must also be accurate, objective, valid, fair, manageable and time-efficient, and should form an ongoing, integral part of the learning process intervention (Department of Education, 1998: 9). ‘The structure of assessment takes many forms. Information is gathered from several contexts and situations, and a variety of methods are used, depending on what is being assessed, the needs of the learner and the purpose of the assessment. ‘The methods and techniques used must be appropriate to the knowledge, skills or attitudes to be assessed, and also to the learner's age and level of development. In addition, they must be suitable to the learner’s specific context. Assessment must be bias-free and sensitive to gender, race, cultural background and abilities. It must be communicated clearly, accurately, meaningfully and in a timely manner to all those involved. Progression should always be linked to the achievement of the specific outcomes and should not be rigidly time-bound.Why assess? on (purpose) a ——EEE ™ Using information What to assess? { Interpreting information ~ ra Compiling Documentation ‘Summarising information | *—| Collecting information Documentation Recording information When to assess? Figure 2.2 The assessment cycle Source: McAfee and Leong (2011: 30) Evidence of progress in achieving outcomes should be used to identify areas where learners may need support and special intervention (Department of Education, 1998: 9; Department of Basic Education, 201 1a; 2011b; 201 1¢; 20114). Assessment should therefore be + continuous + directed at all the different domains of developmental areas + sensitive to the individual and cultural context. If the nature of the assessment is formal, it will require teachers to have special knowledge and expertise for the correct interpretation of their observations (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 53; McAfee & Leong, 2011: 3). If assessment is informal, it includes normal classroom activities and is directly relevant to classroom decision-making and keeping track of progress towards developmental goals. This would include observing learners, eliciting responses from them, collecting products from classroom activities and eliciting information from parents (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 52). To ensure authentic findings, it is advisable that as many ways as possible of assessing learners are used, as well as a combination of sources, methods and contexts. According to McAfee and Leong (2002: 49), using multiple perspectives helps in collecting and capturing the development and learning of a rapidly changing learner.2.7.3 Language and assessment Language is a valuable tool in assessing learners. In assessing oral language the teacher carefully observes learners during play, during small group activities, and at other times during the instructional day (Cohen, Stern & Balaban, 1997: 45). Journals, dictation, stories, conversations, responses to questions and wordplay provide multiple opportunities to gather valuable information reflecting the development and learning of the young learner (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 49; Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, 2009: 287). In the policy documents provided by the Department of Basic Education, detailed assessment standards are stipulated (Department of Basic Education, 2011b; 2011d). 2.7.4 Reading and assessment For the very young learner, picture reading can give a valuable reflection of the level of language development and of the learner's experiential life world. For the Foundation Phase, this activity focuses on comprehension of text and learning about the concepts of print, such as what print is, left-to-right and top-to-bottom orientation on a page, phonological awareness ~ which is certainly essential to children’s development, and a prediction of future learning success (Barone, Mallette & Hong Xu, 2005: 23). It must be kept in mind that by means of rhymes and language play, a basis is formed for a more structural teaching of phonics for formal reading and writing (Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, 2009: 287). Concepts ahout books and print should inchide the following: + Book orientation + Difference between illustrations and print « Directionality of print (Barone et al., 2005: 29) The assessment for the Foundation Phase is available in the policy documents of the Department of Basic Education (201 1b; 2011d). 2.7.5 Physical development and assessment Observing the physical development of young learners can provide valuable information about their development and learning. The movements of the body as the child uses materials, the rhythm and tempo of body movements, how much and what kind of effort the child expends, the freedom the child shows in his or her body movements and the details of facial expressions are all crucial indications of development and learning (Cohen et al., 1997: 45; Hendrick, 2003: 171). ‘The assessment for the Foundation Phase is available in the policy documents of the Department of Basic Education (201 1c).2.7.6 Emotional development and assessment Emotions are a good indicator of how one experiences oneself. Emotional stability can be seen as a prerequisite for actualising one’s full potential. Emotional responses such as excitement, contentment, frustration, self-criticism, confidence, over-stimulation, intense interest and preoccupation are indicators of a child’s emotional attributes (Cohen et al., 1997: 45; Hendrick, 2003: 217). These attributes can enhance or hinder the learner's development or learning. According to Johnston and Nahmad-Williams (2009: 286), there are six aspects regarding the emotional, personal and social domains that should be addressed, namely + dispositions and attitndes « self-confidence and self-esteem + forming relationships « behaviour and self-control «self-care + sense of community. 2.7.7 Cognitive development and assessment In assessing the learner's cognitive level, an exploration of the learner's thinking processes, problem-solving strategies and reasoning is integral to the process of assessment. Criteria such as the construction of oral or written response prompts, recognition versus recall response levels, receptive versus expressive response levels, and convergent versus divergent response levels (which include the levels of cognitive complexity of Bloom’s taxonomy) are implicit. Determining how the learner will respond (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 49), how he uses the various materials, his attention span, whether he completes what he starts, and how he seems to feel about the materials, forms the basis for cognitive assessment (Cohen et al., 1997: 51).2.8 WHO ARE THE ASSESSORS? Within the framework of this publication, the assessors will be + different staff members (teachers) + other professionals in cases where needed, such as the following: = the family doctor - physiotherapist - speech therapist clinical psychologist — social worker — educational psychologist — special needs teacher (Sharman, Cross & Vennis, 2006: 94-96). 2.8.1 What is assessment? As already mentioned, assessment is a way of finding out what a learner knows, understands, values and can do. Assessment is therefore “the process of identifying, gathering and interpreting information about the learners’ achievement, as measured against nationally agreed outcomes for a particular phase of learning” (Department of Education, 1998: 9; Ahola & Kovacik, 2006: 9). According to McAfee and Leong (2002: 46), assessment is not an invariant linear or time- bound sequence in which you do the first step at the beginning of the year and the last one at the end of the year. On the contrary, it may sometimes happen that information collected early in the year results in immediate programme modifications to accommodate the needs expressed. ‘The effect of ongoing continued assessment is that it keeps teachers and the programme sensitive and responsive to the learners’ needs. In the process of assessing, the teacher should make use of observations and a variety of other methods, tools, techniques and contexts, and integrate assessment into the learning programme. The teacher should also identify the criteria that need to be met to achieve the outcomes of the section of work in relation to critical and specific outcomes, interpret and record the findings. She should also reflect on and report the findings by giving positive, supportive and motivational feedback to all relevant parties (Department of Education, 2000: 66; Gauteng Department of Education, 2000: 3). ‘Therefore, the primary purpose of assessment relates to classroom planning and decision- making, and to making classroom procedures and activities more responsive to and appropriate for individual learners and the group (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 33).Ina child’ early years, teachers rely heavily on performance assessment because young children have limited communication skills. Observation forms one of the most important tools for assessing young learners. 2.8.2 Where does assessment take place? ‘The venue for assessing young learners is related to the objectives. One should carefully match observation exercises and purposes with a specific setting (Bentzen, 2000: 47). 2.8.3 Principles to guide assessment Four basic principles to guide assessment are formulated by Gordon and Browne (2011: 282): + Developmentally appropriate outcomes should be formulated to be used as standards. + Standards should be reviewed regularly as well as the techniques used in assessing young learners. + The strategies for assessment should be ethical as well as appropriate for young children. + The standards, the observations and the assessments used should be communicated to all the role-players.2.9 THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF ASSESSING YOUNG LEARNERS Clarity on the purpose of assessing young learners is crucial. Finding out an ‘ording how children feel, behave and think, what they know and can do, what their phys wellbeing is, and what their interests, attitudes and dispositions are, will form the basis for the assessment. ‘This process will help teachers to guide, assist with and participate in the growth, development and learning of learners (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 7; McAfee & Leong, 2011: 30).2.10 WHAT ARE THE TEACHER’S RESPONSIBILITIES? Intruding on the emotional and psychological domain of young learners’ lives surely plac certain respons bili son Ge teacher, Qual as fair respect for the Tights of all 11-22; McAfee & a 2011: 3).2.11 DIFFERENCES IN ASSESSMENT The way learners are assessed will depend on the phase or age of the learners. Assessing young learners is totally different from assessing learners in the FET band or even in the Intermediate Phase. There are two main approaches involved in assessing young learners. These two approaches address learners from birth to 5 years old, and from Grade R to Grade 3. 2.11.1 Assessing learners from birth to Grade R Assessment of young learners relies predominantly on observation. Kagan et al. (1995, in McAfee & Leong, 2002: 37) identified and defined the following four dimensions of early childhood strands to focus observation: + Physical wellbeing + Motor development + Social and emotional development + Approaches to learning, language development, cognition and general knowledge (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 37; McAfee & Leong, 2011: 6) 2.11.2 Assessing learners from Grade R to Grade 3 As learners in this phase fall into the category of formal schooling, the focus of the assessment is quite different. The purpose of the assessment now changes to finding out what the learner knows, understands, values and is able to do. Once again, it is important to note that the official guidelines by the Department of Basic Education should be adhered to: the Policy pertaining to promotion and progression requirements (Government Gazette 36041) and the National Protocol on Assessment (Government Gazette 36042), The promotion requirements for Grades R to 3 are only guidelines, while the progression requirement is the central requirement. GradeR Grades 1-3 a) Adequate achievement (Level 4) (50%- | a) Adequate achievement (Level 4) (50%-59%) in one 59%) in one official language at Home official language at Home Language level; and Language level; and b) Moderate achievement (Level 3) (40%-49%) in the b) Moderate achievement (Level 3) (40%- second required official language at First Additional 499) in Mathematics Language level; and ©) Moderate achievement (Level 3) (40%-49%) in Mathematics‘SCALE OF ACHIEVEMENT The 7-level scale of achievement is used in all grades as of 2012 ACHIEVEMENT LEVEL PERCENTAGE ACHIEVEMENT DESCRIPTOR 7 80-100 Outstanding achievement 6 70-79 Meritorious achievement 5 60-69 Substantial achievement 4 50-59 Adequate achievement 3 40-49 Moderate achievement 2 30-39 Elementary achievement 1 0-29 Not achieved 2.11.3 Steps in assessment The process of assessing involves different steps, which include the following: + Generating and collecting evidence of participation and achievement + Evaluating this evidence against the set outcomes for the particular programme + Recording the findings of the evaluation + Using this information to assist the learner's development and improve the process of learning and teaching 2.11.4 Play-based assessment For assessing young children, a play setting provides a natural environment and such assessment can take place over a period of time through which a clear picture of a child’s strengths and weaknesses can be built up (Brock et al., 2009: 211). According to Brock et al. (2009: 211), the following phases can be identified in play-based assessment: Stage 1 Pre-play (preparation) Stage 2 Adult-child interaction Stage 3 Post-play (completion)Ahola and Kovacik (2006: 13) formalise specific benefits of play-based assessment as follows: + This kind of observation provides an opportunity to assess a young child if the child cannot or will not perform in a formal testing situation. + Young children may achieve a level that they would not demonstrate on standardised assessments. «+ Itcan also provide important insights into temperamental variables as the child’s real self is displayed during play. + Child-parent relationships can be revealed during play, which may explain the child’s behaviour. + It can provide insight into all developmental aspects of the child. + It can be used for play-based interventions. 2.11.5 Coping with learner assessment Lately there has been a great deal of emphasis on assessment. Teachers need to carry out assessment responsibilities concurrent with their existing workload and other responsibilities. Proper classroom assessment takes thought, effort, time and commitment, and schools and teachers should have realistic expectations about how much they can do. They should carefully select those assessment approaches that best suit their needs, the needs of the learners and the available resources. Assessment is a complicated task and it takes time to develop the knowledge and skill to assess well, to integrate sound assessment practices into instruction, and to actually assess and determine the implications of results (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 7).2.12 OBSERVATION AS AN ASSESSMENT TOOL Observation is the primary means of assessing young learners. Observing learners is not merely a casual activity but should be based on a sound knowledge of developmental theories and practices. For instance, to watch children play, the teacher must understand what play is, and know the theories regarding play, the different forms of play, and the developmental levels of play (Bentzen, 2000: v). Observing children is one of the basic responsibilities of the teacher in order to be able to understand the interests and learning needs of the young child. Observation time might be preplanned or incidental, but whatever it is, it should be written down and in some way reported (Drake, 2006: 171). By observing, teachers can gather information on individual children regarding the following (Drake, 2006: 172): + What the child can do (skills) + The child’s understanding and knowledge regarding a topic (knowledge and concepts) + The way the child approaches the learning task (attitude) 2.12.1 Why is observation important? As the characteristics of young learners do not allow for a variety of assessment instruments to be used, observation becomes the main means of assessing them. Observation allows for the measurement of many important behaviours that may otherwise be unmeasurable or ignored (Bentzen, 2000: 6). It is important to emphasise that formal testing is developmentally inappropriate for young learners (Bentzen, 2000: 7). Young learners should not feel threatened or anxious, even when they know they are being observed (Bentzen, 2000: 9). However, it is important to provide a supportive environment that provides children with ample time and resources to engage in social play. An informally structured environment enhances social play, while a highly structured setting provides little opportunity to observe children in authentic free play (Brock et al., 2009: 131). 2.12.2 What to know about observation Observation is a critical skill that must be developed over time, and that requires a great deal of practice and experience. Basic principles for successful observation include the following: + Be unobtrusive - move into the background and do not interfere with what you are about to observe. + Beas objective as possible and do not allow your own values, experiences and opinions to influence your interpretations.+ Focus your observation on a specific learner, behaviour, situation, concern or identified goal. As observation is a multi-skilled activity, your attention should be focused. + Observe both verbal and non-verbal behaviour. Posture and body language can be important clues to behaviour. + Be cautious of early reactions and suspend judgement; wait before drawing conclusions and other interpretations of meaning until after observation (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 53). 2.12.3 Things to remember about observation Observation is a delicate skill and in a real sense the teacher will be acting as a scientist when observing young learners (Bentzen, 2000: 11). As emphasised by Bentzen, observing is not simply looking at something. Disciplined, scientific observation involves looking at something in a particular way, in a particular setting, from a particular perspective, and for a specific purpose (Bentzen, 2000: 13; Cohen & Spenciner, 2003: 93). In observing young learners one should always keep the following in mind: + The young learner is someone’ child. To work successfully with young learners, the parents should be part of the whole exercise. A thorough knowledge of child development is a requirement (Bentzen, 2000: 191). No assumptions or interpretations regarding the behaviour of learners can be made without the relevant background knowledge. Any information gathered must be dealt with in a confidential manner. Assessment methods must be affordable and doable. Be careful not to create an artificial test situation. Remember, age makes a difference and the assessor should take this into consideration. 2.12.4 The purpose of observation The starting point for planned observation is a clearly formulated purpose (Deiner, 1999: 566). It is helpful to have the reason for observation clearly in mind. Identifying objectives is a central task, as everything else depends on it (Bentzen, 2000: 44). As Bentzen (2000: 45) notes, “scientific observation is not merely looking at something; it is looking for something’2.13 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ASSESSMENT AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE ASSESSMENT OF YOUNG LEARNERS 2.13.1 Baseline assessment ‘The teacher will use baseline assessment to determine “where learners are” or “what they know’, before beginning with a new set of learning activities. This will provide the teacher with information regarding the learners’ level of development and learning, and help the teacher to determine the level of understanding on which to build (Department of Education, 2000). In the case of young learners, baseline assessment forms the basis of the teacher's planning of new activities, as he or she needs to keep the learners’ existing knowledge in mind. 2.13.2 Formative assessment Formative assessment involves a developmental approach in order to support and enhance the learning process. Observing young learners while at work and at play provides an opportunity for the teacher to make changes or adapt the programme to suit the learners’ needs. Formative a: ent should be continuous to keep teachers and the programme sensitive and responsive to the needs of the learners (McAfee & Leong, 2011: 44). 2.13.3 Diagnostic assessment Diagnostic assessment will be implicit in all observations. Here the teacher will specifically focus on identifying learning difficulties in order to provide appropriate remediation, guidance or an intervention programme. 2.13.4 Summative assessment Summative assessment is a series of assessment activities resulting in an overall report on the learner's performance. In the case of young learners, the nature of these activities should be informal and they should fit into the daily routine; any test situation should be avoided. ‘The results of summative assessment must “feed back” into planning the programme. According to Drake (2006: 190), summative assessment can be used as a baseline from where further planning for children’s learning can take place. It can also serve as a summary of events and give the whole picture of the children’s achievements rather than the limited information offered by some raw data.“The following guidelines can be followed for writing summative reports (Drake 2006: 191): «+ Information included in the report should be accessible to the parents as well as the teachers. «+ Use positive terms to describe the behaviour of children. + Summaries should reflect the Pre-school or Foundation Phase curriculum, but should also be individual to the child. Differentiate statements by using words or phrases such as “occasionally”, “often’, “confidently”, “with support’. After having completed the report, ask a colleague to read the report to ensure accuracy,2.14 HOW TO ASSESS EFFECTIVELY Assessment should only be carried out if it is effective. To ensure effective assessment, one should be aware of the values and beliefs that underlie the process of assessment. + It is important to know and understand that assessment has an emotional dimension for all involved. Within the framework of the South African education system, it is important to understand the principles informing the CAPS and the practice of assessment. Valuable documentation in this regard is available at both national and provincial levels. Developing educators’ observation skills and techniques and their ability to integrate observation into daily routines, should be incorporated in all continuing professional development (CPD) programmes. Knowledge of child development theories should be seen as a prerequisite; all teachers can be expected to understand that effective assessment is based on knowledge of how children learn and develop. An effective record-keeping system is essential in order to survive the complexities of assessment. A good system can make life much easier and facilitate future reference. Make assessment work for the benefit of all learners and their diverse needs. See it as a valuable instrument to enhance better teaching (Department of Education, 2000: 10).2.15 WHEN IS ASSESSMENT USEFUL? Assessment will only be relevant if it forms part of the planning stage of the learning programme. Assessment should therefore feed into the planning of activities (Deiner, 1999: 566-567; Decker & Decker, 1997: 286). To complete the circle of effective assessment, allow time for reflection, evaluation and further planning. However, assessment should not dominate the planning process. It should happen continuously without interfering with the educator's teaching role. Assessment forms an integral part of teaching and should involve all age groups in the Pre- school Phase, and all grades in the Foundation Phase. No learner is too young to be assessed. In the case of very young learners, assessment will generally happen during an activity that the learner is freely involved with. Never force learners into doing an activity and avoid any situation that is artificial. Learners should be given many opportunities to succeed and to experience a feeling of self-fulfilment. ‘The learners in this phase are still very young, and meaningful learning experiences are a challenge but are also achievable for the learners at their own level. When the teacher is clear about what evidence he or she will be looking for during the activities, he or she can better assess the skills the learner is working towards. However, never prescribe to learners in this phase. Assessment happens when you plan ahead for it, therefore prepare both yourself and the learner for what is expected, but always be guided by the developmental level of the learner. In the case of free-flow or informal learning, closure on a daily basis can make assessment more effective and tell you whether meaningful learning is taking place. The informal setting of the pre-school also enables the teacher to assess the unexpected, incidental learning that takes place, i.e. learning that is not part of the planned curriculum prescribed in the CAPS.2.16 THE OBSERVATION PROCESS As in assessment, the observation process also involves more than one phase or sequence. ‘The following phases can be distinguished: 2.16.1 Phase one Objective description without personal interpretation or reflection is the foundation of observation. This means recording what you see as precisely and completely as possible (Bentzen, 2000: 61). Important questions to ask here are, “What am I going to look at?”; “What do I want to find out more about?” (Ahola & Kovacik, 2006: 47). 2.16.2 Phase two ‘The process of interpretation means going beyond your objective descriptions and trying to explain or give meaning to them (Bentzen, 2000: 61; Ahola & Kovacik, 2006: 49). 2.16.2.1 Things to note When working with young learners, and while considered in the process of interpretation: ing them, the following must be + Are the learners’ bi ic needs being met? Learners of this age cannot care for themselves, and rely heavily on the support of an adult. + Does the environment suit the learner? Health and safety should be the starting point for planning an environment for learners in this phase. Is the learner’s behaviour a cry for attention? Be sensitive to messages demonstrated through behavioural patterns. Remember, young learners may not have the communication skills to express their needs. Is the learner manifesting behavioural responses because of a feeling of powerlessness? Linking up with this, did the learner learn bad or manipulative behaviour by being rewarded for it in the past? In cases of misbehaviour, does the learner clearly understand why his or her behaviour is inappropriate? (Bentzen, 2000: 168-169). 2.16.2.2 Does culture play a role? The effect of culture cannot be ignored or overemphasised. The concept of developmentally appropriate practice suggested for young learners also offers a cogent rationale for addressing the issue of culture and its effect on the overall observation process. Learners’ different cultural backgrounds should be taken into consideration and can affect yourinterpretations. The setting, context or framework and your own reactions to the behaviour you observe must in all instances be free from subjective interpretations (Bentzen, 2000: 169, 170). According to McAfee and Leong (2011: 20), the cultural backgrounds of children influence their knowledge, skills, attitudes, vocabularies, as well as the way they interact with other people. It may also happen that their way of responding to questions may put children from certain cultural groups at a disadvantage in school. This once again emphasises the fact that assessment should be done with sensitivity to diversity. 2.16.3 Phase three ‘The most important part of observation is the evaluation of findings, for it is at this point that you apply your values and attitudes to the learner's behaviour (Bentzen, 2000: 62). 2.16.3.1 What to do with the findings Observation and assessment enable the teacher to gain a better understanding of a learner's behaviour. Once again, it is important not to be subjective in the evaluation. Another purpose of observing a learner's behaviour and development is to collect and use the information in ways that will benefit the learner (Bentzen, 2000: 178).2.17 OBSERVATION GUIDELINES Observation is one of the most important skills the teacher should learn and master in working with young learners (Herr & Libby-Larson, 2000: xxiv; Cohen & Spenciner, 2003: 93). To do meaningful observation, training and practice are needed and should be part of all teacher training programmes. Observation can take different forms, but the basic components include the following: determining a focus, observing intensely, allowing adequate time, and giving an orderly exposition. The next stage is to interpret what has been observed. Interpretations are made based on the knowledge that the teacher possesses, or in discussions with other professional people involved. The next important aspect is to acknowledge one’s own emotions and reactions while observing, and to take care not to be influenced by these emotions. Be alert in observing, and remember to include expressive detail, as the child’s body language can provide valuable clues as to his or her development. Value judgements about learners should in all instances be avoided. To prevent value judgements, rather describe what the child is doing instead of what he or she is like. Observations should be written down and represent a complete account of the learners’ development and learning. Concentrating on detail may hold the answer to solving a problem. Learners are better understood through accurate, systematic and objective observation, and insight is gained into their needs and problems. Observation should be sensitive to the child’s needs, and knowledge of the child's stage of development is a prerequisite for interpretation. Mutual understanding and acceptance are essential for objective interpretations. This requires insight into one’s own behaviour as well as the behaviour of learners of different ages. Interpretations must be unprejudiced - open-mindedness and an absence of personal prejudice are prerequisites. Presentiment or intuition does not guarantee correct interpretation. Ethical and cultural differences should be taken into account and should not be allowed to influence one’s interpretations (Feeney et al., 2001: 100-107).2.18 DIFFERENT METHODS OF ASSESSMENT FOR THE PRE-SCHOOL AND FOUNDATION PHASES 2.18.1 Self-assessment Self-assessment is recommended only for older learners in this phase. As young learners are essentially egocentric, they cannot dissociate themselves from their achievements in a particular activity. To use this assessment tool effectively, the teacher should discuss the topic to get the learner's input. Requirements for effective self-assessment include the following: + In this phase, self-assessment should be informal. + In the first instance, it should reflect on what the learner can do. + Itshould also reflect on what the learner has difficulty with. + For effective self-assessment, the teacher should discuss the desired outcomes with the learner. + Encourage communication by asking the learner to talk about what he or she has done, to describe a piece of work, or to tell how he or she experiences his or her participation (Department of Education, 1999: 57). 2.18.2 Peer assessment Peer assessment is also advisable only for older learners in this phase. At a young age, learners are self-centred and do not have the ability to become involved in the activities of other learners. Later, as they get older, learners learn from one another, and the teacher can ask them questions about their own and others’ work (Department of Education, 1999: 57). ‘The following categories of peer assessment can be identified: + Learner to learner + Learner to group + Class to learner + Group to learner + Group to group It should be emphasised again that the learners’ developmental level would be the indicator of whether they are ready for this kind of assessment. 2.18.3 Group assessment According to Bentzen (2000: 69), all groups have their own distinctive qualities, with distinctive influences on their members. Again, group assessment can only be effective with older learners in this phase.2.18.4 The learner’s profile A learner's profile is a cumulative record of the learner’s performance. It must be kept so that, when a learner moves from grade to grade, school to school, teacher to teacher, or province to province, there is an overall record of what the learner has achieved throughout his or her learning path. In the early years, summative assessment is completed through the use of a profile, and it is strongly suggested that the profile for the young is accompanied by a portfolio of evidence (Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, 2009: 285). 2.18.5 Portfolios Portfolios are a useful tool for effective assesstnent; they serve as documentation of assessment information. Teachers’ observations of learners in action, informal assessments, and learners’ work products are collected, reviewed, shared with parents and other learners, and documented in the learners’ portfolios (Herr & Libby-Larson, 2000: xxiv; Cohen & Spenciner, 2003: 168). Portfolios are a more dynamic record of child practice than records of formal screening tests and other measures, and are also preferable for assessing young learners (Decker & Decker, 1997: 294; Mindes, 2003: 257; McAfee & Leong, 2011: 97). In physical terms, the portfolio is a file, folder, box, computer disk or any other container to hold evidence of a learner's work. Portfolios can be used to organise, store and keep authentic examples of the young child’s work to reflect his or her developmental progress (McAfee & Leong, 2011: 97) One promising use of portfolios is in parent education where parents can be directly confronted with examples of their child’s work. Reviewing the portfolio with parents should be standard procedure. This has great educational value as it not only shows parents the child’s progress, but also teaches them about developmentally appropriate practice in a practical way (Mindes, 2003: 257). Assessment materials should match the programme curriculum and the national framework. Cumulative portfolios include records, attendance records, intake records, health and school history records, progress records, report cards, narrative reports, inventories, checklists, parent questionnaires and results of standardised tests (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 51; Mindes, 2003: 258; McAfee & Leong, 2011: 97). 2.18.5.1 What are portfolios? + A portfolio is a systematic, purposeful and meaningful collection of a learner's work in one or more activity, learning programme or subject area. + Learners should be allowed to select their own work to be placed in the portfolio. Learners can also help to establish the criteria for what should be included in the portfolio. + Collections may also include input by teachers, parents, peers and school administrators. + Portfolios should reflect the actual day-to-day learning activities of learners.+ They should reflect learners’ true efforts, progress and achievements over a period of time. + They may contain several compartments or subfolders. + Selections for the portfolio may appear in a variety of media, and should be multidimensional to be representative. 2.18.5.2 What to include in a portfolio for young learners ‘The following are examples of work that can be included in a young learner's portfolio: + Essays and reports (Foundation Phase) + Letters (Foundation Phase) + Poetry and creative writing (Foundation Phase) + Problem statements/solutions (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) Response logs/reviews (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) Journal entries (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) Interviews (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) Posters/artistic media (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) Collaborative works (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) Workbook pages, quizzes and tests (Foundation Phase) + Reading lists and reviews (Foundation Phase) + Self-assessment checklists (Foundation Phase) + Self-assessment statements (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) + Teacher's comments (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) + Teacher's checklists (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) + Peer reviews (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) + Parents’ observations and comments2.19 PARENT INVOLVEMENT Parents and families should be included in the assessment of young learners. Gathering developmental and behavioural information of the child from his or her family might contribute to the quality of the assessment. In some cases, questionnaires might even be extended to the parents to get a clearer picture of the context and background of the child. Information from parents can include the following (Ahola & Kovacik, 2006: 71): + Medical history + Concerns regarding the child + Important developmental information Personality + Social-emotional adjustment in the family + Other relevant family information Cultural and contextual information, Gathering historical information regarding the child’s early development and education can contribute to a clearer picture of the child’s experiences; according to Ahola and Kovacik (2006: 71), a child’s development does not occur in isolation, and historical information is not just nice to have, but imperative. Some guidelines form the basis for good parent- teacher relationships, and include the following: + Get to know the parents. + Keep regular contact with parents. + Organise regular discussions with parents. + Establish contact through home visits. + Communicate with parents by using a message book.2.20 ASSESSMENT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES A tool is any instrument that the teacher uses when assessing. A technique is a special way in which the teacher uses the assessment tool to provide opportunities for learners to demonstrate their performance evidence in various ways. Table 2.1 gives a summary of assessment tools and techniques within the class and school environment. Assessment tools used by other professionals may include tests, questionnaires, checklists, narrative descriptions, sociograms, diaries and case studies (Sharman et al., 2006). Table 2.1 Assessment tools and techniques Tools Techniques Written assignments (Foundation Phase) Project work Portfolios (Pre-school and Foundation Phase) Play and role-play Journals (emphasis on oral discussions) Whole group discussion Observation sheets (art-group work activities) Poster or group work Rubrics and assessment grids (skills mastered) Presentations and demonstrations Discussions (communication) Debates or discussion issues Worksheets (Foundation Phase) Construction and design Question papers (Foundation Phase) Drawings, graphs and maps2.21 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CONFIDENTIALITY Professional ethics and confidentiality are of the utmost importance when observing learners — as it should be with any other information regarding learners (Bentzen, 2000: 53). Privacy, confidentiality and rights include the rights of parents who express the wish not to have their children be the subject of observation (Bentzen, 2000: 55; Feeney et al., 2001: 412; McAfee & Leong, 2011: 23). According to McAfee and Leong (2011: 23), the two cornerstones of professional and ethical behaviour on the part of the assessor are objectivity and confidentiality. According to Ahola and Kovacik (2006: 50), some rules to apply in this regard would be the following: + Never force the child to interact with you - rather invite the child or show interest in what the child is doing. + Do not take the child out of his or her natural environment in order to observe the child. Itis important that the child feels safe, with a familiar teacher or person. + The child’s physical, emotional or psychological health should not be sacrificed in order to conduct an observation.2.22 RED FLAGS TO NOTE 2.22.1 Interpretation of observations According to Davin and Van Staden (2004: 252), interpretation of findings should always be tentative. A teacher cannot possibly know everything about a learner. They caution that it is difficult to interpret a child’s behaviour as it is not fixed and can vary over time (Gordon & Browne, 2011: 27). 2.22.2 What about bias? ‘The interpretation of information cannot be totally objective, as the teacher's own background, experiences, values and attitudes will surely influence it (Davin & Van Staden, 2004: 253; Gordon & Browne, 2011: 27). 2.22.3 Caution against diagnosing a problem A teaching qualification does not equip one with the knowledge and skills to diagnose barriers to learning or any other problems that may be present (Davin & Van Staden, 2004: 254). However, the teacher should be sensitive enough to identify those learners who need to be referred for professional assistance. 2.22.4 Knowing the li Be aware of the limitations of the different methods of assessing learners. Use more than one assessment method so that they complement one another. Remember, human development is complex, and assessment results are only estimates (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 27). itations of assessment 2.22.5 Knowing what is normal and what is not Be aware of normal patterns of behaviour and development, but keep in mind that there may be many variations in what is considered normal and what is not. Aspects such as context, experience and culture may play a major role in this regard (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 243). ividual characteristics 2.22.6 Paying attention to i Individual characteristics may influence the behaviour of learners. Heredity and environment play a role in determining how individual learners behave; one child's behaviour may be totally different from that of other learners (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 243).2.22.7 Distortions in language, movement, audible, visual and behaviour skills Teachers should be sensitive to distortions in any of the developmental domains. A thorough knowledge of these distortions is a prerequisite for assessing learners successfully (McAfee & Leong, 2002: 247). 2.22.8 Unfair comparisons Assessment means to understand the behaviour of a particular child and to plan teaching accordingly. It does not mean comparing children with one another (Gordon & Browne, 2011: 27). 2.22.9 Overemphasis on norms. ‘The assessor should individualise the assessment process rather than fit the individual into some mould created by the assessment tool (Gordon & Browne, 2011: 27). 2.22.10 Too narrow a perspective Make sure that it is a balanced assessment tool and that it does not focus too much on one aspect. It is recommended that more than one assessment tool be used, so as to obtain a valid picture of the child’s abilities and progress (Gurdon & Browne, 2011: 27). 2.22.11 Too An effective assessment tool should be developed to cover a specific age or developmental range, and should not cover too wide a scope (Gordon & Browne, 2011: 27). ie arange 2.22.12 Too little or too much time Make sure that the amount of time needed to complete the assessment is realistic. A very lengthy assessment session might not be so effective; also, there has to be ample time for interpretation and reflection (Gordon & Browne, 2011: 27).2.23 CHECKLIST FOR ASSESSMENT PLANNING ‘The checklist in Table 2.2 can be of value in proper assessment planning,Table 2.2 Checklist for assessment planning Question Answer Why do | want to assess the learner? (Purpose) Do | know on what | want to assess the learner? (Learning outcome) ‘What knowledge, skills, values and attitudes should the learner demonstrate? (Behaviour) Do | know the expected levels at which the learner should perform? (Developmental level) Is the learner aware of what is important in this assessment? ‘What prior knowledge does the learner have? ‘What are the appropriate methods for assessing the activity? (Must also be age appropriate) What tools and techniques will be used? What activity or assessment task can be used for the learner to show the evidence? Who will be assessed? How will recording take place? What recording instruments are to be used? On what, how and when will | report? What does the recorded information tell me about the learner? How can | use the recorded information to address the learner's strengths and developmental needs?What feedback can | give to the learner (or to others involved)? How am | planning to support the learner? (intervention programme) Source: Original list created by Gauteng Department of Education (2000: 7) 2.23.1 Other questions relevant to assessment + What are the criteria used to assess portfolios? + What about traditional grades? + Whatare the issues of subjectivity in grading? + How do we incorporate portfolios into the usual testing routine? + Do assessment procedures supplement or replace formal tests? + Will tests continue to play a major role, or will they be weighted with samples of the learners’ work? + Whatare nationally agreed outcomes for the Foundation Phase? + How do we observe and identify information? + How do we collect and gather evidence? + How do we evaluate and interpret information? + How do we record and report findings? + How do the findings assist the learners’ development? + How do the findings of assessment improve the process of learning and teaching? 2.23.2 Issues to reflect on + Evaluate your own value system and write it down. 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London: RoutledgeFalmer.Chapter objectives Tn this chapter the focus is on * assessment in the Intermediate and Senior Phases + learners’ diversity in respect of learning styles and multiple intelligences + recording of and reporting on assessment + challenges (and possible solutions) in assessing the Intermediate and Senior Phases. 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Purpose of assessment 3 issues in t rmedi Qe s 3.3.1 Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) 3.3.2 Continuous assessment 3.3.3 School-Based Assessment (SBA) 3.3.4 Recording and reporting 3.3.5 Assessment records (CAPS) 33.6 ic evaluatic ial National Assessment 3.3.7 General Education and Training Certificate (GETC) 3.4 Assessment in the Intermediate and Senior Phases 3.4.1 Planning for assessment 3.4.2 Lesson planning and assessment 3.4.3 Assessment feedback 3.4.4 Integrated learning 3.5 Planning assessment to cater for all learners 35.1 Diversity of learners 3.5.2 Assessment and learning styles 3.5.3 Assessment and multiple intelligences (ML 3.6 Assessment challenges in the Intermediate and Senior Phases and possible solutions 3.6.1 Paradigm shift 3.6.2 Language issues3.6.3 Parent involvement 3.6.4 Multilevel classes 3. sarriers to learning and fair assessment 3.6.6 Demands of CAPS on teachers 3.7 Conclusion References