UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY IV EEE

UNIT-IV
ELECTRICAL TRACTION - II

Mechanics of Train Movement Calculations of Specific Energy Consumption

Speed-Time Curves of Different Services Effect of Varying Acceleration and Braking
Trapezoidal Speed - Time Curves Retardation
Quadrilateral Speed - Time Curves Adhesive Weight and Coefficient of Adhesion
Numerical Problems Problems
Calculations of Tractive Effort, Power

INTRODUCTION:
The movement of trains and their energy consumption can be most conveniently studied by
means of the speed–distance and the speed–time curves. The motion of any vehicle may be at
constant speed or it may consist of periodic acceleration and retardation. The speed–time
curves have significant importance in traction. If the frictional resistance to the motion is
known value, the energy required for motion of the vehicle can be determined from it.
Moreover, this curve gives the speed at various time instants after the start of run directly.
TYPES OF SERVICES:
There are mainly three types of passenger services, by which the type of traction system has
to be selected, namely:
1. Main line service
2. Urban or city service
3. Suburban service
1.Main line service:
In the main line service, the distance between two stops is usually more than 10 km. High
balancing speeds should be required. Acceleration and retardation are not so important.
2. Urban or city service:
In the urban service, the distance between two stops is very less and it is less than 1 km. It
requires high average speed for frequent starting and stopping.
3. Suburban service
In the suburban service, the distance between two stations is between 1 and 8 km. This
service requires rapid acceleration and retardation as frequent starting and stopping is
required.
SPEED–TIME AND SPEED–DISTANCE CURVES FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES:
The curve that shows the instantaneous speed of train in kmph along the ordinate and time in
seconds along the abscissa is known as ‘speed–time’ curve.
The curve that shows the distance between two stations in km along the ordinate and time in
seconds along the abscissa is known as ‘speed–distance’ curve.
The area under the speed–time curve gives the distance travelled during, given time internal
and slope at any point on the curve toward abscissa gives the acceleration and retardation at
the instance, out of the two speed–time curve is more important.
Speed–time curve for main line service:
Typical speed–time curve of a train running on main line service is shown in fig below It
mainly consists of the following time periods:
 Constant accelerating period
 Acceleration on speed curve
 Free-running period
 Coasting period

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 Braking period

Fig. Speed–time curve for mainline service

Constant acceleration:
During this period, the traction motor accelerates from rest. The curve ‘OA’ represents the
constant accelerating period. During the instant 0 to T1, the current is maintained
approximately constant and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased by cutting out
the starting resistance slowly moving from one notch to the other. Thus, current taken by the
motor and the tractive efforts are practically constant and therefore acceleration remains
constant during this period. Hence, this period is also called as notch up accelerating period
or rheostatic accelerating period. Typical value of acceleration lies between 0.5 and 1 kmph.
Acceleration is denoted with the symbol ‘α’.
Acceleration on speed-curve:
During the running period from T1 to T2, the voltage across the motor remains constant and
the current starts decreasing, this is because cut out at the instant ‘T1’.
According to the characteristics of motor, its speed increases with the decrease in the current
and finally the current taken by the motor remains constant. But, at the same time, even
though train accelerates, the acceleration decreases with the increase in speed. Finally, the
acceleration reaches to zero for certain speed, at which the tractive effort excreted by the
motor is exactly equals to the train resistance. This is also known as decreasing accelerating
period. This period is shown by the curve ‘AB’.
Free-running or constant-speed period:
The train runs freely during the period T2 to T3 at the speed attained by the train at the instant
‘T2’. During this speed, the motor draws constant power from the supply lines. This period is
shown by the curve BC.
Coasting period:
This period is from T3 to T4, i.e., from C to D. At the instant ‘T3’ power supply to the traction,
the motor will be cut off and the speed falls on account of friction, windage resistance, etc.
During this period, the train runs due to the momentum attained at that particular instant. The
rate of the decrease of the speed during coasting period is known as coasting retardation.
Usually, it is denoted with the symbol ‘βc’.
Braking period:
Braking period is from T4 to T5, i.e., from D to E. At the end of the coasting period, i.e., at
‘T4’ brakes are applied to bring the train to rest. During this period, the speed of the train
decreases rapidly and finally reduces to zero.
In main line service, the free-running period will be more, the starting and braking periods
are very negligible, since the distance between the stops for the main line service is more than
10 km.

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Speed–time curve for suburban service:

In suburban service, the distance between two adjacent stops for electric train is lying
between 1 and 8 km. In this service, the distance between stops is more than the urban service
and smaller than the main line service. The typical speed–time curve for suburban service is
shown in fig below.

Fig. Typical speed–time curve for suburban service

The speed–time curve for urban service consists of three distinct periods. They are:
 Acceleration
 Coasting
 Retardation
For this service, there is no free-running period. The coasting period is comparatively longer
since the distance between two stops is more. Braking or retardation period is comparatively
small. It requires relatively high values of acceleration and retardation. Typical acceleration
and retardation values are lying between 1.5 and 4 kmphp and 3 and 4 kmphp, respectively.
Speed–time curve for urban or city service:
The speed–time curve urban or city service is almost similar to suburban
service and is shown in fig below.

Fig. Typical speed–time curve for urban service

In this service also, there is no free-running period. The distance between two stop is less
about 1 km. Hence, relatively short coasting and longer braking period is required. The
relative values of acceleration and retardation are high to achieve moderately high average
between the stops. Here, the small coasting period is included to save the energy
consumption. The acceleration for the urban service lies between 1.6 and 4 kmphp. The
coasting retardation is about 0.15 kmphp and the braking retardation is lying between 3 and 5
kmphp. Some typical values of various services are shown in table below.

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Table: Different types of services

SOME DEFINITIONS:
i) Crest speed:
The maximum speed attained by the train during run is known as crest speed. It is denoted
with ‘Vm’.
ii) Average speed:
It is the mean of the speeds attained by the train from start to stop, i.e., it is defined as the
ratio of the distance covered by the train between two stops to the total time of rum. It is
denoted with ‘Va’.

Where, Va is the average speed of train in kmph, D is the distance between stops in km, and
T is the actual time of run in hours.
iii) Schedule speed:
The ratio of the distance covered between two stops to the total time of the run
including the time for stop is known as schedule speed. It is denoted with the symbol
‘Vs’.

Where, Ts is the schedule time in hours.

iv) Schedule time:
It is defined as the sum of time required for actual run and the time required for stop.
i.e., Ts = Trun + Tstop.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHEDULE SPEED OF A TRAIN:

The factors that affect the schedule speed of a train are:
Crest speed.

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i)The duration of stops.

ii)The distance between the stops.
iii)Acceleration.
iv)Braking retardation.
i) Crest speed:
It is the maximum speed of train, which affects the schedule speed as for fixed acceleration,
retardation, and constant distance between the stops. If the crest speed increases, the actual
running time of train decreases. For the low crest speed of train it running so, the high crest
speed of train will increases its schedule speed.
ii) Duration of stops:
If the duration of stops is more, then the running time of train will be less; so that, this leads
to the low schedule speed.
Thus, for high schedule speed, its duration of stops must be low.
iii) Distance between the stops:
If the distance between the stops is more, then the running time of the train is less; hence,
the schedule speed of train will be more.
iv) Acceleration:
If the acceleration of train increases, then the running time of the train decreases provided
the distance between stops and crest speed is maintained as constant. Thus, the increase
in acceleration will increase the schedule speed.
v) Breaking or retardation:
High breaking retardation leads to the reduction of running time of train. These will cause
high schedule speed provided the distance between the stops is small.

SIMPLIFIED TRAPEZOIDAL AND QUADRILATERAL SPEED TIME CURVES:

Simplified speed–time curves gives the relationship between acceleration, retardation

average speed, and the distance between the stop, which are needed to estimate the
performance of a service at different schedule speeds. So that, the actual speed–time curves
for the main line, urban, and suburban services are approximated to some from of the
simplified curves. These curves may be of either trapezoidal or quadrilateral shape.

ANALYSIS OF TRAPEZOIDAL SPEED–TIME CURVE:

Trapezoidal speed–time curve can be approximated from the actual speed–time curves of
different services by assuming that:
i)The acceleration and retardation periods of the simplified curve is kept same as to that
of the actual curve.
ii)The running and coasting periods of the actual speed–time curve are replaced by the
constant periods.
This known as trapezoidal approximation, a simplified trapezoidal speed–time curve is shown
in fig.

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Fig. Trapezoidal speed–time curve

Calculations from the trapezoidal speed–time curve:
Let D be the distance between the stops in km, T be the actual running time of train in
second, α be the acceleration in km/h/sec, β be the retardation in km/h/sec, Vm be the
maximum or the crest speed of train in km/h, and Va be the average speed of train in km/h.
from the above fig.

Area under the trapezoidal speed time curve = the total distance between the two stops (D)

The distance between the stops (D) = Area under triangle OAE
+ Area of rectangle ABDE
+ Area of triangle DBC
The distance travelled during acceleration + distance travelled during free-running
period + distance travelled during retardation.
Now, The distance travelled during acceleration = average speed during accelerating period ×
time for acceleration

The distance travelled during free-running period = average speed × time of free running

The distance travelled during retardation period = average speed × time for retardation

The distance between the two stops is:

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Solving above quadratic Equation we get:

By considering positive sign, we will get high values of crest speed, which is practically not
possible, so negative sign should be considered:

ANALYSIS OF QUADRILATERAL SPEED–TIME CURVE

Quadrilateral speed–time curve for urban and suburban services for which the distance
between two stops is less. The assumption for simplified quadrilateral speed–time curve is
the initial acceleration and coasting retardation periods are extended, and there is no free-
running period. Simplified quadrilateral speed–time curve is shown in Fig. below.

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Fig: Quadrilateral speed- time curve

Let V1 be the speed at the end of accelerating period in km/h, V2 be the speed at the end of
coasting retardation period in km/h, and βc be the coasting retardation in km/h/sec.
Time for acceleration,

Time for coasting period

Time period for braking retardation period

Total distance travelled during the running period D:

= the area of triangle PQU
+ the area of rectangle UQRS
+ the area of triangle TRS.

= the distance travelled during acceleration

+the distance travelled during coasting retardation
+ the distance travelled during breaking retardation.

But, the distance travelled during acceleration = average speed × time for acceleration

The distance travelled during coasting retardation =

The distance travelled during breaking retardation = average speed × time for breaking
retardation=

Total distance travelled can be calculated s follows:

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TRACTIVE EFFORT (Ft):

It is the effective force acting on the wheel of locomotive, necessary to propel the train is
known as ‘tractive effort’. It is denoted with the symbol Ft. The tractive effort is a vector
quantity always acting tangential to the wheel of a locomotive. It is measured in newtons.
The net effective force or the total tractive effort (Ft) on the wheel of a locomotive or a train
to run on the track is equals to the sum of tractive effort which is useful for following:
 Required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa).
 To overcome the effect of gravity (Fg).
 To overcome the frictional resistance to the motion of the train (Fr).

Mechanics of train movement:

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Fig(a): Driving mechanism of electric locomotives

The essential driving mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in fig(a). The electric
locomotive consists of pinion and gear wheel meshed with the traction motor and the wheel
of the locomotive. Here, the gear wheel transfers the tractive effort at the edge of the pinion
to the driving wheel.
Let T is the torque exerted by the motor in N-m, Fp is tractive effort at the edge of the pinion
in Newton, Ft is the tractive effort at the wheel, D is the diameter of the driving wheel, d1 and
d2 are the diameter of pinion and gear wheel, respectively, and η is the efficiency of the
power transmission for the motor to the driving axle.

The tractive effort at the edge of the pinion transferred to the wheel of locomotive is:

From above two equations

Tractive effort required for propulsion of train is given by, Ft = Fa + Fg + Fr

Where Fa is the force required for linear and angular acceleration
Fg is the force required to overcome the gravity
Fr is the force required to overcome the resistance to the motion.
Force required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa):
According to the fundamental law of acceleration, the force required to accelerate the
motion of the body is given by:
Force = Mass × acceleration
F = ma.
Let the weight of train be ‘W ’ tons being accelerated at ‘α’ kmphps:

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Above Equation holds good only if the accelerating body has no rotating parts. Owing to
the fact that the train has rotating parts such as motor armature, wheels, axels, and gear
system. The weight of the body being accelerated including the rotating parts is known as
effective weight or accelerating weight. It is denoted with ‘We’. The accelerating weight
‘(We)’ is much higher (about 8–15%) than the dead weight (W) of the train. Hence, these
parts need to be given angular acceleration at the same time as the whole train is
accelerated in linear direction.
The tractive effort required-for linear and angular acceleration is:

Tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance (Fr):

When the train is running at uniform speed on a level track, it has to overcome the opposing
force due to the surface friction, i.e., the friction at various parts of the rolling stock, the
fraction at the track, and also due to the wind resistance. The magnitude of the frictional
resistance depends upon the shape, size, and condition of the track and the velocity of the
train, etc.
Let ‘r’ is the specific train resistance in N/ton of the dead weight and ‘W’ is the dead weight
in ton.

Tractive effort required to overcome the effect of gravity (Fg):

When the train is moving on up gradient as shown in below fig.(b), the gravity component of
the dead weight opposes the motion of the train in upward direction. In order to prevent this
opposition, the tractive effort should be acting in upward direction.

Fig(b): Train moving on up gradient

The tractive effort required to overcome the effect of gravity

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From above two equations

since g=9.81 m/s2

+ve sign for the train is moving on up gradient.

–ve sign for the train is moving on down gradient.
This is due to when the train is moving on up a gradient, the tractive effort showing
Equation will be required to oppose the force due to gravitational force, but while going
down the gradient, the same force will be added to the total tractive effort.
The total tractive effort required for the propulsion of train Ft = Fa + Fr ± Fg:

CALCULATIONS OF POWER OUTPUT [Power output from the driving axle ]:

Let Ft is the tractive effort in N and ν is the speed of train in kmph.

The power output (P) = rate of work done

If ‘ν’ is in m/s, then P = Ft × ν W.

If ‘η’ is the efficiency of the gear transmission, then the power output of motors, :

SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION:

The energy input to the motors is called the energy consumption. This is the energy
consumed by various parts of the train for its propulsion. The energy drawn from the
distribution system should be equals to the energy consumed by the various parts of the train
and the quantity of the energy required for lighting, heating, control, and braking. This
quantity of energy consumed by the various parts of train per ton per kilo meter is known as
specific energy consumption. It is expressed in watt hours per ton per km

a)Determination of specific energy output from simplified speed–time curve:

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Energy output is the energy required for the propulsion of a train or vehicle is mainly for
accelerating the rest to velocity ‘Vm’, which is the energy required to overcome the
gradient and track resistance to motion.
Energy required for accelerating the train from rest to its crest speed ‘Vm'
Specific energy consumption of train=

b)Energy required for overcoming the gradient and tracking resistance to motion
Energy required for overcoming the gradient and tracking resistance:

Where Ft′ is the tractive effort required to overcome the gradient and track resistance,
W is the dead weight of train
r is the track resistance and
G is the percentage gradient

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c) Factors affecting the specific energy consumption:

Factors that affect the specific energy consumption are given as follows:
 Distance between stations
 Acceleration and retardation
 Maximum speed
 Gradient and train resistance
Distance between stations:
From equation specific energy consumption is inversely proportional to the distance
between stations. Greater the distance between stops is, the lesser will be the specific
energy consumption. The typical values of the specific energy consumption is less for the
main line service of 20–30 W-hr/ton-km and high for the urban and suburban services of
50–60 W-hr/ton-km.
Acceleration and retardation:
For a given schedule speed, the specific energy consumption will accordingly be less for
more acceleration and retardation.
Maximum speed:
For a given distance between the stops, the specific energy consumption increases with the
increase in the speed of train.
Gradient and train resistance:

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From the specific energy consumption, it is clear that both gradient and train resistance are
proportional to the specific energy consumption. Normally, the coefficient of adhesion will
be affected by the running of train, parentage gradient, condition of track, etc. for the wet and
greasy track conditions. The value of the coefficient of adhesion is much higher compared to
dry and sandy conditions.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
1 Dead weight
It is the total weight of train to be propelled by the locomotive. It is denoted by ‘W’.
2 Accelerating weight
It is the effective weight of train that has angular acceleration due to the rotational inertia
including the dead weight of the train. It is denoted by ‘We’.
This effective train is also known as accelerating weight. The effective weight of the train
will be more than the dead weight. Normally, it is taken as 5–10% of more than the dead
weight.

3 Adhesive weight
The total weight to be carried out on the drive in wheels of a locomotive is known as
adhesive weight.
4 Coefficient of adhesion
It is defined as the ratio of the tractive effort required to propel the wheel of a
locomotive to its adhesive weight.
Ft ∝ W
=μW,
Where, Ft is the tractive effort and W is the adhesive weight

EFFECT OF VARYING ACCELERATION AND BRAKING REATRDATION

The various factors effecting for specific energy consumption of train operating at a given
schedule speed are
a) Having the linear and angular acceleration.
b) Working against the gravity while moving up the gradient.
c) Working against the resistance of the motion.
d) Overcoming the losses due to gearing system.
e) Supplying the losses in the motor and the other electrical systems
Energy required being the product of time and power depends upon the power required and
the duration for which power is taken
a) The power in watts required in accelerating the train on level track depends upon the rate
of acceleration the effective weight of the train and the speed at the end of acceleration being
equal to 77.17Vm We where as energy depends upon rate of acceleration, effective weight of
train maximum speed and the time for which train accelerates being equal to
0.01072VmWeT.
b) The power required in overcoming force of gravity while going up the gradient being
equal to 27.334WGVm depends upon the gradient .While going down the gradient the energy
is returned back
c) The power required in overcoming the resistance to motion is equal to 0.2778WrVm and
energy required is 0.2778WrVmT .The expression for energy required indicates that it
depends upon the resistance to the motion, maximum speed and time of run.
The energy output of the train for a given speed time curve is independent of type of drive
employed , but energy consumption depends upon the type of drive employed.
CALCULATION OF ENERGY RETURNED TO THE SUPPLY DURING
REGENERATIVE BRAKING:

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When the train is accelerating, it acquires kinetic energy corresponding to that speed. During
the coasting period, some of the kinetic energy is wasted, to propel the train against the
Friction and windage resistance.
While the train is moving on the down gradients or level track, the KE acquired by the
rotating parts is converted into the electrical energy, which is fed back to the supply system.
The amount of energy fed back to the system is depending on the following factors.
 The initial and final speeds during the regenerative braking.
 The train resistance and the gradient of the track.
 The efficiency of the system.
Consider the initial and final speeds of the train during regenerative braking are V1 and V2 in
KMPH, and the effective weight of the train is We tons.

The kinetic energy stored by the train at a speed of V1 kmph:

Thus, the kinetic energy at speed V2 kmph:

Therefore, the energy available during the regeneration:

If D is the distance in km covered during the regenerative braking, then the energy fed back
to the supply during the braking while the train is moving on down gradient:

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If r is the train resistance in N/ton, then the energy lost to overcome the resistance to the
motion and friction, windage losses:

Hence, the total energy available during regeneration:

The energy returned to the supply system:

where η is the efficiency of the system.

Advantages of regenerative braking:
 In regenerative breaking, a part of the energy stored by the rotating parts is converted
into the electrical energy and is fed back to the supply. This will lead to the minimum
consumption of energy, thereby saving the operating cost.
 High breaking retardation can be obtained during regenerative braking.
 Time taken to bring the vehicle to rest is less compared to the other brakings; so that,
the running time of the vehicle is considerably reduced.
 The wear on the brake shoes and tyre is reduced, which increases the life of brake
shoe and tyre.
Disadvantages of regenerative braking:
 In addition to the above advantages, this method suffers from the following
disadvantages.
 In addition to the regenerative breaking, to bring the vehicle to standstill, mechanical
breaking is to be employed.
 In case of DC traction, additional equipment is to be employed for regenerative
breaking, which increases the cost and sometimes, substation are equipped with
mercury arc rectifiers to convert AC to DC supply.
 The electrical energy returned to the supply will cause the operation of substations
complicated.

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