Compost

Operator
Guidebook
Best Management
Practices for
Commercial Scale
Composting
Operations

March 2015
Copyright February 2011

Michigan Recycling Coalition

PO Box 10070
Lansing, MI 48901
Phone: 517-974-3672
MRC Executive Director
Kerrin O’Brien
[email protected]

Editors: Nicole Chardoul, Kerrin O’Brien, Beth Clawson, Matthew Flechter

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook p. 2

MICHIGAN COMPOST OPERATOR
TRAINING GUIDEBOOK
Table of Contents

Part 1: Core Principles

Chapter 1: Introduction to Composting
Composting Defined ........................................................................................................................... 1-2
Chapter 2: Biology & Core Principles
Composting Process ........................................................................................................................... 2-2
Microbiology ....................................................................................................................................... 2-3
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Conditions ....................................................................................................... 2-5
Composting Methods ......................................................................................................................... 2-6
Critical Factors Table .......................................................................................................................... 2-7

Chapter 3: Characterization and collection of Organics

Characteristics of Organic Materials................................................................................................... 3-2
Collection Options for Yard Clippings ................................................................................................. 3-3
Best Collection Practices..................................................................................................................... 3-4
Comingled Materials........................................................................................................................... 3-5
Collection Equipment Options ............................................................................................................ 3-9
Food Waste ....................................................................................................................................... 3-13
Characterizing Food Waste ............................................................................................................... 3-14
Working With Generators ............................................................................................................... .3-15
Working With Haulers ...................................................................................................................... 3-20

Part 2: Site Design & Operations

Chapter 4: Facility Siting and Site Design
Site Planning ..................................................................................................................................... .4-2
Odor and Site Design ........................................................................................................................ .4-3
Site Capacity and Sizing ...................................................................................................................... 4-5
Site Layout ......................................................................................................................................... .4-7
Area Requirements ............................................................................................................................. 4-8
Site Selection ................................................................................................................................... 4-10
Site Design ........................................................................................................................................ 4-11
Site Drainage Information ............................................................................................................... .4-14

Chapter 5: Operations
Incoming Material Stream .................................................................................................................. 5-1
Quantity of Incoming material ........................................................................................................... 5-4
Pre-processing ................................................................................................................................... 5-6
Compost Production ......................................................................................................................... 5-7
 Composting Systems .......................................................................................................................... 5-8
Compost “Recipe”............................................................................................................................. 5-10
Monitoring the Compost Process .................................................................................................... 5-12
Composting Equipment .................................................................................................................... 5-13
Staffing ............................................................................................................................................. 5-18
Low Odor Operations ...................................................................................................................... .5-20
Managing Operations Summary ....................................................................................................... 5-22

Part 3: Marketing & Finance

Chapter 6: Facility Financing
Establishing Project Credibility .......................................................................................................... .6-2
Financing Capital Costs ....................................................................................................................... 6-5
Financing Operating Costs .................................................................................................................. 6-9
Table 1: Financing Sources for Facility Capital .................................................................................. 6-12
Table 2: Financing Sources for Operating Costs ............................................................................... 6-13

Chapter 7: Compost Marketing Concepts & Tools

Benefits of Compost ........................................................................................................................... 7-2
Compost Market Planning ................................................................................................................. .7-2
Product Quality Standards & Control ................................................................................................. 7-6
Compost Characteristics .................................................................................................................... .7-9
Market Sectors ................................................................................................................................. 7-10
Matching Process to Market Specifications ..................................................................................... 7-11
Using Compost ................................................................................................................................. .7-14
Promotion and Distribution .............................................................................................................. 7-16

Part 4: Troubleshooting
Chapter 8: Troubleshooting
Odor Problems .................................................................................................................................... 8-3
Temperature ....................................................................................................................................... 8-6
Dust..................................................................................................................................................... 8-8
Noise .................................................................................................................................................. .8-9
Flies and other pests ......................................................................................................................... 8-10
Inferior Final Product Quality ........................................................................................................... 8-11
Site-related problems ....................................................................................................................... 8-12
Handling Neighbor Complaints ........................................................................................................ .8-13
 MICHIGAN COMPOST OPERATOR TRAINING GUIDEBOOK

Best Management Practices

for Composting
Part 1:
Core Principles

Michigan Recycling Coalition

PO Box 10070
Lansing, MI 48901
Phone: 517-974-3672
[email protected]
1
Best Management Practices for Composting

Introduction to Composting

About your Guidebook

This manual presents a series of Best Management Practices for Composting which provide
technical information and assistance on the operation and management of compost sites,
especially those that process yard trimmings and “diminimus” (5% or less) amounts of other
organic residuals. Each module in the series is designed to provide information to improve the
success and viability of a composting operation with an overall goal of minimizing odor and water
quality impacts while producing quality compost products. The industry continues to evolve and
improve through trial and error, research, innovation, and technological development. This Best
Management Practices Series and the corresponding training offer the best approaches to the
current challenges of composting.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 1-1

 on Municipal Solid Waste, yard trimmings and
Composting Defined
food scraps make up the second and third
Composting is a managed, aerobic (requiring largest portions of the MSW stream, 13.2%
oxygen) process in which microorganisms and 12.7% respectively (by weight). In a
decompose organic materials (for example; landfill these materials undergo anaerobic
leaves, grass, brush, wood, manure, decomposition and produce methane.
agricultural residues, food scraps, etc.) Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas that
yielding carbon dioxide gas (CO2), heat, remains in the atmosphere for about 9-15
water, and a stable, soil-like product called years and is over 20 times more effective at
humus or compost. Understanding the trapping heat in the atmosphere than carbon
biological principles of composting enables dioxide (CO2) over a 100-year period. Some
the site manager to make sound operational landfills are equipped to capture, presently,
decisions to control and optimize the process up to 80% of the gases produced. Most
to produce a quality product. landfills are not equipped to capture landfill
The Environmental and Economic Benefit of gases. According to the U.S. EPA, landfills are
Composting the second largest source of methane
emissions in the U.S.
Composting is a way to manage organic
discards to the benefit of the environment. As a fundamentally aerobic process, well-
• Composting reduces the production of operated composts sites do not produce
greenhouse gases in landfills that significant amounts of methane and
contribute to climate change, contribute considerably less to the
• Composting diverts yard clippings and production and release of climate changing
food residuals from taking up valuable greenhouse gases. Additionally, experimental
space in highly engineered landfills, studies have shown that carbon
and sequestration in soil was increased by 6 to 40
• Compost replenishes the organic tons of carbon per hectare from the
matter and nutrient value of soil. application of compost.
• Compost can be used to effectively
Impact on Waste Management
reduce or eliminate soil erosion and
filter stormwater discharge Continuing pressures have focused attention
• Composting provides local jobs and on diverting yard trimmings from landfills and
enhances the local economy. many states have responded by
implementing yard trimmings composting
Impact on Climate Change programs or even bans on the disposal of
yard trimmings in landfills. Increasingly in the
According to the U.S. Environmental United States, composting is used to handle a
Protection Agency’s 2008 Facts and Figures variety of municipal solid wastes, agricultural

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 1-2

residues (old hay/straw, animal bedding, and compost and back into the soil rebuilds
manure etc.), biosolids, food scraps, and healthy soil ecosystems that control and
more. Smaller scale backyard composting is reduce soil erosion, suppress disease in crops,
promoted as a means of reducing the total restore and rehabilitate wetlands and
amount of yard trimmings that require brownfield sites by breaking down pollutants,
collection and transportation to central and reduce the need for artificial agricultural
composting facilities. chemicals. The application of compost can
reduce the need for irrigation by 30-70% and
Composting contributes to local economies
also reduce the overall agricultural demand
by employing people, transforming a locally
for energy.
produced “waste” into a locally produced
resource. In a still-relevant study conducted History
and recently reaffirmed by the Institute of
The origins of composting practices in human
Local Self-Reliance, for every 10,000 tons of
history date back thousands of years.
material per year managed, if landfilled
Archeological evidence suggests that animal
creates one job but if composted creates four
manure was used to increase food production
jobs. (Waste to Wealth, 2006) Tax revenue
shortly after people began cultivating food.
from composting businesses also add to the
Manure was mixed with straw in what
community bottom-line.
eventually became a fertile soil-like material.
Providing a lower cost option for the There are numerous references in the Bible
management of organic wastes makes and the Talmud to the cultivation of the soil
composting even more valuable to a and the use of animal manure as fertilizer.
community. Because composting is less One of the earliest documented agricultural
resource intensive than landfilling, compost uses of manure was discovered on a set of
can be managed and produced locally in most clay tablets dated to the Akkadian Empire
communities. which flourished in the Mesopotamian Valley
1,000 years before Moses was born.
Impact on Soil
The first groups of European settlers came to
The worldwide deterioration of agricultural
America with the knowledge of spreading
soils has made composting and soil
manure to fertilize soils but lacked sufficient
rehabilitation a necessity. Much research is
numbers of farm animals to impact crop
taking place on the benefits of compost as a
production. In the early 17th century, Pilgrims
soil amendment. The widespread
were taught by members of the Abanaki tribe
dependence on fertilizers and pesticides
to add a fish to each hill of corn, a practice
temporarily improves soil productivity but
which many American colonial farmers
does nothing to maintain soil structure and
continued until the early 18th century. As the
ultimately leaves the soil lifeless. The
number of farm and farm animals grew,
successful diversion of organic waste to

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 1-3

farmers soon discovered (or rediscovered)
that mixing barnyard manure with muck soils
produced a much higher quality fertilizer.

Sir Albert Howard, a government agronomist

in India, developed the modern concept of
composting. The Indore method called for
the mixing of three parts garden clippings to
one part manure or kitchen waste. Howard
published his ideas in a 1940 book, An
Agricultural Testament. The first advocate of
Howard’s method was J.I. Rodale, founder of
Organic Gardening Magazine. This technique
quickly became the standard for gardeners
who prefer not to use synthetic chemicals.
The use of compost in agriculture, however,
declined with the growing prevalence of
chemical fertilizers following World War II.

Historically, most composting methods are

based on practical experience rather than
scientific knowledge. There has been little
application of scientific principles to
composting practices, but current interest in
the science of composting has grown due to
increasing complexities in dealing with large
amounts of organic residues in a short period
of time, lack of landfill space, and increasing
concern about the environment.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 1-4

 Best Management Practices for Composting

2 The Biology and

Core Principles of Composting
This part of the Best Management Practices
Guidebook provides technical assistance in
the operation and management of compost
sites, specifically those that process yard
waste. Each chapter of Best Management
Practices (BMP’s) is designed to improve the
success and viability of composting
operations, with an overall goal of minimizing
odor and water quality impacts during the
production of quality compost products. While
the industry will continue to improve through
research and development, innovation,
equipment developments and trial and error,
BMP’s offer the best approach to the
challenges of composing.

Introduction
This chapter reviews the biological aspects of
composting and their role in management of Composting Process p. 2
the process. Topics include definition and
description of the composting process; Microbiology p. 3
historical aspects, microbiology of
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Conditions p. 5
composting monitoring and controlling the
composting process; and characterization of Composting Methods p. 6
finished (marketable) compost. A
Critical Factors Table p. 7
terminology section has been appended, as
well as, journal articles related to biological
aspects of composting.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 2-1

The composting process
factors such as temperature, and physical
In a managed environment, factors such as particle size of the materials
composting is a process that being consumed.
produces a valuable, quality
The overall objective in managing the
product (compost), and
composting process is to create and maintain
minimizes odor. communities of microorganisms that work
together to decompose the organic matter.
In nature, dead plant and animal matter is Management of the composting process
decomposed slowly into humus primarily by initially requires the proper mixture of
microorganisms. These organisms are ingredients based on the ration of carbon to
distributed widely throughout every nitrogen (C: N ratio) in the input materials,
environment on the planet. The rate at which periodic monitoring and adjustment of
these microorganisms decompose organic factors such as compost, moisture, O2 and/or
material aerobically into humus depends CO2 levels and temperature. These are some
upon the relative amounts of carbon and of the factors directly associated with the
nitrogen in the material mix, the availability activity of microorganisms doing the work
of oxygen and moisture, other environmental (figure 1).

Figure 1: The composting process.

Raw organic materials Carbon Dioxide Gas

Water Water & water vapor

Air (Oxygen) Microbes Heat

Compost (Humus)

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 2-2

Microbiology of composting
Composting is a process carried out primarily Table 1: Microbial Groups
by microorganisms that decompose organic
Microbial Group Description
materials. The major groups of
microorganisms that are active during Bacteria Microscopic organisms that are
composting are bacteria, actinomycetes, and very simplistic and can exist in
Psychrophilic a variety of forms and
fungi. Other organisms that complete the
environmental conditions.
diversity of decomposers include nematodes, Mesophilic Most numerous group of
protozoa, and micro-arthropods. In the microbes active during
Thermophilic
visible spectrum are earthworms, arthropods, composting and generally
considered the fastest
larger nematodes, beetles, and other detritus
decomposer.
eating insects. Each group is diverse, with
many family members that function under a Actinomycetes Similar in structure to fungi,
but more closely related to
variety of environmental conditions. We
bacteria. Primarily aerobic,
refer to all of these organisms collectively as more pronounced after easily
the “soil food web.” degraded compounds are gone
and when moisture and
Compost typically contains large amounts of temperature is low. Generates
carbon-based materials. Fungi and the “earthy smell” that is
familiar to healthy soil and
actinomycetes help to break the complex
compost.
chemical bonds releasing the nutrients
necessary for other microorganisms such as Fungi (Molds) Larger than bacteria and
actinomycetes, more tolerant
bacterial to thrive. Their microfilaments
of low-moisture and low pH
transport nutrients across distances. conditions, but less tolerant of
Bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi are able to low oxygen conditions.
access a larger surface area of organic Decompose woody substances
and other decay-resistant
material after other larger microorganisms
materials better than bacteria
have broken it into smaller particles. through breaking enzyme
chemical bonds.
Bacteria groups are classified based on the
temperature ranges in which they are active,
shown in Table 1. These are divided into
Temperature is one of the primary indicators
three groups: Psychrophilic bacteria that are
of microbial activity. Figure 2 shows the
active between 0°F - 55°F; Mesophilic
typical temperature trend observed in a well
bacteria that are active from 50°F -120°F (10 -
managed compost windrow over the first 50
50°C), and the Thermophilic bacteria that are
days of composting. Ranged in which the
active from 110° - 160°F (45°- 70°C).
different classes of microbes thrive are
indicated.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 2-3

Figure 2: Idealized Temperature Profile of a Windrow Compost Pile

Mesophilic
Mesophilic
Phase Ambient Air
Phase
(Fungi become or
Thermophilic Psychrophilic
active)
Phase Phase

As shown above, bacteria flourish in the early these are in the form of nutrients necessary
stages of composting consuming the easily for plant growth. Others are “glued” together
degraded materials. Bacteria will dominate by microbes to form organic chains and
composting as long as conditions are polymers such as Glycine and humic acid.
favorable. Fungi and actinomycetes become
Table 2: Microbial Requirements
most active near the end of composting,
feeding on materials that are more difficult to Requirement Benefit to Microbes
break down. Fungi gains advantage at low
Carbon (C) Provides carbohydrates (energy)
pH, while low-moisture favors both fungi and
and builds microbial biomass
actinomycetes. Low oxygen reduces fungi
populations and aerobic bacteria populations Nitrogen (N) Provides proteins, nitrate,
and increases anaerobic bacteria populations ammonia
generating gasses that produce offensive
Oxygen (O2) Respiration (aerobic microbes),
odors.
facilitates metabolism
Many chemical changes are occurring during Critical for promoting and
Moisture
the decomposition process. As sugars, maintaining activity
starches, and proteins and other compounds
are oxidized they produce heat, carbon pH Percent Hydrogen (H), optimal
dioxide, water and compounds that are near neutrality (pH 7), normally
finishes higher (pH 8).
resistant to further decomposition. Many of

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 2-4

Aerobic vs. anaerobic conditions
Composting will occur through aerobic
decomposition if enough oxygen is present
You can easily
throughout the pile to support the
identify when
reproduction of aerobic microorganisms. If
your compost has
the percent oxygen in part or all of the pile is
gone anaerobic
insufficient, then the process will become
from the number
anaerobic and an entirely different
of neighbors
community of microbes will flourish taking
calling to
over the process. Anaerobic microbes do not
complain about
require oxygen to survive.
the smell.
Aerobic decomposition converts organic
matter into carbon dioxide gas, water, and
heat, while nitrogen complexes are converted Each compound has its own unmistakable
into nitrates. This will smell like fresh soil or odor. For example, NH4 based ammonia
woodland. That is a byproduct of smells sharp like ammonia or fertilizer; sulfur
actinomycetes activity. Anaerobic smells like rotten eggs; and VFA’s smell like
decomposition converts organic matter into “rotting garbage” or “dead animal.” Aerobic
carbon dioxide gas, methane gas, various composting can be accomplished by
alcohols, and volatile fatty acids (VFA’s). The maintaining control of a variety of factors
nitrogen complexes are converted to which affect the composting process.
ammonia (gas) and sulfur compounds are Specifics on how to control these factors are
converted to hydrogen sulfide gas. discussed in more detail in the chapter on
operations.
Compost piles can reduce by
As aerobic decomposition occurs, carbon is
half in both weight and size
lost as CO2 gas, and nitrogen tends to be
within the first couple of weeks conserved. The higher rate of carbon loss
of decomposition. results in a decrease of C:N ratio of the
mixture. The pH tends to rise to 8.0 to 8.5
and the volume of the composting material is
reduced by 50 to 60%; while the weight is
To minimize odors, the composting process
reduced by 40 to 80%.
must be managed to promote aerobic
decomposition, unless you are composting in-
vessel. In-vessel is a compost method that
will be discussed in later chapters. A septic
tank is one example of in-vessel composting.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 2-5

Composting methods affect biology

A variety of methods are used for large scale

composting (>100 yards) of organic materials.
The most common and effective methods are
heap and windrow composting, on which this
guidebook focuses. In windrow composting a
mixture of raw organic material is placed in
elongated trapezoidal piles called windrows.

Windrows with dimensions relative to their

contents aerate naturally by chimney effect
or convection (figure 3): rising heat generated Finished compost curing in windrows
inside the pile draws in cooler air from the There are other effective large-scale
bottom and sides of the windrow. Turning composting methods such as passive systems,
windrows blends the composting materials, static pile systems, and in-vessel systems that
decreases particle size, releases CO2, and will be discussed in more detail later in this
homogenizes ingredients to promote uniform guidebook. Smaller scale composting (i.e.
decomposition increasing temperatures to backyard composting) rarely achieves high
help kill pathogens and weed seeds. enough temperatures to effectively kill weed
seeds and pathogens.

Figure 3: Schematic of the Chimney Effect

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 2-6

 Table 4: Critical Factors Overview

Factor Significance

C:N ratio A carbon to nitrogen (C:N) balance of 25:1 to 30:1 helps ensure rapid
(recipe ) decomposition. C:N ratios below 20:1 tend to generate foul odors.
C:N ratios above 40:1 increase composting times.

Moisture The right balance nourishes microbial organisms. Target range is 50 –

60% by weight. Excess moisture tends to limit oxygen availability and
can leach out.

Oxygen and Microorganisms need O2 to oxidize carbon which is released as CO2.

carbon dioxide The aerobes die, and the anaerobes flourish, resulting in offensive
odors. O2 concentrations in the compost air greater than 5% are
recommended for rapid composting.

Temperature Heat is the result of vigorous microbial activity. 110-140°F indicate an

active pile. Most weed seeds and pathogens are killed at 145°F.
Temperatures above 160°F effectively stop the composting process.

Time The time to reach a stable compost is affected by C:N ratio, O2

availability, moisture, particle size, mixing, and temperature.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 2-7

3
Best Management Practices for Composting

Characterization and Collection of

Organics
Now that you know the science behind Characteristics of Materials p. 2
composting this chapter moves you into
collecting and handling your feedstock Collection Options p. 3
materials. You will also learn how to handle Best Collection Practices p. 4
food wastes safely. Finally, you are
presented with an overview of site Comingled Materials p. 5
management of these materials to help
ensure the creation of a quality compost Collection Equipment Options p. 9
product with few problems. Food Waste p. 13

Introduction Characterizing Food wastes p. 14

Leaves, grass, and brush are the organic Working With Generators p. 15
components of the waste stream most often
considered for composting. These and other Working With Haulers p. 20
organic materials such as food waste, wood
waste, non-recyclable or soiled paper, and Considerations
biosolids (waste water residuals or sludge)
make up almost two-thirds of the waste that Volume: how much organic material is in the
must be handled every day in every municipal waste stream?
community. Managers who are interested in
reducing and diverting as much material as Diversion potential: how much of that
possible from disposal must consider the organic material can feasibly be composted?
characteristics of organic wastes and pursue
cost-effective, technically and Material characteristics: how do moisture,
environmentally sound management. nutrient content, and particle size affect
handling?

How much organic waste is there?

 The average household in Michigan

generates yard clippings at the rate of
4.4 cubic yards per household per year,
or about 1500 pounds annually. This
amounts to between two and five paper
bags per week (3-4 during peak grass
growing season; 1-2 in mid-summer; and
as many as 25 in a week in the late fall).

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-1

  Up to 60% of all yard clippings are grass  Yard clippings are estimated to comprise
and weeds generated in the growing between 18-25% of the residential waste
season from May through September, stream; an additional 10-17% consists of
but may only result in 30% of the total other organics, such as food, wood, and
actually collected due to increasing soiled paper.
mulching or “grasscycling” at the site of
 Biosolids are generated at a rate that
generation.
ranges from 100 to 150 dry pounds per
capita annually.

Characteristics of Organic Materials

Management activities including source reduction, source separation, collection, preprocessing,
and ultimately composting; final product uses are affected by the mix and volume of the
materials composted. This table summarizes key material characteristics.

Volume Characteristics
Leaves 160 lbs/ household /yr C:N ratio: 80:1
0.8 cubic yards, loose Moisture content: 10-50%
Density: 150-700 lbs/cy
High carbon & mineral content
Composts alone, but slowly,
with little odor
Grass 1,040 lbs/ household /yr C:N ratio: 15:1
2.6 cubic yards, loose Percent moisture: 60-80%
Density: 400-800 lbs/cy
Decomposes quickly
Good nitrogen source
Strong potential for odor
Brush and 300 lbs/household/yr C:N ratio: 200-500:1
Tree 1 cubic yard, loose Percent moisture: 40-50%
Density:250-500 lbs/cy
Trimmings
Very slow to break down
Food 255 lbs/household/year C:N ratio: variable, typical 15:1
1.64 tons/employee/yr (food service, markets) Percent moisture: variable
0.71 tons/employee/yr (restaurants) Density: 800-1000 lbs/cy
19.29 tons/employee/yr (food processors)
Biosolids 120 dry pounds/per capita/per year C:N ratio: High nitrogen
Percent moisture: variable
Quality of sludge variable
Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-2
Urban 300-5,000 lbs/employee/yr (manufacturers) C:N ratio: 300:1; high in lignin
wood Generation rates vary tremendously depending Percent moisture: 5-20%
on the type of manufacturing. Highest rates Density: 300-600 lbs/cy
waste
occur in the wood processing industry. Slow to compost. Requires
grinding to reduce particle size
Industrial Variable, depending on industry (paper mills, C:N ratio: 6:1
sludge leather, pharmaceuticals) Nutrient value can be high.
Concern about contaminants
varies by industry

Collection Options for Yard Clippings

An effective yard trimmings collection system and trash. Co-collection systems are
includes many components, all of which must gaining attention as a method to increase
function smoothly together. The physical efficiency while adding materials such as
components of an effective collection system food scraps to the recovery stream.
are the method used to set yard trimmings out ♦ Managing a low odor operation within the
at the curb (in bags or carts, or loose) and the confines of your site.
type of collection vehicle. Equipment for
processing yard trimmings after they arrive at
their destination for composting must be Once a service has been provided to residents,
planned in conjunction with collection it is very difficult to repeal, or stop, no matter
equipment. Factors affecting equipment how costly to taxpayers. When designing
choices include the quantity, composition, and collection programs for brush and other yard
timing of yard trimmings generation, the trimmings, it is advisable to start with minimal
structure and route allocation of the existing frequency and convenience, from which the
hauling infrastructure, and market community can later add or build additional
specifications for the final compost product. services. For example, on-call brush collection
is great for the resident, but costly to
administer for a reasonable cost.
Key Collection Issues

♦ Degree of source separation (i.e., woody Key Collection Considerations

materials separated from soft materials
Self-Haul to • Limits collection costs
such as grass, leaves, and garden Drop-Off • Quality control is a problem
trimmings). Site at unattended drop-off sites
♦ Type of container used, if any, affects • Provides incentive to home
collection vehicle choice as well as compost
processing components. • Negative impact on seniors,
♦ Reducing the number of trucks passing or physically challenged
down each street for organics, recyclables, individuals

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-3

 • Some residents expect • Costs (capital and O&M)
curbside service • Service availability from
• Provides some level of private sector
services in sub-rural areas Funding • Charge through taxes versus
Curbside • What material is set-out? user-based, with bags, tags or
Collection • Is material loose or contained subscription
(i.e. bags, carts, mesh fabric)?
• Which materials can be
commingled?
Equipment • Labor (seasonal staffing,
Issues lifting, safety, etc.)
• Automated trucks versus
loaders versus vacuums
• Impact of grasscycling and
home yard care practices

Best Collection Practices

Best collection practices can be affected by time of year and how they are collected.
Contracting with a city for their leaf collection using vacuum trucks for municipal leaf
collections is both cost effective and practical. However, not all residents may be able to get
their leaves raked to the curbside in a timely fashion, so multiple passes may be required.

Leaves  Collect source separated; Fall 6-8 weeks; Spring 1-2 weeks
Loose → vacuum truck or loader
Carts → Automated packer truck
Paper bagged → Packer truck
Grass Clippings  Collect at curb source separated, April – September, or provide
drop-off site
 Carts or paper bags → Packer truck
 No plastic bags!
 Encourage on-site handling by generator through pricing,
education incentives

Brush and Tree  Curb chip
Trimmings  Bulk collect
Food  Collection from commercial sector e.g. restaurants, produce
markets, grocers in curb carts or wet-strength compostable
bags
 Food processing waste composted or transported to farmers
for feed.
Waste wood  Separate collection at C&D sites
 Source-separated collection from businesses and contractors
(pallets, clean dimensional wood, other)

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-4

 Material separation the fall, a separate collection of leaves is
very common.
The three primary residential yard Segregation of woody materials from soft,
trimmings materials (leaves, grass, brush) wet materials generally increases
may be completely segregated for curbside processing efficiency. However,
set-out, or commingled. Alternatively, two commingling is generally easier for
of the materials (typically grass and leaves) residents, thereby increasing participation
may be mixed, with brush segregated. The while reducing the costs for educating
level of separate collection of materials is residents on proper set-out methods.
dependent on key factors including: Commingling materials also requires fewer
specialized collection vehicles, thereby
1. The seasonality of generation of the reducing capital and labor costs.
respective materials,
2. Available equipment to mix or grind Segregation of brush by residents is
material necessary where curbside chipping is the
3. Compost market specifications, and handling method for woody waste. This
4. Potential end use. benefits site processing by eliminating the
need to grind soft materials along with
In locations where leaf drop is substantial in woody materials due to commingling.

Commingled materials
Under a commingled materials collection
program, grass clippings, leaves, brush and Separated materials
other woody items such as vines, are placed
in a single container, bag or pile. Under this system, brush and wood are set
out separately from leaves and grass. Brush
Advantages Disadvantages and wood can be piled loose, placed in bags
or bins, or bundled with twine. Brush
• Convenience = • Where plastic bags are
collection can typically occur less frequently
high participation used for collection,
• One collection extra labor is required (quarterly, monthly) while grass collection
truck can be used to debag would require weekly service to avoid odor
• Carts and • If higher product problems.
automated grades are required,
loading brush separation may
Grass clippings and leaves can be
mechanism can be required
be used • Commingled “hard” &
commingled (although they occur mostly in
• Potentially, less “soft” wastes must all different season, with some spring and fall
collection labor is be ground at overlap), while wood wastes are generally
required than for processing site bundled separately for chipping or collecting
separated • Equipment to separate in bulk.
materials brush from
• Lower overall cost leaves/grass at the site
of collection can be purchased

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-5

 Advantages Disadvantages Contained material collection
• Increased • Increases promotion
processing and education costs Some communities allow residents to place
efficiency • Requires specialized yard trimmings at the curb in any labeled
• Reduced site trucks (e.g., container. A second option is to designate a
processing costs compartmentalized) or specific type of container. Containers
• Faster 2 trucks or chipper include paper bags, reusable mesh bags,
decomposition of • Potentially more
soft-only wastes collection labor than
cans, carts, and semi-automatic carts.
• Pruning practices for a commingled
are substantially method
different from • May require separate Advantages Disadvantages
mowing practices collection routes for
• Less equipment • Initial capital costs for
• At the processing trucks
and potentially less containers may be high
site, wood chips labor than for loose • May require specialized
can be added as material trucks (automated or
needed to balance
• Potentially less semi-automated lifters)
C:N
contamination • Amount of material set-
than for loose out may be limited to
Loose material collection material container capacity
• Material is not • May require more
litter-prone or residential storage
The greatest advantage of collecting loose
problematic for space
yard trimmings, leaves simply raked to the traffic, parking, • May need separate leaf
curb, is the avoidance of purchasing any sewers collection program to
containers. Also, plastic bag fragments, if • Promotes handle the large volume
used in the collection process, a are avoided participation of leaves in the fall
in the finished compost.

Advantages Disadvantages Plastic bags

• Convenient – • Potentially greater
The use of plastic bags for yard trimmings
conducive to contamination than for
participation contained material pick-up is no longer a popular option because
• Amount of • Requires specialized of the anaerobic odor that develops in the
material set-out is equipment to move bags during the collection and because of the
unrestricted materials from curb to plastic fragments that remain in the finished
• Contaminants are truck
compost. Plastic bags were initially used by
more visible • Wet material is difficult
• No container costs to handle, and may some communities because little behavior
• No bags to remove cause odors; materials change was required of residents and
in processing may clog street drains because plastic bags are cheaper than paper.
• Material in street is However, the problems created by the use of
litter-prone through plastic bags, even compostable plastic bags
disruption by traffic,
rain and wind
often outweigh their benefit.
• Street sweepings may
impact the quality of
the end product.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-6

 Non-compostable plastic bags finished compost environmental effects
– including the effects
on compost – of
Advantages Disadvantages degradation products
• May have reduced
• Lowest cost • Private sector strength when wet
among bag operating costs are • Breakdown does not
options passed along to occur in composting
• Residents are generator in the form time frame, or with
familiar with this of higher tip fees. Site some bags, may break
container (i.e. closure is often down too quickly (i.e.
the standard threatened due to before collection at
household odors. the curb)
garbage bag) • Added processing • Odor remains an issue
• Availability (i.e., costs from acceptance if materials are in bag
special purchase of plastic bags for too long
and distribution (including
of bags are not compostable) are
required) initial debagging,
control of blowing
plastic bits, and
removal of plastic
contaminants from
final product
• Cost effective
debagging systems
have not been
demonstrated;
laborers for manual
debagging are nearly
impossible to find and
keep
• Once separated from
the yard trimmings
Paper “kraft” yard waste collection bags
and compost, plastic decompose completely.
bags must be disposed
of at an additional cost
• Plastic fragments in
compost reduce Paper bags
quality and
marketability Biodegradable paper “kraft” bags are an
Compostable plastic bags increasingly popular method of containing
yard trimmings material for collection. In
• Lower cost than • Impedes processing many municipal programs, these bags are
paper or mesh operations unless sold in local retail stores at a price that
bags effort is made to covers the cost of the bag, or the bag plus
• Possible remove the contents
the costs of collecting and composting. The
degradation of • Plastic fragments in
the bags which, compost reduce ability of the paper bag to decompose along
if true, would quality and with the bag contents is its most obvious
eliminate plastic marketability advantage. One disadvantage is the higher
fragments in the • Little data on the price per bag versus traditional plastic (25¢-

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-7

 39¢ per bag, bulk pricing for paper versus
9¢/bag for plastic), but an advantage is the
lower price per bag versus a compostable
plastic bag ($1 per bag). Carts and bins

Advantages Disadvantages
• Fewer vehicles and • Initial investment
workers required for is high if
Advantages Disadvantages collection municipality or
• Less expensive • More expensive • Carts are durable hauler provide
than compostable than traditional • Easy for residents to carts
plastic bags plastic bags load and transport to • Automated
• Bag can be • Heavier than curb tipping
shredded by plastic bags • Eliminates problems equipment may
windrow turners • May lose with plastic bags be needed for
along with strength under which can in turn curb carts and
contents reducing prolonged wet lower tip fee costs possibly bins
pre-processing conditions, and processing site • Smaller bins have
costs making handling • Sticker system can be limited capacity,
• Allows airflow difficult used to allow especially for fall
during collection • Non-degradable homeowners to use leaves
process, items (such as their own container
preventing pre- glass bottles, (supplemental kraft
composting odors bricks, cans) bags could also be
• Most models cannot be seen used)
stand upright, through the
making loading paper
easier
• Less potential for
puncture or tear
than plastic
• May hold more
material than
plastic, which
tears more easily

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-8

Collection Equipment Options
Different methods of material set-out Some collection vehicles may be specifically
require different types of collection designed for handling particular materials.
equipment. For material that is set-out For example, leaf vacuum trucks are often
loose in the street, equipment is needed for used to collect leaves from the streets in
gathering the material and loading it into a fall. Mobile chipping units are used to
transport vehicle. Contained material may handle tree trimmings and other wood
be loaded directly into a transport truck, wastes.
such as an existing garbage truck, or a truck
with an automated loading mechanism.

Following is a summary list of the various types of equipment used for the collection of yard
trimmings.
General gathering Material-specific Transport
• Front-end loader • Leaf vacuum truck • Dump truck
• Mechanical claw • Mobile chipping unit • Rear-loading packer truck
truck for wood waste • Semi-automated rear-
loading truck
• Automated or semi-
automated side-loading
truck

Loose material is typically set in the street Material contained in bags can generally be
for collection. If the material is a mix of manually loaded into packer trucks, but
yard trimmings types, a front-end loader or carts are commonly too large for manual
mechanical claw truck may be required to loading. Semi-automated rear-loading
load the material into a transport truck. trucks or fully automated side-loading trucks
Loose material such as brush may be set on are required to handle carts with capacities
the curb, in which case it would be handled typically need for yard trimmings collection
separately from material set in the street (i.e., 60 or more gallons).
(e.g., leaves and grass).

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-9

General Gathering Equipment

Front-end loader Mechanical claw truck

For efficient yard trimmings collection, the The claw is a pincer loading bucket attached
front-end loader is usually adapted with an to the front-end lift assembly of a tractor. It
oversized bucket (i.e., greater than 4.5 cubic is used for grabbing loose yard trimmings in
yards). It is particularly efficient for the street. As with the conventional front-
collecting leaves where leaf fall is heavy. end loader, material is hoisted into a
This type of operation typically involves one transport vehicle–commonly a rear packer
loader operator, one or two laborers as or dump truck.
rakers, and two or more dump trucks for
transport. Advantages Disadvantages
• Efficient for loose • As with front-end
material collection – loader, relatively
Advantages Disadvantages either leaves or only time-consuming
mixed yard • Potential
• Efficient for • Relatively time trimmings materials contamination
collection of consuming • More adaptability to from street debris
leaves • Potentially high different materials • Can interfere with
• May utilize contamination and conditions than street parking
existing • Dump trucks may conventional front- during collection
municipal fill fast because end loader season
equipment leaves are not • Material is
compacted compacted to some
• Not as thorough as extent, saving space
vacuum truck for in the transport
leaf collection vehicle

Material-Specific Equipment

Leaf vacuum trucks

Vacuum trucks are often used to clean

gutters and storm drains. They also
efficiently collect leaves that are set-out
loose on the street. They work by sucking
leaves into a shredder, then blowing them
into a transport vehicle. In some cases,
Front-end loader with a bucket is an efficient tool. leaves are also compacted.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-10

 Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
• Thorough • High operating • Efficient for • Extremely time
collection of and maintenance collection of consuming when
material costs woody materials used as a regular
• Faster than front- • Potentially high that may be collection
end loaders when contamination difficult to handle method
leaves are dry • Relatively slow using other • High labor,
• Leaves can be operation methods operation and
compacted • Does not perform • Useful for maintenance
well with wet Christmas tree costs
leaves collection • High potential
• Requires several • Processes material for operator
laborers at the point of injury
collection
• Chips may be
Leaf loader marketed as mulch

A newer type of collection attachment

called a leaf loader is pulled along behind a
Transport Equipment
truck, and picks up leaves with a five-foot-
wide sweeper. Like vacuums, it reduces leaf
volume through some shredding. Dump truck

Advantages Disadvantages This utility truck is typically part of municipal

service vehicle fleets. It can serve many
• Labor costs are • Must be used on
functions, including the transport of yard
less than a curbed-street
vacuum system • Potential for high
trimmings gathered by front loaders or claw
• Shreds leaves as it contamination trucks.
loads
• Can be towed in a Advantages Disadvantages
variety of
positions • Relatively low cost • Does not compact
• Creates less leaf transport vehicle material and has
dust; eliminates option relatively low
need for special • Useful for receiving capacity, so
box on truck loose material transport is
gathered with either relatively
the front-end loader inefficient and
Mobile chipper or the claw costly due to labor
• May be used for involved
Mobile chipping units are typically used by collection of • Must be covered to
public works crews and private firms material contained prevent blowing
in bags material back onto
involved in tree trimming. They are also
• Commonly part of street
useful for collection of special materials existing municipal
(e.g., Christmas trees). fleet of service
vehicles; cost of
vehicle may be
shared with other
public works

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-11

Rear-loading packer truck Advantages Disadvantages
• Initial capital cost • Time-consuming
This truck is commonly used to collect is substantial relative to fully-
• Efficient collection automated side-
garbage, and generally ranges from 16 to 25 loader
of material
cubic yard capacity. It is also efficient for contained in carts • More
collecting yard trimmings materials in bags, • Fewer trucks and maintenance
largely because it compacts the material. workers required than for non-
compared to rear- automated
loading/bag vehicles
Advantages Disadvantages system
• Reduces potential
• Efficient for a • Not necessarily
for operator injury
system that uses workable as a
bags for set-out transport vehicle
material in a loose
• May be used as material Automated side-loader
transport vehicle in collection
collection system system
involving collection • May be This truck has a fully automated loading
of loose material impractical mechanism. The mechanism grabs a
with front-end where carts are container and hoists above a hopper into
loader or claw used for set-out which the material is dropped for
truck because of the
• Compaction difficulty in compaction. The operator can stay in the
minimizes hoisting large cab throughout the process.
transport costs carts into packer
• May take Advantages Disadvantages
advantage of
existing equipment • Efficient collection • Most expensive
such as garbage of materials option
collection vehicles contained in carts • More
• Fewer trucks and maintenance
workers required than for non-
than for rear- automated
Semi-automated rear-loading truck loading/bag vehicles
system
With this truck, an operator positions a cart • Less labor
for a lifting mechanism (e.g., a bar lift) to required than for
hoist into a hopper at the rear (with some semi-automated
rear-loader
models, on the side) of the truck. The • Reduces potential
operation may require a crew of two, one for operator injury
to drive the truck, the other to handle the
container. Alternatively, one operator can
perform the entire operation, but at a
slower rate.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-12

Use of Transfer Stations for Longer
Distance Hauling to Processor

To reduce local collection costs and

processing fees, some communities have
opted to designate a transfer station for yard
trimmings. This allows the smaller volume
vehicle to travel a short distance to empty
loads and go back to curb collection. Then up
to 100 cubic yards of compacted material can
be hauled by one driver to the composting Photo: A Syracuse University Physical Plant truck
facility. Remote facilities may have lower dumps 4.45 tons of food waste on May 6, 2010 at the
tipping fees due to being located in sparsely Onondaga County Resource Recovery Agency (OCRRA)
populated areas. Amboy Compost Site in Camillus.
http://greenuniversecity.syr.edu/UniversityFoodServices.htm

Food Waste

This section focuses on composting food waste or, more specifically, adding food waste to an
already successful yard waste composting operation. Concepts covered include: assessing needed
capacity; capabilities and the potential cost of adding food waste to operations; maintaining low
odor operations; and characterizing, collecting and processing food waste. Practical tips are
provided to achieve the best return on processing food waste.

Introduction Nationally we throw away more than one-

Adding food waste to a composting operation quarter of all prepared food, approximately
is an excellent way to increase the volume 96 billion pounds each year. Food waste
and nutrient quality of the end product. As includes preparation waste and scraps, as
such, it may also increase your customer well as uneaten food from households,
base, contributing positively to the bottom commercial, institutions (i.e. school
line. However, the added expense of cafeterias), and industrial sources such as
additional processing and the higher potential food processors. According to the MRC’s
for odor incidents may prevent one from Recycling Measurement Project Report of
taking that step. 2001, organic waste made up approximately
29% of Michigan’s municipal waste stream in
Food waste comprises the single largest 1999 with 163 compost sites managing only
component of the waste stream by weight. about 10% of that waste.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-13

Characterizing Food Waste
Food waste differs from yard waste in that it conditions, demands that food waste be
is generally characterized as a highly collected and processed in a timely and
putrescent, rapidly degradable feedstock with efficient manner.
a high moisture content and bulk density. A
California case study characterized food Pre-consumer food waste -- or the vegetative
waste as generally scraps resulting from food production -- is
composed of 71% fruit and easily separated from
vegetable waste, 26% packaging and service
bread and starch waste,
Adding food waste to waste; thus, it usually does
and 3% other items. existing composting not present the
operations increases the contamination issues that
Compostable Food volume and quality of the post-consumer food waste
Material capture does. Newcomers
end product. to food waste utilization
Food waste that can be often initiate a program
composted includes, but is with pre-consumer food waste, leading to a
not limited to: higher rate of program success.

• trim from fruits and vegetables, Post-consumer or uneaten food waste is

spoiled fruits and vegetables, salads often contaminated with paper, metal, glass,
• day old breads and pastries, excess and/or plastic food packaging, which
batter, spoiled bakery products complicates the composting process and
• dairy products - cheese, yogurt, ice decreases the value of the resulting compost.
cream, and miscellaneous by-products However, these problems can be resolved
• floral waste and trimmings, plants successfully, as demonstrated below.
• leftover food that cannot be served
again The inclusion of soiled paper products in food
• frozen foods waste composting is common, and may solve
• coffee grounds and filters a variety of composting and recycling
• tea bags challenges. Paper adds a necessary carbon
• egg shells and cartons source to the composting mix, and will absorb
• seafood (including shells) much excess moisture.
• consumable liquids (beer, wine,
liquor, juices, soda, vinegar, etc.) Most paper products can be safely and
• meat processing by-products beneficially used as a composting feedstock
• plate scrapings and leftovers, post- when the paper or cardboard is soiled or wax-
consumer food waste coated, or where markets for traditional
paper recycling are not available or
The potential of food waste to produce liquid economical. Composting economics and
leachate, combined with its low carbon-to- diversion from disposal are improved by
nitrogen ratio relative to ideal composting including non-recyclable and soiled paper

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-14

with the food scraps. Keep in mind that all through common paper recycling channels.
paper categories contain very low levels of Composting wax-coated cardboard is,
potential contaminants, though in most cases therefore, an attractive option for both
these levels are below those found in yard generators and composters, though it may
trimmings and background soil levels. require specialized equipment to shred the
cardboard to reduce particle size.

Non-Vegetative Food Waste

Food waste, especially post-consumer waste,
may contain meat, dairy, grease, fats, oils and
other non-vegetative organics, some of which
are prohibited by composting facilities.
Although they are organic and degradable,
they break down slowly and composting them
requires more time, care and supervision
because they can contain more pathogens
than other compostable items and may
attract animals and insects. Local renderers
or meat processing by-product specific
composters may be a good option for
managing significant or concentrated
quantities of animal by-products.

Compost operations utilizing meat processing

Compostable paper waste mixed with food waste.
by-products and/or animal bedding can be
Paper will absorb liquid inside collection successfully managed through a variety of
containers, reducing spills and seepage from techniques, such as utilizing a concrete pad
compactors and collection trucks. In the and bunkers or in-vessel composting units
compost pile paper acts as a bulking agent, with full containment of leachate and run-off,
improving aeration and reducing compaction. also employing adequate cover for odor
Waxed-coated corrugated cardboard and control (i.e.: sawdust, woodchips or leaves).
paperboard is abundant in the food Alternatively, another option for non-
preparation industry, and cannot be recycled vegetative organics is anaerobic digestion for
methane recovery.

Working with Generators

Conducting a waste audit is important to the waste audit is likely to reveal that the
success of any waste reduction program; heaviest component of most waste streams in
knowing how much food waste is generated grocery stores, restaurants and cafeterias is
by the operation on a daily basis is the key to food waste, and the greatest volume
designing an effective management system. A

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-15

component of that same waste stream is management of food waste for utilization is a
cardboard. key component to a successful program.

According to the EPA, the organic waste in Food scraps are separated from other wastes
supermarkets makes up 75-90% of the entire at the source of generation -- for example, in
waste stream, and in schools and restaurants food preparation areas -- then collected
74%. A study compiled by Draper and Lennon frequently and routinely. Kitchen and wait
Associates estimated the following staff, and possibly customers (if plate
generation rates: schools 0.35 lbs/meal; scrapings are collected) must be taught to
health care 0.6 lbs/meal; prisons 1 separate acceptable materials for
lb/inmate/day, conferences 0.6 lbs/meal and composting. The selection of food waste
supermarkets 3,000 collection containers
lbs/employee/year. should be coordinated with
U.S. supermarkets solid the waste hauler.
Normally, collection costs waste streams are 75 –
are billed by the cubic yard What eventually
(a volume measurement); 90% organic waste. determines whether a
therefore, food waste business undertakes a food
measurements must be waste diversion program is
converted. Volume-to-weight conversions for if the benefits outweigh the cost. To help
food waste vary considerably, depending on make that determination, the following five
the type of food and its moisture content. If factors need to be considered.
trash collected is measured and billed by
weight, a standard container filled with 1. Waste Management Costs
representative samples of the institution’s
food waste should be filled then weighed for Diverting food waste to a composting
an approximate conversion between volume program requires a separate collection and
and weight. transportation system, one that operates in
parallel with a waste management system.
Standard container sizes and their volume Remaining trash will continue to go to the
capacity include (202 gallons = 1 cubic yard): landfill, while food waste will go to a compost
5-gallon container - .025 cubic yards site. As food waste is removed from the
landfill waste stream, the need for frequent
32-gallon container - .16 cubic yards
trash pickup is reduced, as may be the need
64-gallon container - .32 cubic yards for a large trash holding container. Like
landfills, compost operations charge a tip fee,
96-gallon container - .48 cubic yards
but usually at a rate equal to or lower than
landfills.
To avoid odor and health and safety
Another consideration is the seasonality of
concerns, inform your local health
composting sites. Some municipal programs
department of your program to eliminate
cease collection of residential and downtown
misinformation. Educating employees that
yard waste during the winter months, so
would be responsible for separation and
working with residents to give them home-

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-16

based alternatives for food waste you need to check with your composter to
management during the winter months make sure the compostable products are
becomes important. For commercial and acceptable in their operation (i.e. may require
institutional establishments, finding a hauler the feedstock to be shred prior to
that can continue collection year round so composting).
that kitchen staff operations remain constant
is key to a successful program. Keeping things simple at first allows one to
establish a successful collection system more
Accommodating changes to your current easily. Continuous employee education,
waste handling system means renegotiating getting employees to “buy into the system,”
the contract with your current waste hauler and monitoring will help, as will color coded
or finding a new waste hauler that can bins and appropriate labeling and signage.
provide the variety of services you now Once employees are trained, minimal extra
require. Understanding your service needs time is required to separate materials as it
will allow you to design a program that works. becomes part of the normal daily routine.

In order to make an informed decision It’s important to know how much food waste
regarding services, it is important to become is generated by the operation on a daily basis.
familiar with the waste management facilities A way to estimate the amount of waste
and associated management costs in your generated is to measure all of the scraps
vicinity. produced in each area during a typical
operation day or week, and then project this
2. Food Waste Separation and amount over time. For example, if you have
Collection several stores or cafeterias measure one
typical container of food scraps and then
In general, pre-consumer food scraps are multiply this amount by the number of
more easily collected and composted because containers collected. Of course, make sure
it is fairly simple to train food preparation that employees are informed, and that
employees to properly separate compostable containers contain food scraps only.
food scraps from other non-organic waste.
Post-consumer food waste diversion will 3. Storage and Collection Containers
require regular monitoring by trained staff, as
well as training of consumers to reduce the The selection of outside collection containers
level of contamination in collected food should be coordinated with the food waste
waste, which can decrease the value of the hauler. (In some cases, the hauler may
food waste to compost operators. Up-front provide these.) Existing containers can simply
involvement with your procurement be re-labeled, or it may be determined that
department and suppliers to provide only the number or size of containers needs to be
compostable products will ease the post- changed. Collection containers will require
consumer food scrap contamination regular cleaning even if food waste is
concerns, as would switching to reusable contained in bags.
trays, plates and silverware. But, the costs
and benefits of these types of operational The collection system is critical to a food
program changes need to be considered and waste utilization program. The system for

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-17

separating food waste at the source and be used by generators at workstations to
transporting the materials to a vehicle collect materials, and then be rolled to a pick-
collection point should be as simple and up area when full. These totes must be
convenient as possible. rinsed out and cleaned frequently.

The primary objectives of the collection It is important to ensure that the hauling
system are to: vehicle is equipped with leak-proof seals and
seams that are inspected often. Food waste
• Maximize the capture rate of food that is collected in biodegradable and
waste compostable bags may reduce the frequency
• Eliminate non-organic contaminants of cleaning collection containers.
such as plastic wraps, rubber bands,
glass, and metal The cost to change the number or size of
• Minimize labor and space outside and inside collection containers is
requirements. usually a one-time expense; simply add as
few containers as possible when beginning.
Collection bins should be placed in a Clearly marked and brightly colored
convenient area for staff and/or customers to containers -- such as green for food, blue for
use. Due to the high moisture content of food recyclables, and brown for trash -- are helpful
scraps, containers should be a reasonable size for proper participation and reducing
for employees to lift and load into a central contamination.
collection container or on-site composter.
Containers should only be filled to 2/3 4. Collection Frequency
capacity to reduce spillage.
Just as trash hauling needs to be prompt and
Whether collected in buckets or small, reliable in order to avoid health and safety
biodegradable bags, the collections will be problems, so too does food waste hauling.
accumulated in a larger, centralized tote or Some institutional generators of food waste
small dumpster. If possible, combining food have found it easier and more economical to
waste with yard clippings and leaves in a cart transport collected food waste themselves.
or dumpster will reduce potential odor and Others contract with private waste haulers to
leakage concerns. Haulers can pick-up the collect and deliver the materials to a
food waste in bulk, using roll-off containers, composting site.
compactors, or specialized vehicles for high
volume generators; or they can dump full 32- The collection of food waste should occur
64 gallon totes and dumpsters from small frequently, and upon arrival at the
generators with automated collection composting site, the material should be
vehicles. immediately mixed and incorporated with the
other materials on site.
Containers collecting food waste will require
regular cleaning. One collection option is for Collection and hauling schedules and routines
the hauler to swap clean empty totes with full are dependent upon the amount of food
totes; this means that totes will be tipped and waste collected at the site of generation.
cleaned at the composting site. The totes can Changes in collection frequency necessary to

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-18

manage food waste will result in fluctuations plants that have anaerobic digestion system
in “disposal” costs. Once a successful pattern that need the high biological oxygen demand
is established, fluctuations will give way to a (BOD) to break down the phosphorus, it is a
predictable new reality. growing concern.

5. Other Considerations Reducing the discharge that goes into a

garbage disposal by diverting that material
Worker Training for composting is likely to save water costs,
save possible BOD and TSS (total suspended
There are minor costs associated with solids) surcharges, and avert potential
training workers to separate compostable restrictions on disposal into the sewage
food waste. While a few compost site system. Check with the local sewage
operators provide this service, many do not. treatment plant to find out whether the BOD
Be sure to figure training time into your levels resulting from using garbage disposals
cost/benefit estimates. If the business is needed in the treatment process, before
decides to take on post-consumer food waste deciding on the best organic management
utilization, training may have to include practice for your area.
consumers and will require more rigorous
oversight overall. Household Organics Collection

Many communities and private businesses

around Michigan already provide for the
curbside collection of yard waste, grass,
leaves and brush. Adding household organics
to that service is relatively easy. Including
food waste with yard waste collection makes
for a less messy, less wet transfer process
than collecting food waste on its own.

The overall volume of organics to be

processed will increase, as may the need for
blending before piling. But the primary
challenge for the curbside collection of other
Employee and worker training requires oversight household organics is education. Helping
and continuous training of new employees. householders understand the composting
process and in some cases providing the
necessary collection containers will make
curbside collection of food waste a viable
A common practice in food service businesses
community option.
is to put food waste into the garbage
disposal, which then sends the organics into
the sewage system. While this may be
acceptable in some areas of the country or in
biological-based sewage treatment plants or

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-19

Working with Haulers
While transporting food waste to an off-site maximize collection efficiencies. When done
composting operation may be the simplest properly, problems are prevented and
solution for most commercial enterprises, transportation costs are kept to a minimum.
finding a hauler with the interest, ability and
commitment is often the weakest link in the Restaurants, grocery stores, and cafeterias in
chain of food waste composting. The unique close geographic proximity might consider
properties of separated food waste require entering into a cooperative agreement with a
specialized handling to maintain a waste hauler to assure the success of a food
contaminant-free and manageable material. waste collection program. Separating food
Regular and more frequent collection will waste for utilization from other types of
keep odors and pests to a minimum. Food waste headed for the landfill means that
waste hauling, however, also offers new waste management costs are diversified.
opportunities to increase and expand a Haulers are taking waste to the landfill, and
collection business. the generator is paying for transportation and
landfill tipping fees. Hauling separated food
Hauling Food Waste Efficiently waste to a composting operation means that
generators will pay for transportation and
Waste haulers maximize their profit by compost tipping fees. Traditional waste
optimizing vehicle capacity and collection disposal fees will be offset by the diversion of
frequency. If the vehicle is too small, food waste to a composting operation. Often
excessive transportation costs may result the cost to compost is less than the cost to
from traveling to the compost facility too landfill, but this depends on the facilities,
often. Conversely, small loads in a large services and tip fees available in your area.
vehicle may not warrant use of the
equipment. The goal for the waste hauler is Change in waste disposal and hauling services
to match food waste generation with typically requires a change in service
collection frequency and the appropriately- contracts. Likewise, the change in waste
sized vehicle. management and collection routines may
necessitate contract negotiation between the
The type of collection vehicle can vary from parties involved, as well as education of the
front- or rear-load compacting trucks for employees.
dumpsters, automated side-loader for totes,
sometimes split compartments if co-collected Compost operators should also consider
with recyclables or trash, or even trucks other transportation options. Allowing
equipped with continuous feed mobile mixing generators to haul their own food waste to
units. the operation might reduce costs and simplify
the process. Compost operators may want to
Generators may be required to produce a consider adding food waste hauling services
minimum amount of food waste in order to to a composting operation, if the proximity to
participate in a collection program to the organic source is economically feasible.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-20

 MICHIGAN COMPOST OPERATOR TRAINING GUIDEBOOK

Best Management Practices

for Composting
Part 2:
Site Design & Operations

Michigan Recycling Coalition

PO Box 10070
Lansing, MI 48901
Phone: 517-974-3672
[email protected]
 Best Management Practices for Composting

4
Introduction
Facility Siting and Site Design

The rapidly growing popularity of composting

as a low-cost, community-based solid waste Site Planning p. 2
management technique can strain the Odor and Site Design p. 3
existing compost infrastructure. These
overburdened facilities are susceptible to Site Capacity and Sizing p. 5
odor production and excessive processing Site Layout p. 7
costs that can lead to program failure.
Area Requirements p. 8
These challenges tend to feed off of one Site Selection p. 10
another. Odor problems lead to increased Site Design p. 11
processing costs, which in turn increase the
need to process greater quantities of yard Drainage Design Information p. 14
waste in order to generate higher Design Checklists p. 17
revenues. The cycle can continue until the
facility becomes legally or economically Example Compost Pad Design p. 20
infeasible to operate. The cycle can be Overview of New Composting p. 21
broken, however, because both of these Law
failures can be prevented in large part
through the application of good basic site
design principles.

This portion of the Compost Operator

Training manual describes best management
practices for site-related issues associated
with intensive windrow composting, where
the entire site must be accessed more than
three to five times weekly.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-1

Site Planning

A compost site must provide sufficient area Michigan PA 451, Part 115 (formerly P.A. 641)
and conditions for all-weather composting governs the composting of non-exempt
while limiting environmental risk, odor, and organic waste materials (exempt materials
noise. Site development involves creating a include leaves, grass clippings, garden waste,
plan for finding an acceptable location, and brush/wood chips and up to 5% by
adapting the composting method to the site volume Class 1 organics such as food scraps,
(or vice versa), providing sufficient land area paper, food processing residual). Many local
for operations, and implementing surface units of government require compost sites to
runoff and pollution control measures as adhere to specific zoning and land use
needed. regulations that regulate where composting
can take place. All building requirements,
To help understand geographic and other surface and ground water regulations, and
impacts on site planning, operators should federally based NPDES requirements should
make a preliminary sketch of the facility also be investigated. The DEQ’s Water
showing all key areas and factors which will Resource Division has created a compliance
affect operations, including: assistance document entitled "Compost
Wastewater & Storm Water Permit
• prevailing wind direction Information - Compliance Assistance for Yard
• traffic flow patterns Clippings Composting Facilities". This
• land slope document describes the applicable permits
• runoff patterns related to wastewater and storm water
• surrounding land uses discharges from compost facilities. The
• wetlands or water bodies document can be found at
• activity configuration (materials www.michigan.gov/deqstormwater (select
handling and processing) Industrial Program, then under Storm Water
Program Compliance Assistance select
Permitting & Regulation Compost Operations Compliance Assistance.)
Before beginning the planning process, it’s
important to understand local and state NOTE: SEE APPENDIX AT THE END
regulatory requirements including permit
applications that may affect the site OF THE CHAPTER FOR AN
operation. Also be aware that starting a OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STATE
composting facility will raise concerns among
LAWS ABOUT REGISTERING YOUR
neighbors and local public officials. Educating
these groups about composting and its COMPOST FACILITY, AND STATE
advantages will be a critical part of getting OPERATION REGULATIONS.
started smoothly.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-2

This training manual focuses on large scale processing residuals, etc.), an enclosed in-
yard clippings composting with the option to vessel system or outdoor operation that has a
add up to 5% by volume ‘other’ (Class 1 lined pad or groundwater discharge permit is
according to the MDNRE) organics. When required to control all water runoff and
planning to compost more than 5% by volume groundwater.
Class 1 organics (food scraps, paper, food

Odor and Site Design

. And, proximity to neighbors requires high
Factors that affect odor operational standards to avoid problem-
causing odors and traffic issues. Resolving
Many factors affect the potential for odor these conflicts is key to acquiring and
buildup during production at a compost developing a compost site that successfully
facility, including: economics, site location, balances the conflicting needs of cost versus
weather, community and markets. These quality.
must be balanced with care in order to
develop a successful composting facility with A variety of odors, particularly those caused
adequate equipment, personnel as needed, by anaerobic conditions, are attributable to
and a system to move the pressures caused by the
product out the door. need to intensively process
high volumes of organic
A successful compost site yard waste material at
Budgets frequently dictate
that yard waste be
design balances the inappropriately sized sites.
managed using relatively conflicting needs of cost Physical topography such
low-tech windrow type versus quality. as puddles, mud, and acidic
management conditions also contribute
techniques. Yard waste to the development of
generation patterns often require that anaerobic processes but are preventable with
composting be carried out amidst dense good engineering and site design.
populations to reduce transportation costs.
However, large parcels of land are difficult to The relationship of odor to site
find and costly in suburban communities design
where yard and garden clippings generation is Odor minimization is a major objective of
at it’s highest. These sites can be too small facility siting and design. Successful site
with little room to expand because of design isn’t conceptually difficult; it simply
proximity to neighbors. Increasing the requires the control of water and runoff on
quantity of incoming materials makes these the operating surface of the facility.
sites more crowded and inefficient.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-3

While good site design alone cannot ensure Odors can result from several pile
that operations will produce few odors, poor environment factors, for example ammonias
site design is almost certain to cause odor and sulfides (rotten egg smell), are associated
during production at all but the lowest with excess moisture during aerobic
volume sites. Site design should be the first composting; amines (fishy smell) are
component employed to minimize the associated with anaerobic conditions; and
opportunity for odor production. volatile fatty acids (VFA), are associated with
anaerobic conditions; evidence of unstable
The existing moisture content of a process.
composting mass, rainwater inputs, and
runoff are all important factors that must be Byproducts of anaerobic respiration tend to
actively managed. The operating surface be acidic. If the composting mass becomes
must be prepared in a manner that limits the acidic, metals and other elements present in
amount of water that is held on the pad. This the material may leach and become
includes grading, sloping and hardening of the concentrated in site runoff. Leachate is the
pad surface. It is important that water drains liquid that has moved through the compost
quickly, leaving the pad strong enough to pile and exits the bottom of the pile. The
support heavy equipment despite several leachate contains dissolved and suspended
days of rain. Runoff water, either from the pollutants.
composting process or from rainfall, must be
conveyed away from the operating surface Water management for odor
and/or accumulated in a retention pond
before reusing for irrigation or releasing off- Prevent pooling or ponding
site. The use of vegetated bio-swales assists Ponding of water, particularly on the
in filtering the runoff water before it enters a composting pad, will cause a number of
detention or retention pond. operating problems. First and foremost,
ponding can create anaerobic conditions and
Anaerobic conditions generates odor. Pooling and ponding
If compost piles are located in standing water weakens the composting surface. Standing
for even short periods of time, air spaces puddles and ponds create saturated soft
within the pile will be replaced with water. spots on the pad that become susceptible to
Recall that when water replaces air in rutting and other physical deterioration that
compost piles, there is no oxygen for eventually necessitates remedial care.
respiration and aerobic microbes cannot
survive. Anaerobic processes can be caused Initially, proper pad construction and sloping
by water in piles, compaction or small should prevent pooling. A surface of rigid or
particles, where aerobic microbes are semi-rigid pavement with gravel or slag
replaced with anaerobic ones. Composting surfacing and an appropriate sub-base is
still occurs, however, anaerobic respiration recommended. After construction, constant
produces offensive odors. This can set off a pad maintenance and housekeeping activities
series of problems, even when anaerobic are essential to preserve drainage and
conditions are present in only localized downward slopes to convey all water away
portions of a pile. from the compost. Windrows should be

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-4

placed along the “fall line” of the slope, and pose a significant odor and possible
rather than across the slope, to ensure pollution risk. Optimally, it would be best to
drainage of water away from windrows. As avoid the accumulation of moisture in the
illustrated in the diagram of a sample site at first place. Where formation of anaerobic
the end of the chapter. pools cannot be prevented, odor-causing
elements can be reduced by adding
Treat anaerobic pools pulverized limestone to the pool and
If pools of leachate or water form on a surrounding area.
composting pad, they can become anaerobic

Site Capacity and Sizing

An important step in site planning and generated each year. The following rule of
development is calculating the capacity thumb should be considered an average
needed based on projections for volumes of range, assuming leaves, grass and brush are
incoming materials, equipment needs and collected:
materials handling activities.

Lack of adequate space and equipment, Average residential 1-2 cubic yards per
combined with overly large quantities of generation: household per year.
incoming materials can cause dramatic odor
and material management problems. Most Design key: Older communities with
sites cannot efficiently handle more than larger trees may
5,000 cubic yards per acre per year generate more leaves;
(cy/acre/yr) and 8,000 cy/acre/year is newer communities with
generally the upper limit for an intensely large lawns will generate
managed site. Too much material makes it more grass.
difficult for operators to mix and turn
material in proper ratios and frequencies.
The following table identifies optimal
High capacity approaches (e.g. more frequent volumes which can be processed annually
mechanical turning and quicker organic based on low, medium and high intensity
decomposition) allow more efficient use of processing means. This can be used as a rule
sites. of thumb during the design process to
understand that a medium and high intensity
Estimating Generation site, more equipment and more labor will be
needed to push the material through. It is
An important planning step is identifying the important to note that the Michigan compost
geographic area to be served by the site, and rules state a limitation of 5,000 CY per acre at
estimating the volume of organic waste to be any one time (i.e. if you measure an acre at

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-5

any time during the year, the active, curing or
finished compost volume on that acre cannot If you measure an acre
exceed 5,000 CY).
at any time during the year,
Annual Throughput the active, curing or finished
Annual Annual Annual compost volume on that acre
Capacity Material Material Material cannot exceed
Volume- Volume- Volume - 5,000 cubic yards.
1 Acre 5 Acres 20 Acres
Low 3,000 CY 15,000 CY 60,000 CY
Medium 5,000 CY 25,000 CY 100,000 CY
High 8,000 CY 40,000 CY 160,000 CY
Small overall volumes,
Low intensity minimal operational
attention

Speed up organic breakdown

Medium through shredding, increased
intensity turning to handle higher
amounts per year; attention
to C:N ratios, moisture
content, aeration;
engineered pad

Attention to C:N ratios,

High intensity moisture content, aeration;
Design Considerations – shared by all facilities high level of equipment and
site development, including
but generally require more attention as
self-propelled windrow
intensity increases. Any compost site should turners, shredders,
have adequate drainage away from the piles screeners, loaders,
and should consider staff operations training, engineered pad, aeration
turning and incoming volume logs. systems, positive odor
control, and +sophisticated
instrumentation; extensive
staff training

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-6

Site Layout
In acquiring or developing a compost site, the Material Flow and Site Configuration
operator should plan to accommodate
appropriate operating strategies, utilities,
material handling areas and other factors.

Site Access
Appropriate site entrances and exits are
especially important in providing the facility
with a good public image. Important Do’s
and Don’ts include:

DO locate the site entrance on or near major

transportation routes
DON’T allow incoming and outgoing vehicles
to travel on residential streets.
DO clearly mark the site entrance with signs
DON’T allow incoming vehicles to back-up
off site while waiting to enter.
DO provide enough space for trucks to
adequately maneuver off the streets
DON’T allow vehicles to track mud or Utilities
compost from the site to public roads. Access to common utilities will be required by
DO insure that entering and exiting vehicles compost facilities. Electricity, water,
can safely enter and leave traffic. telephone, internet, and sanitary sewer (or
septic tank and drain field) are basics that
each site will require for successful
operation. Access to water for moisture
conditioning the composting mass is
particularly critical when conditions and
materials are particularly dry and susceptible
to combustion.

Compost facilities carry out three types of

operational functions. 1) Receiving/Staging;
2) Processing; and 3) Curing/Storage. Space
allocated to each of these activities can be
calculated based on incoming volumes of

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-7

yard clippings and other organics on a visitors. Fencing around the facility
monthly basis. perimeter, a locking gate, lighting, and
utilities help protect the facility from those
Site Security troubles. Good signs promote efficient site
Access should be controlled to limit liability use by visitors, help to prevent confusion, and
from illegal dumping, contamination, provide vital information in the case of
vandalism, theft, and injury to wandering emergency.

Area Requirements

Efficient facility layout is important to Site Layout Objectives

minimize the frequency and amount of
material movement from station to station. 1. Minimize backtracking, system delays,
Some overall layout objectives that each and material handling.
facility designer should consider are: 2. Maintain flexibility.
3. Separate feedstock piles to allow
Area Requirements precise combining of materials.
Staging/ Processing Curing/ 4. Utilize manpower and space
Receiving Storage efficiently.
% of Total 20-30% 55-65% 10-20% 5. Provide for good housekeeping and
Site Area (Assuming some ease of maintenance.
Needed leaf storage in
processing area)

Material Handling Needs

% of incoming Staging/Receiving Requirements Processing Curing/Storage
materials Requirements Requirements
Accumulate in Fall for following Incorporate As finished compost
Leaf Stream 50-60% Spring gradually with at 3:1 or 4:1 volume
incoming grass reduction
Accumulate for 1-2 days at most Incorporate quickly As finished compost
Grass Clippings 30-40% with Fall leaves (See above)
Accumulate until grinding can Grind separately As finished compost
Brush/Wood chips 0-15% occur from grass or leaves (See above)
Accumulate for 1-2 days at most Incorporate quickly Incorporate quickly
Food Scraps 0-5% with Fall leaves with Fall leaves

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-8

Calculating Space for Active Compost
The shape and size of windrows vary equipment and building. Often, though, the
depending on the type of turning equipment curing and finished compost is stored outside
used. The aisle space needed between and the area and pads need to accommodate
windrows is also impacted by equipment these volumes.
selection.

To accurately calculate the footprint of the

site which will be occupied by the active
processing area, operators will need to
estimate the peak volume of organic
materials and how much can be placed into
each windrow. For additional information on
calculating the full range of windrow types,
the On Farm Composting Handbook is an
excellent reference.

Where more sophisticated indoor or in-vessel There is plenty of space at Tuthill Farms for
approaches are used, the area requirements composting.
will be different to accommodate the

The table below provides some basic guidelines.

Calculating Windrow Volume

Method and Approximate shape Avg. aisle Cross-sectional area
equipment used width

Windrows/piles 11’ A = 2/3 x b x h

turned with a
bucket loader

Self-propelled and 5’ A = h x (b - h) *
tractor-drawn
windrow turners

* This formula is an approximation and is valid only when the width is greater than or
equal to twice the height.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-9

Site Selection
Location from neighbors. Buffers should take
The process of composting will at times advantage of natural allies like prevailing
generate odors. In order to ensure that winds, wooded areas, hills, and railroad cuts
occasional odors are not a nuisance to the to cost effectively prevent offset impact.
surrounding community, the site should be
located away from nearby “sensitive
receptors.” Usually, rural agricultural areas or
those zoned for industrial operations are best Generally speaking,
suited to outdoor composting
technologies. Where more sophisticated operators become more
indoor or in-vessel approaches are used, the challenged by the
facility siting standards may be modified conditions of the site than
somewhat. Proper attention during the
the actual composting of
design phase should minimize the
disturbance that a facility brings to the the organics.
surrounding community.

Setbacks, Buffers and Site Access Site Selection Criteria

Setbacks from sensitive receptors and other • Proximity to customers
factors should be observed whenever • Proximity to transportation corridors
possible. • Minimum travel and materials handling
• Firm surface to support vehicles under
• 500-feet from a sensitive receptor (e.g.
varying weather conditions
hospitals, churches, schools, nursing
• Opportunity for expansion
homes)
• Cost of space and utilities
• 300-feet from residences
• Buffer from neighbors
• 500-feet from active wells
• Drainage, runoff control
• 200-feet from natural or artificial
• Avoid sensitive receptors such as schools,
wetlands
hospitals, schools
• FAA regulations prohibit the existence of
compost facilities within 10,000 feet of
Where setbacks of this nature are not
feasible, buffers should be constructed to any airport.
mitigate the effects of compost facility
impact. Composting facilities set near areas zoned for
either agriculture or industrial purposes are
Buffers can include constructed berms the best locations for siting a composting
(**berm requirement from rules?), walls, and operation.
rows of trees. They serve to block the effects
of noise, odor, and visual impacts of the site

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-10

Site Design
Although a firm processing surface is properly built site. 1) The surface should
necessary, it does not have to be provide adequate stability and firmness for
paved. Moderate to well-drained soils are year-round operational access with windrow
satisfactory for some lower intensity yard turners, trucks, and other heavy equipment.
waste composting situations. A pad This can be constructed in a variety of ways,
constructed of 8 inches of compacted and as compacted gravel to concrete. 2) A pad
graded sand or gravel works well when the should be constructed so that its final grade
existing soil conditions are not acceptable. and elevation provide a slope that allows
water to flow away quickly and efficiently
Paved pads of concrete or asphalt are from the composting material. A 2% slope is
generally a luxury and only a necessity for recommended as adequate. 3) The presence
high-intensity sites. Pavement does reduce of clay at the surface of any site should “raise
problems related to mud, equipment a red flag”, indicating the potential for wet
operation, and pad maintenance. It also areas to form. Sites with clay soils will require
minimizes the amount of stones that get special attention to preparation of hardened
mixed into the compost. However, the cost is surface in order to avoid drainage and odor
significant and pad runoff must be managed. problems.

Usually, an impermeable surface is required Successful development of these two design

only when both the soil is well-drained and goals will result in a facility that dramatically
the water table is high (w/in 4-5 increases operational efficiency and reduces
feet). Concrete or asphalt is also sometimes the chance of odor and off-site leachate
beneficial for special activity areas such as contamination.
mixing of raw material with a bucket loader.
Pad Surface Material and Design
Sites without engineered pads on which to
Several factors will influence the type of pad
maneuver equipment have problems when
material and surface preparation which may
there are significant amounts of precipitation
be required. These factors include the type of
and the ground is soft. Equipment can get
equipment to be used, the volume of material
stuck in the mud, ruts may form and ponding
expected, and type of soils present.
may occur which can result in anaerobic
conditions if a pile or windrow is located in
the standing water. Generally speaking, Pad Type Design Keys
operators become more challenged by the Rigid Pavement • Strip topsoil and add
conditions of the site than the actual appropriate base and sub base
composting of the organics. And these material
challenges frequently lead to an • Design pavement cross-sections
for refuse packer truck axle
unsustainable business operation.
weights fully loaded with yard
clippings
There are three key elements for site surface
design that must be considered for any

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-11

Prepared Earth • Strip and compact ground inadvertent mixing with the compost
Surface surface as underlayment product, erosion, high-temperature
• Add 8-inch layer of compacted
composting process, and the scraping action
gravel or slag surface layer (4-
inch lifts); an additional layer of of metal buckets regularly clearing the pad
permeable sand may be surface to maintain open drainage
required as the final base layer ways. Paving also allows for easier snow
to promote drainage under the removal for year around activity.
entire pad structure where clay
soils are present
• Use geotextile fabric between
Prospective operators should carefully
base layers and the underlying evaluate the operational benefits of paving all
in situ soil where underlying or part of their site. At a minimum, the
wet clays are present. mixing area and compost pad that houses
working windrows should be hard surfaced.
Typical Site Preparation and Construction
Costs* Advantages of Prepared Surface
Average Cost
per acre • Easier year-round access during all
Pad Type
Earth Pad (no fill) $7,000 – 10,000 climatic conditions.
Gravel/Slag $30,00 – 50,000 • Reduced maintenance
Asphalt Pad $65,000 – 100,000 • More efficient material handling
Concrete Pad $150,000 and up
• Reduces the likelihood of odor problems
*Does not include engineering and construction Disadvantages of Prepared Surfaces
supervision; note that an economy of scale may be
achieved with larger sites, thus reducing the average
cost per acre. Cost figures may vary from community • The quality of finished compost can be
to community. Facility operators can reduce these adversely affected when gravel or slag
average construction costs by seeking cooperative materials become mixed in the organic
working relationships with local contractors.
mixture.
Note that the significant additional capital • High maintenance
costs of placing asphalt or concrete pavement • Excess water may be more difficult to
are offset by the operational savings in facility control during rainy periods
maintenance and other efficiency gains. • Soft muddy pads can mean down time
during inclement weather
Advantages of paved sites
Where the water table is low and the soils are
Paving your compost pad can alleviate sandy, less design effort and construction
product management issues. Constant expense will be required to ensure access. In
grading and re-grading is not needed to circumstances where the existing ground is
maintain an appropriate slope and surface clayey and wet, greater effort and expense
integrity. Water runoff can be controlled will be required to ensure all-weather
more easily. The annual addition of layers of access. In any case, compost facility
developers should give pad design and
replacement surfacing material will not be construction the highest possible priority.
required to make up for losses due to

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-12

Alternative Surfacing Options Under no circumstances should any
Some operators have had success using centralized composting facility be sited on a
alternative surfacing material like slag or ground surface area that has a clay base
limestone that can be less expensive than without surface improvements.
more common construction materials. Other
Cohesive soils like clay cannot support activity
operators with access to heavy equipment
in wet weather. Statewide experience has
have been able to prepare excellent “do it
clearly indicated that sites located on a clay
yourself” facilities as part of ongoing
base without overlying pavement will become
construction or landfill management
inaccessible and extremely muddy after only
activities. Clearly those composters with
a month or two of steady operation.
involvement or background in earthmoving
contracting or landfilling are at an advantage
In the limited circumstances where a pad of
when it comes to constructing a less
compacted native soil is feasible, the actual
expensive compost site.
pad and other high traffic areas (e.g. entry,
exit, access roads, and perimeter areas
Use of Existing Soils
around grinders, debaggers and screeners)
Under limited circumstances, compost sites should be carefully prepared in the same
can be developed using existing soil manner that the foundation preparation is
units. This approach should be considered carried out before placement of a gravel or
only after carefully evaluating the proposed paved surface. These steps are:
operation and the native soils for appropriate
characteristics. 1) Clear proposed pad area of all
vegetation and manmade structures.
This type of lower strength pad surface is
feasible where the proposed operation is to 2) Remove organic soil layer from
be low intensity (e.g. infrequent use of proposed pad area.
wheeled loaders for material management
and turning). It should only be employed 3) Grade and compact (with vibratory
when the surface geological unit is sandy or compaction device) suitable in situ
gravelly materials. Additionally, the year granular soil for use as pad surface.
around water table should be at least five
feet below the surface of the proposed pad
area.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-13

Site Drainage Information

Pad Surface Slope important at composting facilities. It is

Any outdoor surface for composting requires critical that each operation is designed,
a slope that is suitable for the quick and constructed, and managed by knowledgeable
efficient outflow of leachate and stormwater professionals in a manner that limits the
runoff. Pad surface slope is critical to keeping production of compost wastewater and
the site accessible in all weather. prevents the contamination of storm water.
Site design and management should focus on
In circumstances where non-rigid materials identifying areas of the site where compost
(e.g. gravel, slag) are used, continual wastewater is potentially generated and
regrading of the pad is required. Trucks, areas of the site where compost wastewater
windrow turners, loaders and other heavy is not generated. Controls will need to be
equipment leave ruts when operating on a implemented in both areas to adequately
non-rigid surface, especially during wet protect groundwater and surface waters,
periods of the year. In order to simply and however storm water runoff controls will be
easily keep up with site “housekeeping,” the main focus in the areas where compost
regrading of the site should occur every wastewater is not generated.
day. Slopes of less than 2% are difficult to
Compost Wastewater Drainage
maintain, especially when most regrading is
undertaken and completed using instruments Compost wastewater is a liquid that is
no more sophisticated than the equipment comprised of process water; wash water;
operator’s eyes. The overall slope of the pad, and/or leachate that ponds, flows laterally
regardless of the material used in its from the base of the compost pile, or collects
construction, should be able to consistently in an under-drainage system. Storm water
maintain flow in the direction of the drainage that has been allowed to comingle with
collection ditches. compost wastewater, as defined, is
considered compost wastewater.

Design Keys Compost wastewater discharges from

Rigid and durable Minimum slope of 1% composting facilities are highly variable and
pavements: in one direction. can contain potentially significant levels of
Gravel, slag or other Gradient of 2% in at nutrients, heavy metals, oil and grease,
non-rigid surfaces: least one dimension soluble salts, Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),
tannins and phenols from decomposing
Compost Wastewater and Storm leaves, herbicides, pesticides, fungicides and
fecal coliform. The negative impacts to
Water Drainage
waters of the state from improperly managed
Appropriate management of compost compost wastewater include, but are not
wastewater and storm water is very limited to, the following:

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-14

 • Elevated levels of BOD and COD Compost wastewater generated at the site
cause oxygen depletion in surface may be collected in a properly lined basin and
water, which could lead to fish reintroduced onto the compost piles. It may
and aquatic organism mortality. not be discharged onto the ground or into
Additionally, high BOD and COD surface waters without a permit from the
loads can cause oxygen depletion Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ),
in the soil column, which can Water Resources Division (WRD).
result in the release and
mobilization of metals in the
groundwater. Any discharges of compost
• High levels of nutrient loads wastewater to waters of the
(mainly phosphorus) to surface state would require a
waters stimulates excessive National Pollution Discharge
growth of aquatic vegetation
Elimination System (NPDES)
and algae causing accelerated
eutrophication of waterbodies. permit.
High levels of nutrients, such as
nitrates, are also a human Storm Water Drainage
health concern in the
groundwater.
In addition to managing and minimizing
• Tannins and lignins are compost wastewater, compost sites should
natural dissolved organic prevent the contamination of the storm
acids derived from woody water that has not contacted production
materials that give yard areas (feedstock, raw materials, compost
clippings compost piles, etc.). It is critical that storm water from
wastewater a tea color. non-production areas of the site is diverted
• Discharges of compost away from production areas. Remember that
wastewater can negatively when storm water mixes with compost
impact the natural color of wastewater, the entire mixture is considered
waterbodies, which can in compost wastewater.
turn negatively impact the
natural ecological processes Compost facilities need to manage storm
within those waterbodies. water discharges from the site so that it does
• Elevated levels of fecal coliform in the not cause negative impact to the receiving
discharge is a human health concern. waters. Even with proper construction and
management, storm water at the site may
Ideally controls should be implemented on still carry some pollutants which can be
site to prevent the generation of compost harmful to surface waters. If compost
wastewater. However, if wastewater is facilities discharge storm water to the surface
generated then it should be managed so that waters of the state or to a separate storm
it does not comingling with storm water and sewer system a NPDES industrial storm water
it does not discharge to waters of the state. permit will be needed. Storm water

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-15

management at compost facilities will involve Conclusion
the implementation of a number of storm Composting plays a major role in both waste
water runoff controls such as: management and resource recycling for our
• Detention and retention ponds organic wastes. However, studies have
• Diversion berms and dikes demonstrated that water quality degradation
• Storm sewer inlet protection is likely if the process is not carried out in a
• Vegetative filter strips professional manner on sites that are
• Check dams appropriately designed, constructed, and
• Infiltration trenches managed.

All storm water runoff controls utilized on site Outdoor compost facilities require a drainage
require design by a qualified professional and system that will appropriately manage
ongoing maintenance to be effective. The compost wastewater (if generated) and storm
MDEQ Nonpoint Source Best Management water runoff. Compost wastewater if
Practices Manual should be referenced to generated should be managed so it does not
appropriately implement controls that will comingle with storm water runoff. All
work effectively given specific site discharges of compost wastewater and storm
characteristics. water generated onsite needs to be covered
by all applicable WRD discharge permits. It is
advisable that compost facility operators
work with DEQ, WRD staff when considering
how to effectively design site drainage and to
appropriately permit compost wastewater
and storm water discharges to waters of the
state.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-16

 Compost Facility Planning, Siting, and Design Criteria Checklist

A. Materials to be Composted
Yard Waste
Yard Waste and other compostable materials (classified as Class 1 compostable material) such as wood,
organic garbage, paper products and manures not generated in the production of livestock or poultry, spent
grain from breweries, sugar beet limes, drywall, and dead animals not managed under dead animals act

B. Compost Facility Planning

Check Zoning
Identify public officials with jurisdiction over the proposed compost facility
Review local composting regulations
Check meteorological parameters (e.g. wind direction)
Identify critical surface and ground water resources
Identify “sensitive receptors”
Detail existing buffers (woods, roads, walls, hills. lakes, etc.) between site and its neighbors
Identify possible areas for future facility expansion
Detail surrounding transportation routes
Identify project team (e.g. engineer, lawyer, contractor, equipment vendors)

C. Compost Facility Site Design Phase

Acquire all necessary permits (building, zoning, business, and solid waste management)
Prepare a construction erosion control plan to mitigate loss of soil and impact to surrounding water
resources
Identify types, quantity and seasonal distribution of incoming material
Define incoming quantity limitations based on site size and composting technology
Define material staging and preparation requirements
Identify outgoing quantities of finished material
Define size reduction/mixing equipment
Define turning and aeration equipment
Define screening and blending equipment
Define utility equipment (e.g. loaders, dozers, trucks)

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-17

 Define site boundaries
Describe major areas of activities (e.g. receiving pre-processing, grinding, composting, curing)
Describe major transportation routes to and from the facility
Determine traffic flow on site (maintain counter clockwise flow is possible)
Define buffers necessary to mitigate effects on neighbors
Design pad and roadway surfaces
Provide site security (e.g. gate, signage and fencing)
Develop appropriate site erosion control structures
Develop appropriate retention pond facilities for storm water control and primary effluent treatment (e.g.
sedimentation)

D. Yard Waste Only Site Criteria

Not in a 100 year floodplain
50 feet from a property line
DEQ minimum 200 feet from a residence, recommended 300 feet
DEQ minimum 100 feet from a body of water, including a lake, stream, or wetland, recommended 200 feet
2000 feet from a type I or a type IIA water supply well
800 feet from a type IIB or type II water supply well
500 feet from a church or other house of worship, hospital, nursing home, licensed day care center, or
school, other than a home school
4 feet above groundwater
Pad surface material that allows year-round access and adequate support for expected loads (rigid or semi-
rigid pavement; gravel or slag surfacing with subbase)
Pad surface slope that allows for quick, efficient leachate outflow and storm water runoff (1% slope for
rigid and durable pavements; 2% slope for gravel, slag, or non-rigid surfaces with daily regarding)
Drainage conveyance structure that is capable of conveying leachate or storm water runoff to
retention pond without overflow or percolation
Diversion channels to direct runoff and promote sedimentation removal
Stabilization of steep grades with geotextiles, vegetation, or rip-rap
Retention pond at sites larger than 5 acres or those with high water tables
Restrict/control rate of runoff to reduce quantity and increase quality of runoff

E. Class 1 Compost Site Criteria

50 feet from property line
DEQ minimum 200 feet from a residence, recommended 300 feet

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-18

 If within 500 feet of a residence, visual obstruction from a fence of at least 8 feet in height and 75%
screening or an earthed berm that offers equal obstruction is required
DEQ minimum 100 feet from a body of water, including a lake, stream, or wetland, recommended 200 feet
2000 feet from a type I or type IIa water supply well
800 feet from a type IIb or type III water supply well
500 feet from a church or other house of worship, hospital, nursing home, licensed day care center, or
school, other than a home school
4 feet above groundwater
If located within 10,000 feet of any airport runway used by turbojet aircraft or 5000 feet of an airport
runway used by only piston-type aircraft the facility must be designed and operated so that the facility does
not pose a bird hazard to aircraft
Pad surface material that allows year-round access and adequate support for expected loads (rigid or semi-
rigid pavement; gravel or slag surfacing with subbase)
Pad surface slope that allows for quick, efficient leachate outflow and storm water runoff (1% slope for
rigid and durable pavements; 2% slope for gravel, slag, or non-rigid surfaces with daily regarding)
Drainage conveyance structure that is capable of conveying leachate or storm water runoff to
retention pond without overflow or percolation
Diversion channels to direct runoff and promote sedimentation removal
Stabilization of steep grades with geotextiles, vegetation, or rip-rap
Retention pond at sites larger than 5 acres or those with high water tables
Restrict/control rate of runoff to reduce quantity and increase quality of runoff

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-19

 Example of Compost Processing Area with Pad Detail

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-20

Overview of New Composting Law
Contact: Duane Roskoskey 517-582-3445
Agency: Environmental Quality

The law identifies several options for managing yard clippings:

• Composted at the property where they came from.
• Temporarily accumulated under specific conditions at a site before moving to another
location.
• Composted at a farm registered with the Department of Agriculture under specific
conditions.
• Composted at a composting facility registered with the DEQ Waste and Hazardous Materials
Division.
• Composted and used under specific conditions at a licensed solid waste landfill.
• Composted at a processing plant meeting Part 115 requirements.
• Composted at a site that has not more than 200 cubic yards of yard clippings if no nuisance
is created.
• Decomposed in a controlled manner using a closed container to create and maintain
anaerobic conditions (e.g. anaerobic digester).
• Disposed of at a landfill if diseased or infested or the material is an invasive plant collected
through an eradication or control program and inappropriate to compost.

DEQ registered composting facilities will be subject to a $600 registration fee. The registration is for
three years. Registered facilities have location restrictions and operating requirements, and are
required to submit annual reports containing information about the amount of yard clippings and
other compostable materials managed during the previous fiscal year.

DEQ registered composting facilities are subject to a $600 registration fee. The registration is for
three years. Registered facilities have location restrictions and operating requirements, and are
required to submit annual reports containing information about the amount of yard clippings and
other compostable materials managed during the previous fiscal year. Questions may be directed
to Mr. Duane Roskoskey at 517-582-3445 or by email at [email protected] .

www.michigan.gov/deq/0,1607,7-135-3312_4123-185537--,00.html

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 4-21

 Best Management Practices for Composting

5 Operations

Introduction Incoming Material Stream p. 2

Composting is the art and science of Quantity of Incoming material p. 4
managing organic materials to provide an
Pre-processing p. 7
optimum environment for the growth and
reproduction of microbes. Experienced Compost Production p. 9
facility operators often compare composting
Compost “Recipe” P 12
to making a fine wine, as a way of
acknowledging that large scale compost Composting Process p. 13
production requires the balancing of complex
interrelated factors. On the other hand, it is Staffing p. 20
neither “rocket science” nor alchemy. Field
and laboratory research continues to provide Low Odor Operations p. 23
good scientific data on the process.
While today’s operators also benefit from the Odor Control in Production p. 27
trial and error of earlier composting efforts,
there is no substitute for thorough planning,
monitoring and analysis of operational data.
Proper operation of a compost facility
requires an established protocol for materials
handling, and the right equipment and
trained staff to carry out those procedures in
a timely manner.
Many factors are important in development
of a successful composting facility. This
module covers all facets of site operations,
from material receiving through processing
and monitoring. Principles of operation and
recommendations presented herein are
applicable to both large and small facilities. Building a pile

Incoming Material Stream

Composters must continually monitor the odor problems and produce high quality
incoming material stream in order to avoid compost.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-1

Managing incoming materials Food Waste
It is essential to evaluate the quality and Food waste differs from yard waste but is
quantity of incoming organic materials in similar to grass in that it is generally
order to operate a compost facility effectively characterized as a highly putrescent, rapidly
without creating nuisance odor problems. degradable feedstock with a high moisture
Important aspects of managing incoming content and bulk density.
materials include: The potential of food waste to produce liquid
• reduction of grass volumes and/or leachate, combined with its low carbon-to-
addition of extra carbon material nitrogen ratio relative to ideal composting
• paying immediate attention to grass and conditions, demands that food waste be
food scraps as they enter the site collected and processed in a timely and
• rejecting foreign materials or efficient manner, and may require chipping or
contaminated material grinding if mixed with compostable products
like forks, spoons and cups.
Grass As grasscycling programs are becoming more
Reducing the amount of grass in the waste popular, more volumes of food waste in the
stream greatly reduces the potential for odor feedstock may be desirable. Food waste is
generation. Grass collected in plastic bags high in nitrogen and speeds up the
may be odorous even before it enters the decomposition process of compost. Adding
facility. food waste to yard waste for composting will
One way to reduce grass is through an reduce water needs throughout the process
aggressive community education program. and increase the nutrient content of the
The Southeast Oakland County Resource finished product. Once composted, food
Recovery Authority (SOCRRA) demonstrated a wastes contribute to the overall beneficial
60% reduction in grass from its member characteristics of compost as a soil
communities in the last four years through an amendment and nutrient additive.
education program and financial incentives
Brush
(higher tip fees for grass).
A key processing issue for Michigan
composting facilities is whether to accept
loads of brush commingled with grass and
leaves, or only in separate loads. Depending
upon the type of equipment used, grinding
wet material such as grass can increase the
rate of wear on cutting edges, resulting in
costly maintenance and downtime. By
accepting segregated brush at the gate, an
operator can increase processing options and
possibly reduce equipment costs. Brush
alone can be stockpiled without causing odor,
Food waste collection truck whereas commingled brush and grass cannot.
The woody component of yard waste helps
the compost process in chipped form,

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-2

providing some carbon for microbes and Charging by weight effectively discourages
enhancing aeration. Another disadvantage of this practice, although scales are costly. Signs
separate collection programs for grass and of over-compaction include evidence that
brush is the added cost for two trucks and moisture is being removed due to compaction
extra employees. (streams of liquid draining from incoming
vehicles) and obviously overloaded packer
trucks (compressed springs and flattened
Managing grass, food waste and brush tires).
• Accept only enough grass to make the
desirable C:N ratio, based on available
leaves and brush.
• If food waste is accepted, limit this
volume to 5%, or to the amount accepted
for your facility by the MDNRE, to manage
C:N and moisture.
• Give top priority to securing adequate leaf
volume.
• If accepting brush commingled with grass,
invest in grinding equipment designed to
handle wet materials.

Plastic bags
Gate management
Yard clippings collected and delivered in
The condition of material arriving at a plastic bags present a major operational
compost facility affects variables such as: concern for composters. Accepting grass
• collection containers delivery in plastic causes foul odors, raises
• type of delivery truck (degree of operational costs dramatically, and can
compaction) reduce both the quality and value of the
• amount of physical contaminants finished product (plastic bits, pH problems).
• the length of time since grass has been Plastic bags cause odor problems because
cut and in transport grass turns anaerobic and foul-smelling inside
• curbside collection quality control the airtight container. Nitrogen-rich grass,
Grass stored in plastic bags or a truck for especially with high moisture, begins to
several days will be more odorous than in decompose soon after bagging, and uses up
bulk or paper bags and delivered on the day oxygen. When placed in plastic bags, grass
collected. can become anaerobic within hours.
If a facility’s fee is based on volume rather
than weight, haulers may compact more Debagging is costly, whether done
material into each load to save money. This mechanically or by hand. To save money,
densifies the feedstock and makes it more some operators build compost piles without
difficult to aerate. Also, the site operator first debagging, and rely on a turner or
loses money when the amount of material is grinder to shred the bags open. This system
measured by volume rather than weight. relies on screening to remove plastic later

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-3

and often produces poor quality compost • Reject non-compostable wastes at the
containing tiny pieces of plastic which blow gate. Track incoming loads so haulers can
around the site. Compost with plastic in it be held accountable for trash.
looks like trash and will be harder to sell. • Determine the maximum volume of grass
and food waste your site can handle;
divert to another site if this peak capacity
Gate management tips point is exceeded.
• Don’t accept material in plastic bags. If • Charge higher tip fees for grass and food
you must, follow a rigorous and effective waste than for leaves and wood chips.
debagging protocol.

Quantity of Incoming Material

Estimating incoming volume
In designing a composting facility, decisions Seasonal generation
and estimates must be made about the type The amount of yard waste generated varies
and quantity of yard waste to handle. Site by season. Up to 60% of yard clippings in
design and equipment depends on the Michigan consist of grass and weeds collected
volume of material expected. Objectives for in the growing season from May through
estimating volumes include: September. The overall amount of leaves
• ensuring a sufficient supply of carbon-rich appears larger because it arrives in a shorter
materials on-site to manage the C:N ratio time period than grass. Brush from pruning
as windrows are built, and storm damage occurs primarily in two
• sizing and equipping the facility for peak peaks in the spring and fall. Moderate
volumes, and quantities of brush accumulate in the
• planning effective operating procedures. summer and winter months. Food waste
volumes in the spring may be high due to
One approach to estimating yard waste is to households ‘storing’ food scraps in their
multiply the number of homes by an average compost carts over the winter when yard
yard waste generation rate. The following waste collection services weren’t provided.
table shows data from Illinois. Food scrap volumes may also be higher in the
summer and fall when local, fresh food are
Table 1: Yard Waste Generation Rates per Single prepared.
Family Household per Year
Material Pounds Cubic Yards Loose Changes in weather, landscape practices and
Leaves 160 0.8 population can alter yard waste volumes from
Grass 1,040 2.6 year to year. To successfully handle
Brush 300 1.0 fluctuations, a site must be sized to
Total 1,500 4.4 accommodate estimated peak capacity.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-4

Receiving areas should be large enough to 80:1 and compost slowly without additional
store fall leaves and the grass surges nitrogen.
expected in the spring and early summer.
Table 2: C:N Ratios of Common Materials
Recommendation MATERIAL C:N RATIO
The best time of year to start composting is Grass Clippings 20:1
autumn, because leaves can be stockpiled Green Leaves 40:1
and available to mix with succulent grass Dry Leaves 80:1
clippings the following spring. Store leaves in Sawdust/wood 500:1
large piles with good drainage, away from chips*
property lines, to keep as dry as possible and Dry Straw 100:1
slow the rate of decomposition over winter. Cow Manure 20:1
Food Scraps 15:1
Bulking agents * Carbon in wood is released over a number
of years.
A bulking agent is a carbon-rich material
added to a compost mix to enhance air flow
New Jersey public and private compost
or convection through the windrow.
facilities recommend no less than three parts
Commonly used materials include wood
partially composted leaves (from previous
chips, leaves, sawdust, cornstalks or straw. In
fall) to every one part grass. While this may
order to aid natural convection, bulking
push the C:N ratio above 30:1, it has the
agents must be large
advantage of added bulking
enough to physically Rule of Thumb material in the mass and
support small pockets
Mix 2-3 parts leaves to 1 part grass, increasing air flow, which
through which air can
by volume for optimal C:N ratio of prevents odors.
pass. A compost pile
with an acceptable C:N 30:1 and add wood chips for bulking
agent. Leaves stored over the winter
ratio is less likely to
lose approximately half their
become anaerobic
volume by the time they are
because sufficient bulking agents are also
mixed with spring grass. Due to the volume
present to facilitate air flow.
reduction that occurs in leaves stored over
winter, operators who use the three parts
Balancing C:N Ratios
brown to one part green rule will actually be
The carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) of consuming six parts incoming leaves to one
incoming materials must be actively managed part spring grass. As shown in Table 1, the
in order to have a predictable composting typical generation pattern for communities
operation, avoid problematic odors and cannot accommodate this formula. Practical
produce consistent, high quality compost. strategies are therefore needed to manage
The optimal mixture of yard clippings has a grass effectively. The following materials
C:N ratio between 25:1 and 35:1. Too much handling tips offer suggestions on how to
nitrogen (C:N below 20:1) results in ammonia balance materials to produce an acceptable
odors while excess carbon (above 80:1) C:N ratio.
significantly slows the composting rate. Dry
brown leaves have an average C:N ratio of

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-5

Pre-processing
specifically to handle wet materials. Many
The goals of pre-processing include reducing grinders on the market are most effective on
the size of brush, creating a homogeneous dry woody materials and require extensive
mix, and ensuring that compost mixes have maintenance when handling a wet, green
acceptable C:N ratios and moisture levels. mixture.

Particle size reduction The costs and benefits of a commingled yard

Tree trimmings and brush over 1" in diameter waste stream should be carefully considered
must be physically broken down by a chipper in designing a program.
or grinder before they can be added to a Specialized equipment is available to separate
compost mix. Unchipped, these materials do commingled brush from smaller particles such
not have a sufficiently small surface area to as grass and leaves, and some composters
make carbon accessible to microbes. use this approach. This kind of separating
Although costly to process, chipped brush equipment can be cost effective because it
provides carbon to composting microbes and reduces wear on the hammers and knives in
enhances pile aeration by providing structure. grinding equipment. If accepting food scraps
Brush can be stockpiled prior to processing with compostable products, you may need to
for long periods of time without causing grind this material in order to promote the
odors. This allows the operator to chip or degradation of the forks and spoons.
grind less often, during slow periods or when Otherwise, you may find small bits of plastic
leased equipment is available. in your final product.

Brush must be size-reduced or ground into If possible, grind woody material separately
chips in order to compost. Brush mixed with from grass and leaves. Particle size reduction
grass and leaves (commingled) can be costly also occurs each time a mechanical windrow
to grind with equipment that is not designed turner with knives or blades is used to turn

Recipe Tips:
1. Provide enough space on the site for actively composting windrows, storage of leaves and wood
chips, and processing activities.
2. Keep enough leaves and wood chips stockpiled on-site (approximately 1 to 2 months at expected
rate of use) to balance the amount of grass that will come to the site in the spring and summer.
3. Incorporate spring and summer grass into leaf windrows incrementally to “stretch” the value of the
leaves. The ratio of grass to leaves in the initial mixture should be limited to 1 part grass to 4 parts
leaves. Subsequent "doses" of grass added to each windrow should also not exceed one part in
four.
4. Repeated incorporations can bring the final grass to leaf ratio to a much higher level, without
creating odors, than would be possible using a single incorporation approach. This incremental grass
incorporation technique substantially limits odor potential.
5. One good way to form a windrow is to build a grass sandwich: place a load of grass on a leaf/chip
layer; add grass; cover with another leaf/chip load, and mix.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-6

windrows. This cannot, however, be used as odor control. Under no circumstances should
a substitute for chipping larger pieces prior to grass be left over the weekend without being
mixing into the compost pile. Only brush incorporated into a pile.
smaller than 1” in diameter can be mixed into Odors can be generated in localized
a pile without pre-chipping if a Scarab or anaerobic pockets in compost piles that have
similar turner will be used to turn the piles. acceptable C:N and moisture levels overall. In
order to prevent pockets of high nitrogen,
Mixing/moistening dryness or excessive moisture, piles must be
Incoming material must be mixed and mixed well.
watered to achieve the desired C:N ratio
(30:1) and moisture level (50-60%). Although
Michigan composters are rarely troubled by Materials Handling Tips:
lack of moisture, drought conditions can
• Grass and food waste must be
occur and a method of watering windrows is
incorporated into compost piles or
essential. Water trucks equipped with
windrows within 24 hours of when it
overhead hoses can be leased or rented,
arrives.
because rarely-used, single-purpose
• Begin composting with an optimal
equipment is not cost effective.
moisture content of 55% and C:N
Water should be applied to piles when they
ratio of 30:1.
are “open,” that is, when a concave
depression has been made at the top of the • Mix raw materials thoroughly to
pile. A triangular or peaked top effectively distribute C:N and moisture.
sheds water. • Costs are incurred every time
Mixing is essential to good composting. material is moved. Design the site
Incoming grass must be mixed into windrows and material handling procedures to
or piles within 24 hours of when it arrives. reduce unnecessary relocation of
Grass that is already odiferous should be material as it moves through the
incorporated into leaf piles immediately. A stations of activity.
thin covering of wood chips has been shown
as a good bio-filter and further measure of

Compost Production
that focuses on minimizing odor production,
Site influences thereby increasing the need for more costly
Sites constrained by close neighbors may equipment. Turning and screening
require additional considerations before a operations on smaller sites must be more
composting system is designed. The compost intensive in order to manage the compost
system must be appropriate to the site, process and use of space effectively.
expected volume and type of incoming Intensive utilization usually requires
materials. The proximity of neighbors can additional or more expensive equipment.
create the need for a composting approach

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-7

Scarab windrow turner in action at a USDA demonstration site.

Composting systems
Windrow composting
Windrow composting consists of placing a windrow turner must be appropriately sized
mixture of raw materials into long, narrow for that turner.
piles that have a triangular cross-section.
These piles, or windrows, are then agitated or It is recommended that windrow height not
turned as needed. Windrows are usually exceed 12 feet due to the potential to
formed by a front-end loader or dump truck develop anaerobic conditions in the center of
and can be turned with bucket loaders or the pile. The lower limit is approximately 3
specialized windrow turners. feet because piles smaller than this are not
Dimensions for height and width of a specific insulated well enough to support composting
windrow will be related to the machinery temperatures during winter. Current
used to create and/or turn it. A pile turned research has indicated that very wide
by a front-end loader will be no higher than windrows also impede natural air flow.
the loader can reach. A pile turned by a

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-8

Table 3: Windrow Composting Technologies

Compost system Common Size of typical system

applications
Windrows (w/turners) Yard clippings Small - large volumes, capital intensive

Windrows (w/front-end Yard clippings, Small - medium volumes.

loaders) food waste

Trapezoid Windrow Yard clippings Large volumes processed on less acreage

(specialized turner)

Trapezoidal windrow composting

Trapezoidal windrows are large square shapes built approximately ten feet high. Turning is
accomplished by a rotating milling drum with cutters that shaves a thin layer from the windrow and
discharges the material laterally to form a new windrow to the side. The trapezoid method was
designed to handle large volumes of material on limited acreage.
The center of the trapezoid is insulated from the convective forces that take place on the surface of
the windrow. Because air cannot penetrate naturally through such a large mass, the center tends
to develop extremely high temperatures or anaerobic conditions.

Passive or Static pile composting

Passive, or static, piles are essentially windrows turned infrequently with a front-end loader. Piles
are limited in height by the reach of the loader, but should not be taller than 12 feet high.

Turning
Turning of compost windrows and piles accomplishes the following: homogenizes
compost materials, ensures that all materials are located in the center of the pile for some length
of time where temperatures are highest, reduces particle size, and temporarily aerates the mix.
Turning should occur when the temperature at the center of the pile reaches 140ºF. Turning
should occur more frequently in the early stages of composting and less frequently when the
composting rate is slower. Sometimes conditions within a pile or windrow warrant more or less
frequent turning. This is covered more fully in the section on troubleshooting.

Aeration
Aeration within a compost windrow or pile is achieved primarily by natural convection which is a
result of the shape of the pile. Cool air flows up from the bottom of the pile through the hot center
and out of the top in what is commonly referred to as "the chimney effect". Air flowing out of a
compost pile is warm.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-9

The rate of air flow through the pile will be related to its porosity which, in turn, is related to the
size and amount of bulking agents such as wood chips. Figure 1 shows how air flows through
compost piles as a result of the chimney effect.

Figure 1 Convection of air through compost piles

Compost “Recipe”
affect the composting process, odor
Carbon:Nitrogen ratio production and the quality of the finished
The mixture or “recipe” used to combine product.
organics for compost production is important
for a number of reasons. Characteristics of The most important aspect of the compost
materials added to a mixture can aid or “recipe” is the Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ratio.
inhibit the decomposition process, aeration, The best balance for a compost mix will
microbial growth and odor production. The permit composting to proceed at an
mix of incoming materials can dramatically acceptable rate without generating large
volumes of odors that can offend neighbors.
A mix too high in carbon will decompose at a
slow rate and a mix too high in nitrogen runs
the risk of generating ammonia.
The relative C:N ratios of grass (20:1), leaves
(between 40:1 and 80:1) and woody
trimmings (500:1) require balancing to
achieve the optimal mixture with a 30:1
ratio. Seasonal generation patterns require
that leaves be accumulated on-site in the fall
for mixing with grass and food waste as it
Summer collections are mostly grass

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-10

arrives in the spring and summer. This grass as a means of reducing grass volumes
method of accumulation can be used to accepted at local composting sites. Instead,
obtain an overall C:N ratio of almost 30:1. A residents are asked to leave cuttings on the
handy rule of thumb for achieving a workable lawn or compost cuttings themselves. Many
C:N ratio is to mix two parts brown material communities have reduced the quantities of
(high carbon content) to one part green (high grass generated through educational
nitrogen content) by volume. programs and economic incentives. Grass
cycling with mulching mowers and home
Bulking agents composting programs are successful
One of the primary reasons for using leaves mechanisms for reducing the cost of
or wood chips as a primary constituent in a collection, processing, and potential odor
compost pile is the need to provide production of grass. These programs have
sufficiently available bulking materials to the helped to reduce monetary and non-
compost pile. Bulking agents increase the monetary costs of operating composting
porosity of a compost pile which, in turn, facilities.
enhances the capacity of the mass to aerate
itself through convection. Anaerobic materials
The focus of odor prevention is often solely
Leaves are the most common carbon based on the composting facility. But all too often
bulking agent used with grass clippings odor problems are caused by materials that
because they make carbon readily available arrive in an anaerobic state. Grass that has
when added to highly nitrogenous fresh grass been placed in plastic bags can begin
clippings. Other bulking agents that can be anaerobic decomposition within hours.
used include sawdust, cornstalks, or straw.
Leaf piles formed in the fall will be half their Facility operators should discourage haulers
original size when spring rolls around. from collecting materials and letting them sit
overnight or for the weekend in sealed
Grass vehicles. Haulers should make an effort to
The simplest approach to operating a low collect residential grass clippings early in the
odor compost site cost effectively is to week in order to ensure that lawn materials
minimize the quantity of incoming grass. As generated on the weekend do not remain
indicated above, optimal mixes of leaves to sealed in bags or cans any longer than
grass are between two and three parts leaves absolutely necessary. Operating contracts
to one part grass, by volume. with haulers can be written in order to allow
When a mixing regime of one part grass to compost operators to refuse tipping rights to
three parts leaves is followed, the amount of loads of grass at the gate that are obviously
grass that can be effectively handled is anaerobic and problematic. This will give
approximately 1/6 of the amount of incoming haulers an incentive to work to minimize the
leaves. development of anaerobic loads. It will also
provide facility operators with the
An obvious approach is to reduce the opportunity to reject incoming loads as a
incoming quantities of grass. Some Michigan means of corrective action on the behalf of
communities have banned curbside set out of the facility and its neighbors.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-11

Monitoring the compost process
degrees Celsius for 24 hours will reveal the
Temperature percent moisture. The formula for this is:
Temperature must be monitored regularly Wet weight – dry weight/100 = %moisture
since it is the primary indicator of the level of It is easiest when you begin with a 10 gram
microbial activity and composting rate. sample before drying
Temperatures can be monitored using a Improperly assembled and maintained piles
temperature probe that penetrates the or windrows may not reach high enough
center of the mass. temperatures during the active phase of
Active composting occurs within the composting for killing all weed seeds and
temperatures of 70 to 145ºF. Temperatures pathogens.
below 70ºF are too low (microbes become
inactive and weed seeds are not killed offf);
temperatures above 160ºF are too high (see
the chapter on -Troubleshooting).

Moisture
Aerobic microbes need moisture to live. The
optimal moisture content of 45-60% moisture
can be determined by a simple test called the
Squeeze method.
Determining moisture content of compost
requires measuring both wet and dry weights.
Drying compost samples in a soil oven at 110
Soil lab drying ovens

The "Squeeze" method to monitor Oxygen

moisture levels: Oxygen meters can be used to determine the
oxygen levels of the compost mass, however,
Squeeze a handful of compost to see if any the data collected from an oxygen meter is
water can be expressed. It should be moist more difficult to interpret than temperature
but not wet. Damp as a wrung out sponge. If data. Oxygen meters are also more expensive
not, water needs to be added. than temperature probes.
If more than a few drops of water can be
squeezed out, it may be too wet. If there is Compost curing
significantly more water than this, it will be
necessary to add dry bulking agent to avoid Compost quality is enhanced by aging, or
anaerobic conditions. curing the finished compost to eliminate
phytotoxins and stabilize the product. Curing
is the final stage of the composting process
that occurs after most of the food supply for
the microbes has been consumed. It entails

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-12

placing compost in piles and leaving them further. The degree of maturity can be
undisturbed for a period of several months. measured through laboratory tests, seedling
Curing occurs when the readily metabolized germination tests or estimated by compost
materials in the original feedstock have been reactions in the field. Mature compost is free
consumed by microbes. Biological activity of phytotoxins that can interfere with plant
drops to a low level, as indicated by failure of germination and growth.
piles to re-heat and low demand for oxygen
and nitrogen, although moisture and aeration Contamination with soil or uncomposted
needs must be met. residues, especially after the active phase of
composting has finished, can lead to the
Curing can be done before or after screening, reintroduction of weed seeds or plant
but it is easier to maintain aerobic conditions pathogens.
in the pile if the compost is cured first and
then screened. In this way, bulking agents Finished compost can become
such as wood chips can still be there to recontaminated with weed seeds if weeds are
enhance aeration. allowed to grow and go to seed on or
adjacent to the pile or windrow. Keep
It is necessary to keep the moisture content vegetation adjacent to stored compost
in the curing piles between 40% and 50% to mowed short, and tarp piles or windrows to
keep the compost from drying out. If curing prevent contamination by wind-blown weed
is to be done in static piles, ensure that seeds. When moving or spreading finished
enough moisture is in the piles when they are compost, avoid picking up soil or other
formed, since it is hard to uniformly add contaminants from under or around the pile
moisture at a later date without turning. or windrow.
Mature compost is a dark brown humic
material which cannot significantly degrade

Composting Equipment
Equipment choices should be based on the equipment that may enhance marketability of
condition and volume of the incoming the final product can be purchased or rented.
materials. The need for more sophisticated Changes in the overall waste stream including
equipment generally increases as the volume those brought about by climatic differences,
of materials processed increases. Organic changes in community growth, and the
materials in plastic bags require debagging community’s yard waste management
and screening. Brush and other large woody practices can all dramatically affect the type
materials need chipping or grinding whether and relative volumes of materials expected at
they are commingled with or separated from a site. Facility developers should be aware of
grass. All materials composted require community trends before a site is developed
mixing. Finally, screeners and bagging

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-13

in order to anticipate long term organic Equipment replacement and preventive
management needs. maintenance expenses should be budgeted.
Equipment failure during peak times can
Equipment selections must be robust and break a composting business. Annual
flexible in their ability to withstand changes in maintenance costs can be as much as 10-20%
the incoming stream. Equipment must be of the purchase price of equipment. If you
flexible because it is less likely to be used carefully monitor and plan regular
frequently if it is suited to management of replacement the chances of production
only one type or form of material. slowdowns are greatly reduced.
Equipment Tips: turning, and moving raw material from one
 Lease or rent as-needed equipment such location to another on-site.
as grinders and screeners, if used
infrequently. Front-end loaders often serve as the most
 Use equipment with a history of high important piece of equipment for small
quality service; try to do an on-site composting systems. A drawback to using
“demo” before purchasing equipment. loaders to turn compost is that thorough
 Have a reliable backup processing plan for mixing is more difficult with a loader, because
equipment failure. materials mat together. The potential for
 Purchase equipment that flexibly suits the unmixed areas within a pile is greater with
incoming material and site. loaders than mechanical turners.

Windrow Turners
Turning Windrow turners are specially designed for
Turning equipment is used to homogenize turning and aerating compost windrows.
compost materials, ensure that all materials Large turners are self-propelled, straddle the
are in the central portion of the pile where windrow and allow more intensive use of
temperatures are highest for some length of land. Smaller windrow turners are side-
time and reduce particle size. The two major mounted on loaders or tractors which are
types of equipment used to turn piles include: driven in aisle ways beside the windrow.
front-end loaders and specially designed Windrow turners mix piles more thoroughly
turning equipment. than front-end loaders and generally produce
a final product with superior texture.
Front-end Loaders Windrow turners are less flexible than loaders
Front-end loaders can be used for: compost because they cannot be used to move
mixing, pile or windrow formation and material from one area to another and
cannot be used to turn static piles.

Table 4: Turning equipment

Equipment type Cost Range Capacity Comments
Front-end loaders $50,000 to $100,000 500 to 750 cy/hr Small volume systems
Tractor-driven $10,000 to $90,000 2,000 to 4,000 Also need a loader or tractor
turners cy/hr
Self-propelled $40,000 to $200,000 2,000 to 4,000 Large volume systems, smaller
turners cy/hr acreage.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-14

 need to be maintained frequently and wear
Grinding quickly when grass is processed with brush.
Grinding and chipping equipment is used to Chippers and shredders process brush by
reduce the size of brush and tree limbs before slicing or cutting it with blades. In general,
it is mixed with other materials. This chippers and shredders handle smaller
equipment is available in different styles and material than grinders and hammer mills.
sizes which vary significantly in price. Table 4 lists cost ranges and capacities for
Hammer mills and tub grinders use metal grinders.
hammers to break apart material. Hammers

Table 5: Grinding/Chipping equipment

Equipment type Cost Range Capacity Comments
Grinders $20,000 to $700,000 10 to 500 cy/hr Hammers and a rotating tub reduce
size.
Hammer mills $17,000 to $250,000 60 to 450 cy/hr Uses hammers to crush materials.

Chippers, $5,000 to $135,000 5 to 300 cy/hr Uses knives and blades to cut materials.
shredders

Pug mills use rotating paddles to mix

Mixing materials and work faster than batch-
Mixing equipment is used to mix organic operated mixers. Batch mixers are adapted
materials before composting. Many small from agricultural applications and produce a
compost facilities use only front-end loaders homogeneous mix of materials. Windrow
to mix materials for composting. Other turners can be considered a means of mixing
mixing equipment includes pug mills and compost after it has been formed into
batch mixers. windrows. Cost ranges and capacities of
screening equipment are listed in Table 5.

Table 6: Mixing equipment

Equipment type Cost Range Capacity Comments
Pug mills $20,000 to $50,000 20 to 2000 cy/hr Continuous mixing systems, faster than
batch mixers
Batch mixers $10,000 to $150,000 10 to 500 cy/hr Batch systems, adapted from agric.
uses.

chips or any other foreign matter that

Screening reduces final product quality.
Screening equipment is used to remove large Operators that are interested in marketing
particles from finished compost before it is their finished product to specialty markets
sold. This includes rocks, twigs, large wood should investigate particle size requirements

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-15

of that market. For example, compost that is essentially a rotating drum with holes that is
to be used as topdressing for a golf course either inclined or contains internal flights to
would need to have a smaller particle size move material along as the drum rotates.
than material that will be used to replant Other types of screens shake or vibrate to
vegetation after road construction. separate finished compost from unwanted
Trommel screens are commonly used at objects.
compost facilities. A trommel screen is

Table 7: Screening equipment

Equipment type Cost Range Capacity Comments
Screeners $50,000 to $180,000 10 to 200 cy/hr Screen sizes vary. Investigate sizing
needs of the markets being served.

equipment is often only cost-effective for

Other equipment sites that handle large volumes of material, or
Other equipment that can be useful at volumes of food waste that exceed optimal
compost facilities is listed in Table 8. This mix ratios and need to be contained.

Table 8: Other equipment

Type of Equipment Purpose Comments
Debaggers Breaks up plastic bags Finished compost likely to contain
plastic pieces
Bagging equipment Used to place finished compost Very expensive, used primarily at high
in bags volume sites.
In-vessel or enclosed Containerized composting Expensive, used mainly where food
composters systems to grind and compost waste or bio-solids is the highest
food waste, compostable food volume material (not considered yard
serving products, animal waste composting)
bedding, bio-solids in a
controlled environment

equipment have come to the market with

Equipment reliability many claims about capability and quality.
The resurgence of composting popularity in Some of this equipment was developed for
the last few years has driven the markets that handle different materials such
development of new equipment and new as agriculture and the gravel and waste
approaches. Windrow turners, screeners, management industries. Equipment
and other “specialized” composting developed from agricultural applications has

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-16

the greatest number of characteristics in advisable to obtain a guarantee from the
common with composting. manufacturer for the cost of service and
Development of windrow turners and reworking defective parts.
screeners has been an area of great Prototype equipment, while frequently
innovation and innovative and effective in
difficulty. Facility Equipment "disasters" test circumstances, often
operators need to be requires considerable field
sure to work with
often occur during periods experience before adequate
equipment that has been of heaviest use. Develop a durability can be achieved.
developed and refined back-up plan for when
for use in yard clippings
compost programs.
equipment fails.
Conditions prevalent at a Equipment Tips:
particular site also need to be taken into
 Talk with other operators to find out what
account.
equipment they have used and what the
In late spring and early summer, an inability
service record has been.
to turn and incorporate incoming grass can
 Have equipment demonstrated on-site
mean the difference between idle
with your material. If possible, have it
neighborhood curiosity and court restraining
demonstrated during adverse weather
orders.
conditions.
 Purchase equipment with a proven track
A facility operator should try to purchase
record.
equipment with a track record. Because
 Air conditioning is necessary.
composting equipment is a relatively new
development, operators often end up with
prototype or early design versions of
equipment. Under such conditions, it is

Scarab windrow turner

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-17

Staffing

Qualifications • Train all staff in the basic principles

The pool of skilled compost facility operators of composting.
is small and it is unlikely that hiring
experienced staff is a significant The successes of your employee depends on
consideration, particularly at the laborer both training and on-the-job experience each
level. However, there is a tremendous need play a role in. Staff will be required to
for mechanically talented individuals with the operate and maintain equipment, monitor
ability to reason systematically. It is and sample compost piles, administration and
necessary to ensure that all site workers gate management. Laborers will also be
understand the need for hard work and needed for debagging and other unskilled
attention to detail. Operational costs depend jobs.
on a number of staff on-site and the
effectiveness with which they work. • Initial training
Choosing and training staff well are a Initial training should include the basics of
significant part of a facility developer’s job. composting operations, data collection, and
Large equipment operators and farmers record keeping. Simple operations such as
provide a good pool of applicants. recording the temperature of windrows and
piles, determining moisture content, and
• Hire people who have solid monitoring oxygen levels are all important
mechanical skill and demonstrate diagnostic tools which form a lasting record
of the daily successes and failures of site
attention to detail. management. Like many other long term
Personnel utilization is seasonal. The most processes, composting requires early
intensive operation of a yard waste attention to indicators of failure in order to
composting site is during the late spring, respond to problems on a timely basis.
summer and early fall months when most
organic materials are generated. The need Another area of importance at any compost
for staffing can drop practically to zero in the facility is equipment maintenance and repair.
winter when deliveries to the site are limited. All equipment, whether specialized or simple,
New hires need a basic understanding of the is under constant pressure to operate. This
biology of decomposition and how daily means that preventive maintenance
operations might affect that process. programs require religious adherence and
Development of successful operations is a that frequently replaced or hard to obtain
site-specific process dependent on the efforts parts should be kept in inventory. Because
of individual staff members in individual downtime is risky for a compost operation, a
situations. talented mechanic must be available in the
event that failure occurs in spite of preventive
maintenance.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-18

Safety is an important issue although few composting practice. The most effective
standardized rules have been developed to training, however, is achieved in the process
cover compost operations. Basic “common of developing an operator’s “feel” for what
sense standards” should apply with regard to works on a particular site with a particular
safety. Lock-out and tag-out procedures waste stream.
should be employed to ensure that
maintenance workers and mechanics are not All staff should be encouraged to share
injured. All staff should also be aware of insights into successes and failures that occur
problematic climatic conditions that can lead on a daily basis. Records of all test and
to heightened odor emission, the presence of monitoring should be made available so that
aspergillus fumigatus, and other airborne they can be used to inform operating
hazards. decisions routinely, rather than only during
crisis situations. As an incentive, operators
Operators of tub grinders, windrow turners, and staff should be rewarded for their
and other heavy equipment should be fully increasing knowledge with the opportunity of
trained in the operation of this equipment increased compensation, short courses and
and should be required to wear the seminars where they can share their
appropriate safety protection. This may experience and learn from others. Encourage
include safety shoes, hard hats, eyeglasses or staff to continue composting training through
other gear as appropriate. Visitors to the site participation in short courses and seminars.
should be restricted from operating areas and
should be given standard head and eye
protection when they accompany staff into
working areas. Exposure to the elements is
another concern for workers, particularly
under extreme weather conditions.

Training Tips:
 Train staff members in proper data
collection and record keeping techniques.
 Train staff members in proper safety
procedures.
 Training in equipment maintenance is
extremely important.

Ongoing training
Training at a composting facility is an ongoing
process. New developments in composting
practice occur constantly and are frequently
presented in periodicals devoted to Trained employees help to maintain
consistency and quality.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-19

Regular Operations Schedule
Time period Operation
Daily Accept yard clippings, monitor quality, record volumes/weight
(trash or debris is removed by person who brought it)
Check for odors and take action when necessary.
Process (grind or chip) incoming materials, incorporate grass
within 24 hours of when it is dropped off.
Check site for trash & debris, remove. Check for dust, take action
when necessary.
Check equipment, lubricate according to maintenance schedule.
Maintain pad to provide drainage and access.
Weekly Turn windrows when they reach 140 ºF
Monitor and record representative area of windrows for
temperature and moisture levels.
General clean-up of site.
Clean equipment.
Mix windrows as they reduce in size.

Low-Odor Facility Operations

Remediating odor problems can lead to At facilities where large amounts of grass are
increased processing costs, which in turn, processed, composting must be done under
increases the need to process larger volumes carefully controlled circumstances. Operating
of yard clippings to generate higher standards and methodology play the primary
revenues. Site improvements or additional role in maintaining the necessary control, in
equipment which might be required to defeat conjunction with a properly conceived and
odor problems also require cash. This cycle executed site design.
can continue until the facility becomes legally
or economically unfeasible to operate.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-20

 It is difficult to maintain low odor operations on lowland sites such as this one
near a river.

Problematic odors
Table 9: Common odors at compost
Composting is a natural process producing
little odor in the forest or a homeowner’s sites
backyard. Larger amounts of yard clippings Odor Cause
increase the possibility of odor generation. A Ammonia Too much nitrogen
variety of odors can be produced as a result Amines (fishy smell) Anaerobic conditions
of the composting process. Typical odors Sulfides (rotten eggs) Anaerobic conditions
include ammonia, amines (fishy smell), Volatile fatty acids Anaerobic conditions
sulfides (rotten eggs) and volatile fatty acids. (VFAs)
The type of odor produced can provide the
compost operator a clue to what’s causing
the problem and how it can be remedied.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-21

Managing Operations Summary
when the windrow or pile is first formed.
Factors affecting process and odors Inability to provide the required amount of
No matter how big an investment has been moisture will ultimately slow the composting
made in facility development, the level of process and require additional management
operations management represents the most and expense in the long run.
important difference between success and Unusual weather conditions can lead to
failure. Odor producing compost sites often circumstances where moisture contents are
have difficulties producing a high quality too high. However, excessive moisture
finished compost product. The pursuit of contents are sometimes the result of poor
maximum compost volume production must recipe mixes with too much grass in the mix
be modified by the pursuit as the most frequent
of minimal odor production. cause. Excessive grass in
Moisture levels should composting mixtures has a
Composting rate be maintained between number of bad side
effects, especially the
If the primary operational 45 and 60% for optimal opportunity for the
goal is to maximize
production of compost, then microbial activity. development of odors.
Turning is a technique
the most important task of
useful for drying out piles that are too wet
facility managers is to produce an appropriate
because moisture is released during turning.
quality of compost in the shortest amount of
Excessive turning of windrows or piles dries
time. However, operating experience
the materials to the point where moisture
frequently demonstrates that production
content is below optimal. For this reason the
cannot be the only variable considered.
turning program should be carefully timed to
The rate and quality of the composting
maintain the correct moisture content.
process can be linked to the health of the
Many facilities in Michigan have found it
organisms that are decomposing the mixture,
effective to turn windrows while it is raining
which in turn depends on the C:N ratio,
in order to add moisture and to prevent
moisture levels and aeration. Whether the
excessive evaporation of moisture. This can
primary organisms of decomposition are
also be helpful in minimizing off-site odors
aerobic or anaerobic will also be linked to
when turning windrows of anaerobic
these factors.
material.
Moisture
Aeration & turning
Moisture content of the composting mass is
Until recently, few controlled experiments
one of the most important management
had been completed on the effects of turning
variables. Moisture levels should be
frequency on outdoor windrows of yard
maintained between 45 and 60% for optimal
waste. Work performed at the Southeast
microbial activity. At most sites the
Oakland County resource Recovery Authority
appropriate level of moisture is adjusted

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-22

(SOCRRA) during the summer of 1994 clearly Weather conditions
demonstrated that aeration within a compost Weather conditions can affect the decision to
windrow or pile is related more closely to pile turn in a number of ways. Most importantly,
shape and porosity than to turning the site operator must determine the
frequency. Turning should not be depended potential for odor generation and
upon as the primary mechanism to maintain transmission.
oxygen in windrows or piles. Turning of piles that are anaerobic or
otherwise odiferous should be done with
This research showed that any additional care. It should not be turned on hot humid
oxygen made available as a result of turning days when there is little air movement.
was removed within hours by the natural Similarly, windrows/piles that are known to
microbial activity of composting. Aeration of have low moisture content should not be
yard waste windrows or piles is primarily the turned on hot sunny or windy days. Moisture
result of static aeration or gas flow through can be added to these piles naturally by
the pile, commonly referred to as convection turning on a rainy day. Windrows with high
or “the chimney effect”. In order to ensure moisture content should be turned on windy
proper aeration of a yard waste windrow or or sunny days to limit additional water intake.
pile, the following guidelines are Wind direction is a major in deciding whether
recommended: to turn piles. Turning and other odor-causing
tasks should be performed when prevailing
Recipe
winds favor the composter (winds that carry
Compost must be prepared with sufficient possible odors away from site neighbors).
bulking agents to allow adequate interstitial It is important to monitor wind direction and
air flow. postpone activities that release odors when
wind is blowing towards most sensitive
Moisture content neighbors.
Windrows must be prepared so that excess
moisture does not inhibit or prevent the flow Time of day
of air through the windrow/pile. Turning any kind of composting material has
the potential to generate odors. Therefore,
Windrow/pile dimension turning should be moderated any time
The composting mass should be shaped so residential areas or other sensitive receptors
that it has a reasonable surface to mass ratio. (schools, hospitals, churches, office buildings)
If the distance to the center of the pile is too might be impacted.
large, central portions of the pile will not be Turning during the working day is likely to
adequately aerated, and localized areas of generate fewer complaints than turning
anaerobic decomposition may occur. during the evening after most families have
While windrow/pile turning is not the primary returned home. Weekend work in residential
method of aeration, it should be done areas is likely to be risky during the warmer
routinely in order to promote homogenous months.
and efficient material breakdown. Scheduling
of this activity should be done with
consideration of the following factors:

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-23

Season Turning operations during the late summer
The worst odors are generated when grass is and the fall have a lower chance for odor
collected in the spring and early summer. As production than the same operations
the season wears on, incoming grass typically completed during the spring and early
becomes drier and less odorous. summer.

Summary Table 10: Low Odor Production Compost Facility Recommendations

DESIGN ASPECT COMPONENTS
Site Surface Design Pad Surface Slope
• Suitable for quick, efficient leachate outflow and stormwater runoff
• Minimum 1% slope for rigid and durable pavements
•2-5% for gravel, slag, or non-rigid surfaces with daily grading

Site Drainage Design Drainage Conveyance Structures

• Capable of conveying leachate and stormwater runoff to retention pond
without overflow or percolation
• Diversion channels to direct runoff and promote sedimentation removal
• Stabilization of steep grades with geotextiles, vegetation, or rip-rap

Retention Pond Design

• Required at sites larger than 0.5 acres or those with high water tables
• Restrict/control rate of runoff
• Adequate design should reduce quantity and increase quality of runoff

Other Factors Site Location

• Rural or industrial-zoned areas for outdoor technologies to minimize impact
• Away from schools, hospitals, or dense residential sectors

Quantity of Incoming Material

• Too much material can cause insurmountable odor and management
problems
• No more than 5,000 - 8,000 cy/acre/yr
• Establish peak site capacity based on equipment. NEVER exceed peak
capacity-instead, send additional yard clippings to another site.

Compost “Recipe”
• Balance of several factors: C:N ratio; moisture content; pile shape/size;
temperature; oxygen; bulking agents

Composting Technology/Operations
• Tailor system and operating procedure to type and quantity of feedstock

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 5-24

 MICHIGAN COMPOST OPERATOR TRAINING GUIDEBOOK

Best Management Practices

for Composting
Part 3:
Marketing & Finance

Michigan Recycling Coalition

PO Box 10070
Lansing, MI 48901
Phone: 517-974-3672
[email protected]
 Best Management Practices for Composting

6
Facility Financing

Introduction
Composting facilities have become an
integral component of our solid waste Establishing Project Credibility p. 2
management infrastructure. Finding capital
to finance composting facilities, especially Financing Capital Costs p. 5
in light of budget constraints in local Financing Operating Costs p. 9
communities, present both a challenge and Table 1: Financing Sources p. 12
an opportunity for facility developers
whether public or private sector. Table 2: Operating Costs p. 13
Partnerships between the public and
private sectors, in a range of variations,
often result in successful financing
strategies.

In the sections following, this module will

outline several strategies for financing
facility capital and operating costs and help
you determine which one is best suited for
you based on your needs. We will also
address the importance of establishing both
project credibility and public acceptance to
the ultimate success of your project.

The financing tools best suited for you will

depend on a variety of issues, including
level of private and public sector
involvement, size of proposed facility,
support for composting in the community,
public/private partnership possibilities,
public concern about taxation, and the
organizational structure of the compost
operator.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-1

Establishing Project Credibility

The basics of establishing project credibility construction of a successfully operating

vary little between the private sector and facility in a community similar to yours.
public sector. Neither a private
entrepreneur nor a community will be The management team should be: well
convinced to fund a multi-million dollar organized, experienced in working with the
facility that is poorly conceived or public and community officials, and capable
designed. In order to obtain financing for a of selling the project to financiers and the
project, developers should be able to community.
ensure the following elements within their Technical Skills
business plan.
Organic waste streams, composting
technologies and approaches, and climates
5 Key elements of successful operations: differ dramatically from one facility to the
next. Not all technologies are appropriate
1. Developer Credibility in every situation. In order to determine
the most suitable technical approach, it is
2. Political Acceptance
likely that either a formal or informal
3. Technical Soundness feasibility study will be required during the
facility development process.
4. Adequate Revenues
5. Regulatory Approval Realistic Financial Considerations

Whether public or private, even the most

successful projects encounter difficulties
and unanticipated expenses along the way.
Developer Credibility In order to avoid frustration and delay as
A credible project team has experience in much as possible, the Project Team should
designing cost-effective, technically sound carefully review the successes and failures
facilities that produce quality compost. of similar existing facilities. Having a source
When selecting or assembling a project of contingency funds available to meet
team, look for the following elements: unexpected developments should be an
integral part of facility financing.
Management Skills

Compost facility managers have a multi-

faceted job. While they must directly Political Acceptance
manage site operators, technicians and The perfect site for a composting facility (or
laborers, they must also work to satisfy any other solid waste management facility)
customers with quality service and is one far enough from civilization so that
products. The project team should be noise, traffic, and odors will not be
experienced in managing the design and

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-2

disturbing, while close enough to minimize facility must be taken seriously and given
transportation costs to and from the adequate resources if the project is to
facility. In reality, these two criteria are succeed. Technical Soundness means:
usually competing. quality product in a reasonable amount of
time and cost-effective manner, while
Gaining political acceptance of a project minimizing nuisances.
frequently hinges on where you plan to
build the site. Development of a Choice of Technology
composting facility within a community is a
delicate business. The project developer must make every
effort to ensure that their choice is one that
Before financing a composting facility, the can succeed. Existing, successful facilities
project team should seek a letter of support can provide good reference. The industry is
from the host community and the necessary young enough, however, that developers
planning and zoning acceptances. Property should not be overly-biased against new
that will be purchased or leased should also approaches: if successful, they could well
have purchase agreements and lease provide a substantial and competitive
agreements contingent on the availability of advantage.
project financing.
Project Engineer
The most effective strategy is to locate the
site on public land committed to the The project engineer should be registered
project. One way to achieve this is to offer and insured, with experience in designing
a financial benefit, such as a reduced tip fee facilities for communities with similar
or host community fee, to the community needs. This will ensure that the developer
which owns the site. has recourse if the facility is not developed
according to contractual specifications.
Positive community relations means:
Adequate Revenues
• sharing development plans
Many sites, especially those that
• incorporating reasonable criticism
concentrate their efforts on processing yard
• demonstrating care and concern for the
debris, have an uneven flow of revenues
project’s impact on businesses and
throughout the year. These facilities
personal lives
require a cushion of resources in order to
continue year around operation when tip
fees and sales revenues decline in the
Technical Soundness colder months.
Most compost facilities employ the most
basic windrow technologies, and do not Tip Fee Generation
require substantial resources to develop a A consistent flow of revenue can be
technically sound facility. In fact, with generated from tip fees. These fees should
experienced project team members this be at a contractually designated amount for
could happen quite efficiently without a defined period. Most facilities attempt to
elaborate designs and reports. However, cover operating costs and sometimes
the development of a technically sound
Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-3
capital recovery as well through the tip fee like California have very stringent
revenues. Typically, a compost facility relies regulatory approaches while others have
on two sources of revenue: tip fees and little or none. This has the effect of creating
material sales. an earlier demand for composting in many
areas. However, it is likely that states will
Material Sales increasingly move toward some kind of
Startup compost facilities are similar to regulation of composting.
other small businesses. Every effort must Michigan now requires compost facilities be
be made to create adequate cash flow by registered if they produce 7,500 cu yd of
developing long-term contracts at compost or more annually.
predetermined tip fees, ensuring that a
cash cushion is available to carry the Local Requirements
operation through slow months, and that
high value markets for finished product The most important regulatory and
continue to develop. permitting requirements can come at the
local level. Here, regulations can be
The strength of compost markets varies developed to deliberately encourage or
widely between regions directly impede the
for a variety of reasons. development of
Overall, compost is Prospective facility operators composting facilities.
increasingly finding must thoroughly understand Frequently, composters
niches, however, as soil interested in starting a
the regulatory and permitting
amendment, designer site find that local zoning
potting mixes, climate in which they intend to and planning agencies
horticultural growth develop their compost facility have not considered
media, and for specialty composting. Project
applications. developers may
experience a range of reactions based on
Regulatory Approval local folklore about the effects of
The regulatory requirements placed on composting sites.
compost facilities vary dramatically from
state to state and are based on the types of Prospective facility operators must
materials being composted. Similarly, thoroughly understand the regulatory and
public opinion of composting fluctuates permitting climate in which they intend to
between active support and shrill develop their compost facility. Some areas
opposition. A clear understanding of the might well impose requirements that are
legal requirements and an open, honest too burdensome for successful project
approach to gaining approvals are essential implementation. Even where regulations
to the success of a facility. appear conducive to facility development,
care should be taken to preserve good
State Requirements community relations and influence the
regulatory climate to make it more
The degree of regulation by state
favorable to composting.
governments varies widely. Some states

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-4

Financing Capital Costs
This section provides compost The major disadvantage is the potential
entrepreneurs ways to identify appropriate difficulty in obtaining public approval for
funding sources. It is not intended to the fee. However, the fee and the solid
provide an in depth education but to briefly waste service should be perceived as
summarize each approach to developing connected and, if distributed according to
sources of capital to assists the user in benefit accrued, this mechanism may create
determining an appropriate approach. an incentive for waste reduction or material
recovery. This approach is best suited to
For quick reference, Table 1, at the end, small, cohesive communities that perceive
summarizes the advantages and composting as beneficial and worthy of
disadvantages of each type. public funding.
Solid Waste Management Fees
To fund publicly-owned solid waste projects Fees can be assessed several ways:
like composting facilities, public agencies
may levy a solid waste management fee on
• A flat charge for each residence or
all persons owning property and benefiting
building
from waste collection service or a disposal
• By weight or volume of the refuse
facility. The public agency may use these
received
fees to pay for the cost of solid waste
• By average number of containers or
management facilities, for the operation
bags of refuse received
and maintenance of facilities, and for the
• Relative difficulty of collection or
payment of principal and interest on
management of received solid waste
bonds.
• Other criteria unique to the client
A fee established by a public vote creates a
In some cases, a public notice and a public hearing
strong source of revenues and usually is required prior to establishing these fees.
results in a more favorable credit rating.

Variable fees are the most equitable type of

fee, since costs are based on the amount of Tax Levy
service provided. Variable fees can also be Within some public agencies such as an Act
based on the difficulty in providing the 185 County Department of Public Works or
service (e.g., distance of property to the an Act 179 or 245 Solid Waste Authority,
facility). Flat fees, while that are equally the public agency may impose special taxes
distributed among taxpayers may not for the purpose of providing solid waste
necessarily represent the most equitable management services to residents within a
distribution among those receiving solid specified jurisdiction. These services are
waste services. increasingly being viewed as including
organic material recovery through

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-5

composting. Although this power may vary Bond Financing
based on local conditions depending on Two types of bonds may be issued by a
property taxation limitations and other public agency: general obligation bonds and
factors, some degree of tax levy is usually revenue bonds. Generally, bond financed
possible. In any case, without the financial capital facilities must either accept public
protection of flow control for a public bids for the facility or adopt a resolution
facility, double-barreled bond issues (tax approving a request for proposals.
backup plus revenues) may be necessary if
this approach is used in financing compost General obligation bonds are issued against
facilities. Flow control uses regulatory or the assurance of the financial stability of
economic means to direct materials to a the state, city, or public agency issuing the
designated facility. Regulatory flow control bond. Each entity has a limit on the amount
has been successfully challenged as of debt that it can incur. The issuing body
unconstitutional and is not considered a may levy a special property tax to fund the
viable means of ensuring supply. issue of waste management district bonds
Communities may still employ economic for the payment of facility costs. These
flow control, offering favorable tip fees to bonds are special obligations of the city,
attract materials to a desired facility state or public agency, not a corporate
obligation or indebtedness of the units
A tax levy provides a very predictable comprising the bonding authority.
revenue stream for program financing. As Proceeds from the sale of the general
such, it is well-suited for longer term costs obligation bonds must be kept as a separate
such as debt retirement. and specific fund to pay the cost of the
facilities or services.
A tax levy carries with it certain
disadvantages as well, especially when used Revenue bonds are special obligations of
to cover program or facility operating the public agency and are payable only
costs. Put another way, tax-based systems from pledged facility revenues. A city, state
remove consumer choice from the funding or public agency may borrow money and
mechanism. Additionally, it can be the issue revenue bonds. Revenue bonds are
cause of the second major problem with funded based on the strength of potential
tax-based systems: public acceptance. income streams generated by the
infrastructure project. The revenues may
Tax-funded public services have become
include monthly user fees, disposal fees, or
politically unpopular in many places of the
revenues from sale of materials.
United States, an anathema to the meaning
of good government, regardless of the All bonds, bond anticipation notes and
quality of the service being provided. As interest, and securities issued in connection
with the agency fee system, public with financing of solid waste management
acceptance must be cultivated and the facilities are tax-exempt, as are revenues
provision of services carefully matched with received by the city, state or public agency
implementation of the tax collection governing authorities.
mechanism.
Backed by tax revenues, bonds are the most
secure type of tax-exempt financing. The

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-6

market acknowledges this in pricing such Agency Funds
debt, with lower interest cost than revenue Public service organizations, whether
bonds of the same rating. county, city or public agency, will have
access to ongoing agency funds from their
The service provider can usually provide
annual operations. Larger operations will
additional credit support through
have an equipment-capital replacement line
construction, performance and operating
item in their budget and an annual capital
guarantee, and the governmental body will
appropriation mechanism that guides long-
provide “put or pay” contracts. These
term capitalization and capital
contracts commit the county to guarantee
replacement.
delivery of a minimum tonnage of solid
waste and pay a tipping fee whether or not Advances from other fund reserves in the
the guaranteed waste is delivered and the system can be the source of capital that is
facility is operating. replaced through the capital replacement
payments in that year's budget. New
Lease Financing
capital acquisitions, if timed correctly or if
Capital purchases can also be funded small enough in size, can be fit into this
through lease financing. This method is system.
frequently used to purchase either fixed
equipment to be installed in the facility or This type of funding allows local
rolling stock equipment, such as forklift, governments to enter the composting
wheel loader, containers, collection business and works well with publicly-
vehicles, or windrow turners. The term funded, privately-operated facilities.
“lease” is typically for a shorter period Assistance from the public sector can make
(three to five years) than bond finance private responsibility for composting a
arrangements, and the cost of financing is reality in a community. Operating
typically higher. In many cases, however, improvements, such as truck purchases,
the security on the lease is provided by the drop-off station equipment, building
equipment itself. modifications or processing equipment, can
be handled through an agency funding
Lease financing of equipment is most useful approach if there is a large enough public
when other capital financing approaches organization already in place. Many
are not available. However, costs of lease counties with large public works
financing are high because shortened terms departments in place may find this
require that capitalization be recovered extremely useful.
over a shorter period. The cost of lease
financing prevents it from being used as an Grant and Loan Opportunities
ongoing capitalization strategy. It can, Many states have developed solid waste
however, be a useful approach for small management funds, grants and loans, and
equipment purchases between major outright subsidies for waste reduction,
capital projects or as a means for recovery, and management initiatives.
“bootstrapping” a project in its infancy These programs were created to focus
when there are few other alternatives for economic development efforts on
capitalization. integrated solid waste programming. In

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-7

many projects, inexpensive loan financing quantity than public-sector funding, unlike a
makes a project possible. Careful attention large public sector bond issue.
to the rules of such funding programs
should be paid in order to distinguish the Perceived lack of public sector control is
general eligibility of composting facility often the most common argument against
development. Many economic private sector project capitalization. There
development loans are offered at interest are ways to introduce some control,
rates equal to or below the prime rate. however, through licensing, contracts, and
flow control. The use of private sector
The obvious advantage of grants or public financing does inevitably bring with it the
sector loans is that they lower overall risk of abandonment as private sector firms
project costs. Loans, while requiring a may go out of business or pursue other
payback, may still be advantageous at a five more lucrative markets.
percent interest rate. There are drawbacks
to a grant program, foremost among them
future funding uncertainty. In addition, the
timing of grant application, award and
receipt of funds can disrupt project
development. The effect of any waiting
period on reaching program goals must be
weighed.

Private Sector Equity and Bank Financing

The public sector can leverage significant

investment in solid waste facilities and
services from the private sector. Public-
sector leveraging can take the form of
capitalization through equity contributions,
cash reserves from larger private firms, or
bank financing allotted to private firms

The public sector may take steps to guide,

encourage and control this investment
through licensing, goal setting and
economic flow control. Private sector financing has an element of
uncertainty and unpredictability.
Private financing avoids placing an Contingencies include a binding public
administrative or tax burden directly on the sector contract that provides appropriate
county (ies) or local units. Such financing guarantees and remedies should private
can often be implemented more quickly financing fall through. This is one of the
since the approval process may be much main reasons that reliance on private sector
simpler. As well, private sector financing financing is typically matched with suitable
also offers more flexibility in timing and contractual commitments as required by
the public sector.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-8

Financing Operating Costs
Operating costs are typically funded help to subsidize total compost facility
through a combination of operating costs.
revenues. The following section briefly
summarizes each approach to developing Once composting facility operations are
sources of operating revenue and assists underway, sometimes higher landfill tipping
the user in determining whether a given fees can be established to encourage use of
approach is appropriate. the new facilities. One advantage to tipping
fees is that they equitably apply to all
For quick reference, Table 2, summarizes facility users. They can also be easily
the advantages and disadvantages of each increased or decreased to cover costs. In
type. It also provides the names of contacts the absence of flow control, a disadvantage
with experience in the use of the fee. is that fluctuations in the market may result
in haulers using other facilities with lower
Facility Tipping Fees tipping fees. As a result, revenues cannot
Facility tipping fees, paid at the gate of a always be easily predicted. In the presence
compost processing facility, are the most of flow control, haulers have complained
common method used in other sectors of that tipping fees are higher than those of
the solid waste and material recovery competing facilities.
industry to cover costs of operation.
Facility tip fees…
Variable or differential tip fees are used to
allocate accurately the cost of processing • are the most common form of
each material. For instance, tip fee operating revenue
surcharges may be assessed against • should be set lower than rates charged
materials requiring additional processing, for other forms of disposal
e.g., bagged materials. Where possible, this • can be collected on the basis of weight
type of economic incentive provides the or volume
operator with an excellent opportunity to
use best management practices (i.e., to
achieve quicker material degradation or
higher quality product) on a consistent
basis.

Tipping fees are used in many composting

facilities. Differential tipping fees can offset
costs and encourage material recovery.
Additionally, where service programs are
linked, for instance a compost facility at a
landfill, tipping fees can be used for cross-
Scalehouse and scales at BVSWMA landfill
subsidization. If recovery is to be entrance College Station, TX.
encouraged, a landfill tip fee surcharge can

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-9

Collection Fees based on the amount of waste placed for
This funding mechanism is presently used collection. The recycling service, however,
by many refuse haulers to cover both is provided as an add-on service that does
collection and disposal costs. It is also used not increase the fees if more recyclables are
as a method for funding composting set out. This approach rewards recycling
collection and processing services to behavior while increasing costs when they
businesses, multi-family complexes and put more trash out.
households.
Landfill Tipping Fee Surcharge
Under a standard subscription service, all Communities that own or host a site may
users pay the same fee for collection consider levying a surcharge to landfill
services. This easily administered approach tipping fees to align fees with true disposal
has the advantage that revenues can be costs, raise funds, and provide a negative
simply and accurately predicted. However, incentive for disposal.
this type of fee provides no economic
incentive to recycle or reduce organic waste A local surcharge offers an effective method
production. for capturing the avoided cost benefits that
are realized in future years – such as rising
A variable rate fee disposal costs – or to
structure is another type finance start-up and large
of collection fee system Collection fees are usually capital investment costs.
commonly used. These established in the form of A surcharge is also a good
systems allow the user to
pay for refuse collection a periodic subscription means of supplementing
proportional to his or her operations of recovery
service. efforts throughout an
actual use. Variable rate
structures should be entire community. As
encouraged whenever such, the operation of
possible if collection fees are to be used as compost facility would not be substantially
a major funding source for composting dependent on this means of funding.
facility operations. Instead, funding from a surcharge could be
used to do extra things like fund special
Among the advantages of this system is that equipment, create education/ promotional
it offers an equitable charge based on the programs, and develop markets for
volume of material generated and composting. Facilities entirely dependent
encourages organic recycling when the rate on this mode of funding suffer in the long
structure has lower charges (or no charge) run as resources dwindle.
for recyclables. The primary disadvantage is
that it costs more to administer. Local tipping fee surcharges may be legally
challenged that are imposed by local
Bundling of collection fees is a good way of legislation and if private landfills do not
guaranteeing user participation. Under this contractually agree to participate. Local
approach, the costs for the recycling and surcharges are generally negotiated with
yard waste collection are bundled into a the landfill operator in exchange for public
single collection fee. The bundled fee is

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-10

sector support of the facility and as part of some compost-based products in different
a broader host community agreement. areas around the country lend credence to
the claims that market revenues will
Another disadvantage arises because a eventually be a considerable source of cash
steadily increasing rate of waste stream flow.
diversion, composting, and source
reduction results in a steadily decreasing Material sales provide the operator with an
revenue stream. Thus, if composting additional source of revenue to go along
activities are financially dependent on the with tip fees or collection fees. Sales are
surcharge as a major revenue source, they directly related to the facility’s success in
can be financially encumbered by their own efficiently composting its incoming
success. organics. Strong material sales revenues
create strong incentives for the operators
Some of the collected revenues should be to continue to be good operators.
directed to benefit community members
directly. Tax reductions, general fund Materials revenues are a good funding
subsidies, or special project funding could source for operating costs, but the
all be considered. Tipping fee surcharges variability of markets means that no facility
can be used: to compensate communities should consider them a sole, or even
for road use, odor problems, etc. to primary, source of revenue. Because supply
discourage disposal and encourage recovery and demand fluctuate widely, it is difficult
and recycling efforts to accurately predict prices and therefore
difficult to predict the revenues to be
available. Eventually, revenue streams
from the sale of materials will become more
stable and predictable.

Bagged compost is ready for retail sales labeling

and quality assurance stickers or for wholesale
to a retail outlet that will apply its own label.

Material Sales
Material sales are another cash revenue
stream that can be used to offset costs.
Bulk sales may make up the largest portion of your
In general, markets for composted organics business.
are becoming stronger. The successes of

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-11

Table 1: Comparison of Financing Sources for Facility Capital

Source Advantages Disadvantages Contacts

Solid Waste Public support creates a Costs may not be equitably County or District Solid Waste
Management Fees mandate for development divided between system users Coordinators

Costs are equally distributed Public approval is difficult to BPW, City or County Councils
get

District Tax Levies Can be used in conjunction Allocation of tax is not based County or District Solid Waste
with bond issue on facility usage Coordinators

Predictable stream of revenue Reduces the leverage of BPW, City or County Councils
consumer choice

Require a tax increase

Bond Financing Bonds issued by City, state or Bond payments need to be Bond counsel to cities, states,
districts are tax exempt regular or districts

Extremely secure and Repayment often requires Small business assistance

predictable financing means “put or pay” contracts agencies

Lease Financing Easier to qualify Limited to “lease-able” Equipment manufacturers and

equipment representatives
Equipment can be its own
security High financing costs Credit agencies

Lease can be arranged quickly Small business assistance

agencies

Agency Funds No cost of funds Major facilities could take City Manager, County
years to fully fund Executive, and Solid Waste
Expenditures can be planned Coordinators
in budget cycle Inaccessible to private sector

Sometime capital reserves can Threatened by budget

be tapped cutbacks

Public Grants and Low or no cost funding Uncertainty of funding State DNR, Commerce, and
Loans EPA officials
Provide good seed for other Timing of grants is usually
sources longer State legislators

Elaborate rules for grants limit Solid waste consultants

fund uses

Private Equity and Unlimited and immediate Financing is risk-averse Local bankers
Bank Financing funds for attractive projects
Management interference Venture capitalists
Management assistance from from financiers Private investor services
financiers
Small business assistance
Reduces tax burden agencies

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-12

Table 2: Comparison of Financing Sources for Operating Costs

Source Advantages Disadvantages Contacts

Facility Tipping Fees Common, well understood Fluctuations in markets County solid waste
means of collecting revenue may tip fees to rise and fall coordinators and planners

Can easily be used to create In the absence of flow State DNR and EPA
incentives for recovery control, revenues are regulators
unpredictable
Differential tip fees are a fair
way to allocate costs

Collection Fees Common, well understood Costs more to administrate Local solid waste haulers
means of collecting revenue
When fees are poorly
Can easily be used to create applied, costs of
incentives for recovery composting can be
misrepresented

Landfill Surcharges Can be contractually Illegal for public sector to Privately owned landfills
negotiated as part of permit or impose on private landfills
support process Publicly owned landfills
Steadily increasing rates of
Effective means of capturing landfill diversion reduces
future year benefits revenue stream

Material Sales Revenues are proportional to Lack of market awareness State and national EPA,
size of facility reduces current sales Departments of Agriculture
Natural Resources, and
Strengthening markets bode Strength of market varies Commerce
well for economic strength of regionally
facilities Land grant universities

•Composting Council
Soil and Bark Producers
Assoc.
National Recycling Coalition,
National Solid Waste
Management Assoc.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 6-13

 Best Management Practices for Composting

7 Compost Marketing:
Concepts & Tools

To produce compost that meets consumer compost are appropriate for specific uses.
expectation, it is essential to ascertain the In all cases, the compost operator must
potential buyers’ requirements for quality concentrate on delivery of a consistently
and quantity when designing the facility. high quality product that is available in
Attention to in­coming material, reliable quantities.
procedures, and adequate curing will ensure
consistently high quality compost. Benefits of Compost p. 2
Compost Market Planning p. 2
A good marketing strategy must Product Quality Standards & Control p. 6
demonstrate the benefits of and Compost Characteristics p. 9
applications for compost to compete Market Sectors p.10
Matching Process to Market Specs p. 11
successfully with other soil products. While
Promotion and Distribution p. 16
compost imparts a broad range of benefits
to soil and plants, different grades of

Good marketing will include a variety of ways that will attract the attention of the consumer.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-1

Benefits of Compost
Compost is best known for its soil Mature, properly produced compost has
enrichment value. The addition of compost also been gaining recognition for its ability
improves the physical, chemical and to absorb odors, bind contaminants from
biological properties of soils and potting polluted water and soil, control erosion and
mixes. The use of compost for plant growth degrade toxic chemicals. Between
purposes requires consideration of factors increased research on the benefits of
such as the crop or plant to be grown, type compost as a growth media and interest in
of soil at the site, and specific compost its use in bioremediation, the future for
characteristics. Benefits of compost as a compost markets is promising.
growing media are included in Table 1.

Table 1: Benefits of compost

Physical: •Decreases bulk density, • Improves soil structure and
reduces compaction, allows increases water holding
better root penetration capacity
• Darkens soil and increases • Improves drought tolerance • Reduces soil erosion
heat absorption
Chemical: • Slowly releases nutrients • Reduces fertilizer needs by
up to 50 %
• Good source of micro • Increases cation exchange • Buffers soil pH
nutrients capacity which enables soil to
hold nutrients more strongly
and resist leaching
Biological: • Increases microbial activity • Good source of micro
in soil, releasing nutrients nutrients
from organic matter
• Increases plant survival rate • Strengthens plant resistance • Produces higher crop yields
and growth to parasites
• Buffers soil pH • Can reduce soilborne plant • Plants develop thicker and
diseases more active root systems in a
short period of time.

Compost Market Planning

Composting should be approached as the material, rather than disposal of a waste.

production of a revenue-generating organic The shift in focus toward revenue

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-2

generation will affect the quality of the using compost incorrectly. New research
finished product and the way customers and field experience is rapidly expanding
view compost, resulting in higher demand our understanding of compost properties
for the product. Efforts spent in planning to and the ways it can work.
produce a quality compost from the start
will pay off in returning customers. Identify the people and institutions your
potential customers trust for advice
Basic marketing strategy and steps: regarding new soil products. Develop a
relationship with researchers and extension
1. Understand compost attributes agents at the colleges and universities in
your area. Extension agents work regularly
2. Assess volumes and sources of
with growers and equipment manufacturers
compostables
and are well educated with regard to
scientific research. The list may also include
3. Identify market sectors in your region
researchers, product distributors, journals,
and conferences where the industry gathers
4. Survey organic soil product consumers
to look at new products and discuss ideas.
5. Identify processing needs
Assess Quantity of Available
Compostables
6. Analyze cost/benefit markets trade-offs
The total quantity of compost produced will
7. Follow your plan affect marketing options, as well as facility
sizing and design. Growers may decline to
8. Evaluate results and modify plan try compost because sufficient quantities
might not be available to meet the needs
Repeat as needed their whole operation.

To determine the annual volume of

Understand Compost compost that will be produced, municipal
If you aren’t already well-versed in the managers should estimate the volume of
organics industry, DO YOUR HOMEWORK! compostables generated within their
Specific attributes of compost make it political boundaries. From this figure, the
similar to, and therefore a potential amount of finished compost can be
replacement for some competing soil calculated, which is roughly one-fifth of
products. generated compostables. Private compost
operators may have a more complex
Compost also offers unique benefits; decision regarding the sizing of their
however, negative effects can result from facility.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-3

 Compost Market Planning

Explore regional markets Consider markets within a 50-mile radius of

the composting facility. With a low value in
The full spectrum of compost market relation to weight, transporting soil
sectors should be considered. Because products beyond this range is rarely cost
actual markets for compost vary widely effective, even in wholesale quantities.
from one community to the next, an
assessment of the organics industry in your Survey consumers
region is essential to understand the
potential for compost use in your locality. When choosing an organic product, buyers
look for particular effects such as quick
drainage, low weight, durability, or dark
Prospective market sectors color. By focusing on a grower's objectives,
• Landscaping compost producers can gear their product
• Sports Turf to meet those needs, or decide to market
• Home Gardening the compost to one they can meet.
• Nursery/greenhouse
• Agriculture (fiber, food, sod, Soil amendment buyers also examine
forestry) service factors such as availability, bulk
• New Uses purchase pricing, pickup options, storage
• Soil blenders and brokers and delivery services.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-4

A market survey can help identify potential Analyze trade-offs
users of compost products, level of The extra expense required to meet quality
demand, price paid for similar products, standards of a higher value market should
desired qualities, location, peak demand be analyzed thoroughly. Estimate the profit
months, purchase terms and delivery margin for each sector, taking into account
conditions. Listed below are five key the extra costs you would incur in meeting
questions for representatives of market specifications. Consider the advantages and
sectors. disadvantages of finding one buyer for the
majority of your compost or of contracting
Key Questions for Potential Users out the marketing of your product.
• Do you purchase soil products?
(topsoil, peat, etc.) Marketing compost requires specialized
knowledge, skills, industry contacts and
• What are important attributes in
time. As the amount and variety of
determining product use?
compost in the marketplace increases with
• How much does your operation
new compost facilities coming on-line,
consume annually?
competition for buyers can be expected to
• What is the cost per cubic yard for soil
increase. On the other hand, potential
products?
markets become more familiar and
• What packaging, delivery, storage,
comfortable with compost with use.
payment options are important?
Companies that control a big share of the
organics market often hire customer service
Get to know the needs of potential users of staff. Their role is to educate consumers on
compost in your area before choosing the proper use of the product and ensure
where to focus precious marketing dollars. that last year’s product performed
Keep an eye on similar products available to satisfactorily and to know ahead of time
buyers and look for marketing what custom processing or refinements
opportunities. must be done for next year’s product to
keep up with the changing needs of their
Identify processing needs repeat customers.
Raw materials influence the physical and
chemical properties of compost. Yard Follow your plan
clippings alone tend to produce a compost Once you have surveyed your regional
with lower nutrient levels than food waste options and designed a marketing plan, give
and animal manures. High rate aerobic it time to succeed. Fits and starts and
composting will prevent sour, low pH or changing direction will not yield results as
odorous finished products. Removal of quickly as persevering with a well designed
visible manmade contaminants is essential plan.
for most markets, and requires control of
incoming feedstock and screening
equipment. Complete curing requires
storage space.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-5

 Evaluate results
Systematic monitoring of your marketing
strategy will reveal its effectiveness. If no
one makes it their job to inquire about
customer satisfaction, you cannot be
certain whether or not they were pleased
with the product.

Product Quality Standards and Control

Why have standards? phytotoxicity due to lack of maturity, odor
Standards define a material in a way that and other properties
allows consumers to match the product
with their needs. Standards let consumers Curing takes from one to six months,
shop for value and purchase product with depending on complexity of the feedstock
known characteristics that produce a and efficiency of the composting process.
desired effect. User needs tend to be The curing stage eliminates phytotoxins
specific; no single standard of quality is (poisonous to plants), and kills weed seeds
universally accepted. However, the and pathogens. Mature compost is a dark
Michigan Recycling Coalition and brown humic material which degrades at a
Composting Council, and the National much slower rate. The degree of maturity
Composting Council continue to refine can be measured through lab tests or
compost standards, test methods, and user estimated by compost reactions in the
guidelines. field.

Compost Quality Issues All compost products are not created

equal.
Compost quality is enhanced by curingafter
stabilization. Compost is cured when readily Finished compost can vary significantly in
metabolized material has been consumed chemical attributes like pH and soluble salt
by the microbes. Biological activity drops to content, and in physical qualities like
a low level, as indicated by failure of the particle size, color and bulk density. These
pile to re-heat and low oxygen demand differences can result from variance in the
indicates that moisture and aeration needs initial recipe mix, feedstock characteristics,
are met. processing methods, refining steps, and
additives.
Compost quality is a function of many
variables, including appearance, pH, Although native soils buffer crops to some
organic matter and nutrient content, extent from variations in pH and other
parameters, container-grown plants are

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-6

more susceptible. Commercial growers • Total N, P, K
raise high-value crops and can ill-afford o Calcium
even small failures due to poorly o Magnesium
formulated growing media. Although its o Sodium
capacity for storing plant nutrients is o Zinc
enormous, compost is not a magical o Manganese
treatment for every plant. o Copper
o Iron
Understanding and effectively o Boron
communicating the properties and capacity o Aluminum
of your product(s) will ensure their proper o Molybdenum
application and overall success in the field. • Chloride
• Sulfate
Testing • Foreign matter content
• Pathogens (Fecal coliforms and
Part 115, Solid Waste Management, of the Salmonella sp.), if manures were
Natural Resources and Environmental composted
Protection Act, 1994 PA 451, as amended, • Maturity test (i.e. Solvita Test)
requires that composting facilities maintain
records that demonstrate that the
composting is being done in a manner that Soil Blending
prevents nuisances and minimizes Soil blenders often add ingredients to soil
anaerobic conditions. Included in the products to adjust attributes such as pH,
records that must be kept is the color, or nutrient value as needed by
requirement to perform testing on the customers for specific applications.
Possible additives include:
finished product. This ensures that the
composting process has been completed Table 1. Additives used in Soil Blending
and that the end user understands what the
Additive Source Objective
finished compost contains and how to use Ammonium chemical increases
it. Each pile or mix design should have a sulfate fertilizer nitrogen
sample tested, on a yearly basis. The content
Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) Bone meal bones increases
suggests that the finished compost be phosphorus,
tested for the parameters listed below, at a pH
Ferric chemical salt lowers pH,
minimum.
sulfate darkens color,
adds iron
• Ph Peat partly holds water;
• Carbon to Nitrogen (C:N) ratio decayed decreases ship
• Electrical Conductivity (i.e. soluble vegetation weight
salts) Perlite volcanic ash Increases
• Total nutrient analysis

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-7

 aeration, falls within the acceptable ranges for all test
drainage items.
Sulfur element lowers salinity,
pH STA participants will:

When adding amendments to compost, it is • Regularly sample and test compost

important to measure and mix well for a products based on production volumes
homogeneous product. Specialized • Complete test analyses for the compost
equipment for metering and blending is properties listed below and simply
advisable. report
o screen size
Work hard at making a consistent product. o pH
Higher quality won’t attract customers if o soluble salts
they cannot depend on it with every o nutrient content (total N, P2O5,
purchase. A container nursery operator will K2O, Ca, Mg)
be less forgiving of product deviations than o moisture content
some other buyers, because the crop at risk o organic matter content
is so vulnerable and valuable. o bioassay (maturity)
o stability (respirometry)
Products that compete with compost sales o particle size (report only)
include: Peat moss, reed-sedge peat, o pathogen (Fecal Coliform or
sphagnum peat; manufactured or blended Salmonella)
topsoil; and composted animal manures o trace metals (Part 503 regulated
(bagged). metals)

• Use USCC approved laboratories to

MDOT standards
carry out product analyses
The Michigan Department of • Provide lab results to USCC as
Transportation (MDOT) in partnership with prescribed
the Michigan Recycling Coalition and • Make test results readily available and
Composting Council (MCC) developed a provide a “Compost Technical Data
special provision that sets forth Sheet” to buyers which includes
requirements for compost used in MDOT directions for product use, a list of
projects. See the Resources section for a ingredients and test results
copy of this provision. Compost producers • Assure that the facility and product is in
who wish to have their product considered compliance with all state and federal
for use in MDOT projects must be enrolled regulations
and fully compliant members of the US • Have the right to use the Seal of Testing
Composting Council Seal of Testing Assurance logo on products in
Assurance (STA) program and provide test compliance with the program
results to the Michigan Department of
Transportation to certify that their compost

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-8

 Compost Characteristics
Quality, stability, consistency, availability, Table 1. Typical ranges of test parameters in
and price are key elements in marketing quality compost
finished compost as a valuable product.
Test Parameter Range
Not only do consumers need to be aware
that these attributes are present, but the pH 6.8-7.3
they also need to be able to rely on them Soluble Salts 0.35-0.64 dS/m
being there with every purchase. (mmhos/cm)

Quality can be established by analytical (1:5 v/v method)

testing and demonstration plots.
Nitrogen 1.0-2.0%
Demonstrations are particularly effective if
planted and maintained by someone other Phosphorus 0.6-0.9%
than the compost operator. Potassium 0.2-0.5%
Moisture Content 45-50%
Analytical testing is essential to verify your
compost product attributes and also to Organic Matter 35-45%
ensure worker safety, avoid environmental Particle Size passes 3/8" screen
degradation, and maintain a viable compost Bulk Density 900-1,000 lbs/yd3
process. Producers often forego testing
Source: http://ohioline.osu.edu/anr-
because it’s costly or they are uncertain as
fact/0015.html
to what parameters to test and what those
results mean. But testing is an important
Additional quality factors include:
investment in the process and the end
Characteristics of both physical and
product and provides a wealth of
chemical properties concern consumers.
information.
Physical Characteristics
The main purpose of testing compost is to
determine the concentrations of • Particle size
components and characteristics of the • Odor
compost so that an evaluation of its quality • Color
can be made. Knowledge of a compost's • Contaminants
quality enables it to be used responsibly.
The chemical and physical characteristics of Biological/chemical characteristics
compost depends on the feedstock. Since • Nutrients (N, P, K)
the characteristics of compost can vary • pH
greatly, tests have been developed to • Stability
measure various important parameters of
• Organic compounds, pesticides,
the compost. Parameters that are typically
herbicides
measured are shown in Table 1 below.
• Pathogens
• C:N ratio (optimal: 10:1 to 20:1)

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-9

Stability is essential if customers are to organic matter content, much is lost from
return for additional purchases. If compost stockpiling compost after it is fully mature.
produces odors or harms vegetation in any
way, a poor reputation will result for the The shelf life of compost from yard
compost operator. clippings is estimated at two to five years
in Michigan’s climate. After this amount of
Consistency of both product quality and time compost will reduce to little more
supply are of particular importance when than a mineral soil. The natural process of
selling to professionals who need large mineralization causes organic forms of
volumes on a regular basis. Inconsistency nutrients, such as nitrogen, to convert to
or lack of product at a crucial time can an inorganic form. This occurs over time
result in lost business. as mature compost sits and at a higher
rate in hot climates, both moist and dry.
Price of compost must be comparable to
compost sold at nearby facilities. It is also Because of the limited shelf life of compost,
important to compare compost prices with operators should store mature compost
the price of comparable materials such as only for good reasons (for spring buyers)
peat moss and topsoil. and, if unavoidable, store finished compost
for 6 to 9 months in large piles to minimize
Compost has a limited shelf life. loss of nutrients and organic matter. Part
Unlike antique furniture or durable goods 115 Solid Waste Regulations limit storage of
that increase or maintain their value as materials for more than three years in most
years go by, compost is a perishable cases and limit volumes to no more than
product with a limited shelf life. Since the 5,000 cubic yards on any acre.
benefits of compost are derived from its

Market Sectors

Compost users can be grouped into six For example: If an operator wanted to
categories, each with their own application target golf courses, it would be necessary to
quality. Compost operators must become find out what characteristics are important
familiar with the specific applications, in material used for the various turf
needs and concerns of the market sectors requirements of a golf course. Compost
they are targeting. In this way, decisions used in the construction and maintenance
made throughout the entire composting of golf greens would have different
process will work together to produce a characteristics than that used for fairways.
final product that is suitable, even superior,
for that market. Market sectors and the relative volume,
quality and pricing are included in Table 2.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-10

Table 2 Compost market sectors Compost Uses
Compost is used for a multitude of
Sector Quality Volume Pricing
purposes, some of which are specific to a
Landscaping Medium Medium Medium
market sector, while others overlap. Some
general uses include:
Sports Turf High Medium High
• Turf establishment (sod, lawns)
Home Medium Medium Medium
• Erosion control
Horticulture
• Greenhouse potting mixes
• Golf course construction,
Nursery/ High Medium High
topdressing
greenhouse
• Stormwater filter material
Agriculture Medium Large Low
• Final landfill cover
• Biofilter for odor control
New Uses High Variable Variable
Agricultural usage of compost could
potentially be a very large market, however,
low profit margins drive down the price for
compost sold for agricultural purposes.
Exceptions to this trend are specialty crops
with high value such as berries, herbs,
certified organic crops and even sod, where
higher prices for compost can be obtained.

Matching Process to Market

Specifications
Assess capabilities and costs of your market research to identify target markets,
facility decisions regarding feedstock volumes,
quality and processing will be based on the
Compost quality is a function of feedstock results of that research. In addition,
composition and effectiveness of the purchase of specialized equipment may be
processing operation. By conducting necessary in order to produce a finished

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-11

product that is acceptable to the target available form than with leaves. Compost
market. made from leaves only (leaf humus) differs
from leaf/grass compost and from woody
How much compost will you produce compost. High percentages of grass raises
annually? the pH of finished compost. The organic
matter content of wood-based compost has
Rule of thumb: longer durability due to the slow
breakdown of lignin and cellulose.
20% of incoming volume (cubic yd)
Add equipment, staff, space or supplies to
OR make a better product. Flexibility in the
production process, such as different size
Volume In ÷ 5 screens, allows the facility to accommodate
a wider range of consumer needs.

Screening removes contaminants and

What does it cost to produce compost for
oversize compostables, resulting in a
a target market?
cleaner product with uniform particle size.
The production of compost to meet the Screening compost costs about $2 per cubic
needs of a high-value market calls for yard, but can increase its value from the $6-
rigorous quality control. Additional 8/cy range to $12-20 [H. Hoitink, BioCycle]
equipment to grind or shred incoming The moisture content of compost has a big
material or screen the final product is impact on the effectiveness of screening
necessary, as well as market. equipment; optimum is 40-45%; less
creates dust and more clogs the screen.
Formula to estimate production costs per
yard of compost produced: [(Amortized Active composting has a natural drying
capital) + (Annual op. cost)] ÷ effect over time, but it is difficult in
Michigan’s comparatively wet climate to
(Est. cy finished compost/yr) = achieve correct moisture content on
schedule without controlling precipitation.
$__ /cy To guarantee the ability to screen compost
prior to spring sales, a facility may need a
What feedstocks does the site take in? covered drying area. A roofed, possibly
enclosed area where compost can cure
A carbon to nitrogen ratio of 25:1-35:1 is
protected from precipitation, or be spread
ideal for composting without producing
out in order to dry as quickly as possible.
ammonia odors. To achieve this ratio,
Translucent roofing material allows sunlight
roughly twice the volume of leaves
through and aeration provided by blowers
(wintered over) to grass must be available
can speed the drying process.
whenever forming a windrow.
A curing area is very important for quality
Wood chips add structure and carbon to the
assurance, and should be sized to allow
pile, though the carbon is in a less readily
finished compost to be stored for a

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-12

minimum of one month. Curing piles use Quality begins with raw materials that have
less space per cubic yard than windrowsA minimal impurities when the generator puts
shipping, receiving and distribution area yard clippings at the curb. Collection
would include a loading ramp, enclosed equipment, public education program and
bays, traffic access and parking, storage for gate inspection policies and practices all
bags, containers, tools, boxes, pallets, push contribute to ensuring that the compost
wall, scales and office. facility will receive clean feedstocks.

An ongoing program to inform haulers

Compost Process about exactly what is acceptable at the
Organic materials that are composted can facility and the penalties for violating these
result in a variety of products because of requirements must be implemented. To
different feedstocks, processing techniques maintain quality standards at the gate, the
and management controls. Composting operator needs a good inspection program,
facilities have typically been governed by requires anactive gate attendant and a
the incoming materials or “waste” stream, staging area large enough to dump and
with managers pressured to move large inspect loads as received. Maintaining
volumes of material through the process as records of haulers using the facility,
fast as possible at the including the date,
lowest possible cost in amount and origin of
One bad experience with each load, enables bad
equipment, land and
labor. While the compost can cause a loads to be traced.
conditions for microbes consumer to consider all
can be optimized to Upgrading finished
composts to be poor. compost
speed up the
decomposition process, Finishing activities can
the necessary time to produce a mature include curing, refining, screening,
compost is often shortchanged. This results amending, storing, vehicle loading,
in an unfinished product with a lower packaging, and/or shipping. Each activity
quality. Low quality products can tarnish requires space for storage of equipment
consumer confidence in compost products. and compost. Equipment such as
One bad experience with compost can screeners, shredders, mixers and baggers
cause a consumer to consider all composts are used by some compost operators to
to be poor. upgrade their final product. Although some
of this equipment is quite expensive,
Target uses must govern process operators that process large volumes of
decisions compost may find them a worthwhile
Decisions regarding product quality, purchase.
collection methods, processing and refining
are dependent upon the uses planned for Staff
the compost. The exploration and Improving the quality and consistency of
evaluation of market options are the first the finished compost can involve a number
step in designing a compost program.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-13

of additional activities, and potentially Customer service personnel are often
additional staff. This should be included in dedicated to that task but many times serve
your long term business and marketing multi-task roles as bookkeepers and general
plan. office support. To sell your product the
operation requires marketing and sales
Hiring heavy equipment operators (loader, representatives. Sometimes the same
truck, and screener) requires finding people person can fill both roles.
with training and experience. Dispatchers
for deliveries, loading, payment receipt
often requires persons holding commercial
driver’s license (CDL) and bonding.

Using Compost

Compost has numerous uses related to soil

improvement; biofilters for odor control,
bedding for farm animals, and stormwater
filtration. Compost is an excellent soil
conditioner which can be customized and
applied as a soil amendment, mulch,
topdressing or as an ingredient in potting
mixes.
Some specific uses for compost include:
Compost characteristics must match plant • Mix with existing soil to create a
requirements (e.g. pH, soluble salt levels), superior topsoil
and application rates will vary depending on • Use in all landscape areas for soil
use, soil type, and plant needs. Often, soil improvement - lawn, flower,
has either too much sand or too much clay. vegetable gardens, around trees
In both cases, compost use can help and shrubs, bed preparation
remediate the soil encouraging proper root • As seed cover when seeding turf
development and plant growth. areas
• Backfill mix for planting trees and
Compost users rely on accurate product
shrubs
data to obtain and apply compost correctly.
• To heel in nursery stock during
transplanting
• Erosion control
• Seedling establishment
• Frost-heave control for nursery
field crops
• Weed control

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-14

 • Reclaim disturbed lands have praised the tremendous benefits of
• Landfill final cover compost for years, declaring it the best
• Plant bed renovation single material to add to soil.
• Lawn core aeration & overseeding
• Replacement for cover crops However, unlike apple pie, all composts are
• Topsoil extender, to increase not good for every occasion in the plant
percent of organic matter in kingdom. For example, acid-loving
subsoils rhododendrons will respond poorly to the
• Basis for making compost extracts neutral or alkaline pH of compost.
and teas
Long term residual effects
There are long-term residual effects from
Soils amended with compost show applying compost to soil. Nitrogen and
increased water holding capacity reducing other nutrients tied up in compost are
the need for irrigation in volumes and released slowly over a number of years.
frequency. When used as a mulch or top-dressing, the
mineralization rate of compost is much
Tips for Using Compost slower because of the wetting and drying
that occurs on the soil surface.

More is not always better Soil with 1 percent organic matter (OM) will
Excessive use of compost can result in generate 10 pounds of nitrogen per acre
reduced plant growth, succulent plants that per year, compared to 100 pounds from soil
are disease prone, ground water with 10 percent OM, based on a
contamination, and potential surface run- mineralization rate of 8% to 10% of N at
off. 72°F. [source: F. Gouin, Better Composting
School]
Plain compost made from yard clippings will
not likely contain sufficient nitrogen (N)
causing over-succulence, but a compost
product supplemented with manure or
fertilizer could. Applying too much compost
wastes money and resources, and can
jeopardize the crop. Compost used and
applied properly, however, will increase the
success of almost any project.

Compost isn’t ideal for every occasion.

Generally speaking, compost improves soil
and helps make most plants healthier. It is
a living material, rich with microorganisms
and small amounts of slow-release
nutrients. Organic gardeners and farmers

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-15

Further research is needed to better ensured a much better response than the
understand the long term benefits of traditional farm practice of ploughing down
compost, and how to use it, as exemplified added material. In fact, ploughing down
in the following findings. Based on compost or manure increases the
extensive laboratory and field tests, probability of restricting oxygen supply in
addition of compost to compacted, the soil. [Avnimelech, et al.]
structurally deficient soils led to consistent
improvement of that soil.

Surface application or very shallow mixing

resulted in increased crop yields and

Promotion and Distribution

Compost does not sell itself. Promotion and Education Leads to
Increased Sales
In addition to process controls to ensure 1. Target a specific audience.
consistent quality, successful marketing 2. A name and logo increases product
depends on convincing the consumer to buy identity and recognition.
your compost product or products. 3. A detailed user’s guide educates
both sellers and buyers about the
Some selling points include: product; helps ensure correct
application and better results.
• Soil benefits 4. Include complete contact
• Renewable resource information and a feedback website
• Lower cost than peat moss or mail in card.
• Recycles beneficial nutrients
It is crucial to broadcast a persuasive User’s Guide
message about the benefits and advantages
of your compost to target audiences A User’s Guide is a great marketing tool that
through a variety of media. Establishing can serve to familiarize potential customers
continuous, high demand for your product with the advantages of compost use. Some
is important to keep product moving, from items that may be useful in a User's Guide
running out of space at the site, and having include:
old or poor quality compost to remove.
Establishing sales goals and a distribution 1. Suggested application rates and
strategy before starting the compost procedures for soil types, plantings
operation will prevent this. 2. Local case studies of successful uses
of your compost
3. Benefits of compost
4. Laboratory results of product testing

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-16

 5. Comparisons with other soil • On-site pick up, self-load with
products shovels and even containers (by
6. Results of growth trials conducted bushel or cubic foot)
by unbiased third party • On-site pick up, operator loads
trucks (by cubic yard)
Media advertising and publicity • Operator delivers truckloads to
Newspapers, television, radio will reach a outlets such as garden store, DPW
large audience, especially if timed right to yard for local sales
match the interests of prospective buyers • Home delivery by truckload
(minimum quantity, pre-payment)
Direct Mail • Retail in containers such as plastic or
Your best customers may be those who burlap bags, large plant pots.
have purchased compost in the past. By • Donations to community programs
keeping a mailing list of buyers, and to raise awareness.
communicating with them periodically, you
can increase re-orders. This also gives you a Work with municipal managers to use
direct line to consumer feedback and sends finished compost in parks and roadside
a clear message that you care about both landscaping. Signs can be placed so that
your product and your customers. they draw attention to the use of compost
in public areas. Successful demonstrations
Green Industry Expos, Home and Garden can educate residents and businesses about
Shows many aspects of compost and increase their
confidence in using it. In addition, it is
By attending conferences and trade shows
important that information regarding
where soil blenders, landscapers, and
availability of compost, cost, looks,
growers go to keep up with developments
applications, and overall benefits of
and products in their industry. You can
increased organic matter in soil be readily
network with colleagues, learn about
available.
competitors, introduce your compost,
identify potential buyers, and learn more
about what buyers want.

Distribution Methods Increase Sales

Making your compost available to
consumers by various means will optimize
sales levels. Convenience is an important
consideration in purchasing decisions for
residents and businesses, so provide as
many options and as much convenience as
possible. Per unit costs for services such as
home delivery can be reduced through
volume purchase and passed along to the
compost buyer. Some distribution
programs include:
Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-17
Public procurement
Public agencies such as parks departments
and the road commission use substantial
quantities of soil products to build and
maintain parks, roadside plantings, and
landscapes surrounding buildings and
institutions. Public sentiment favors use of
local, recycled products in place on non-
renewable resources, and can be rallied to
support your compost marketing efforts.
Procurement policies and price preferences
for compost products are effective tools for
market development.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 7-18

 MICHIGAN COMPOST OPERATOR TRAINING GUIDEBOOK

Best Management Practices

for Composting
Part 4:
Troubleshooting

Michigan Recycling Coalition

PO Box 10070
Lansing, MI 48901
Phone: 517-974-3672
[email protected]
 Best Management Practices for Composting

8
Introduction
Troubleshooting
Compost operators may perceive
complaints from neighbors as unfounded
Under normal conditions at a well-designed harassment based on NIMBY attitudes (Not
composting facility using sound in My Backyard). However, sensitivity to
management practices, most problems can odors and other nuisance conditions is
be avoided. However, a number of factors normal and should be anticipated. This is
alone or in combination can cause an especially true in residential and
operator to lose control of the composting commercial areas where people live and
process, resulting in foul odors, leaching, work. Good relationships with your
vectors, and inferior product quality. These neighbors will pay dividends when (if) you
problems are serious and must be corrected do have problems.
or the facility will be susceptible to
complaints which can lead to legal
ramifications. There have been numerous
instances where odor problems have Figure 1: Problem-solving at compost
resulted in costly legal fees and permanent facilities
closure of the composting facility. Other
problems that can trouble compost facilities
include dust, noise, litter, unwanted Identify
wildlife, site degradation. In addition,
operational problems can occur such as Problem
piles that don’t heat up sufficiently or
temperatures that are too high.

Repeat
Odor Problems p. 3
Determine as
Temperature p. 6
Cause needed

Dust p. 8
Noise p. 9
Flies and other pests p. 10
Inferior Final Product Quality p. 11
Remedy
Site-related problems p. 12
Problem
Handling Neighbor Complaints p. 13

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-1

The best remedy is to prevent operational taken by the compost operator to remedy a
problems from occurring in the first place problem.
through proper site design and facility
management. However, even with facilities As depicted in Figure 1, problem-solving at
that have been designed properly and are compost facilities is a process of identifying
well-run, problems can occasionally arise problems, determining their root cause and
that must be addressed. applying appropriate remedies. As needed,
this process is repeated until the problem is
This fact sheet includes information on how under control.
to identify a problem and determine its
cause. It also includes actions that can be

Problem: Anaerobic smell. Cause: Water pooling on compost pad. Solution: Restore grade and repair
pad to remove low spots that allow water to puddle.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-2

Odor Problems
Determine the Cause & Remedy
Identify the Problem Odors occur at compost facilities for several
reasons. Identifying the source and type of
Odor is generally the most frequent and
odor can give an indication of the root
serious complaint from neighbors of
cause of the problem.
compost facilities. The first and most
important task for the operator is to
determine what problematic odors are Ammonia
present and where they are being
generated. Only then can appropriate An ammonia smell is usually generated in a
remedial actions be taken. Compost that is compost pile that contains too much
properly made under aerobic conditions will nitrogen-rich material such as fresh grass.
have an earthy aroma that is not offensive. Incoming material can already generate
However, partly decomposed feedstocks or ammonia odors if it has been closed up in
poor composting techniques can generate plastic bags for very long.
problematic odors including ammonia,
Ammonia can also be generated when
hydrogen sulfide (the smell of rotten eggs)
carbon has been supplied to the piles in
and volatile fatty acids (VFAs). VFAs are
particles that are too large, such as uncut
compounds for which most people have
brush. In either of these examples, there is
very little tolerance.
too much nitrogen in the original mix for
the amount of available carbon (low C:N
While determining that there is an odor
ratio). An ammonia odor can also
may seem simple, identifying the source
sometimes indicate a pH level that is too
and cause of problematic odors at a
high.
compost facility can be complex. Sites are
large open areas with many potential odor-
If the ammonia odor is related to an
producing sources, and odors travel in
imbalance in the amount of carbon and
unpredictable ways.
nitrogen in the recipe (C:N ratio), add more
carbon-rich material such as leaves or wood
It is essential to determine whether odors
chips. It is important that the particle size
are generated by piles of incoming material
of the carbon source is small enough that it
that have not yet been incorporated, or
can be used by microbes. A carbon source
from a specific compost pile, standing
such as brush or very large wood chips may
water, holding pond or another source.
need to be chipped or ground to a smaller
Identification of the source of the problem
particle size.
is important because the actions required
to remedy each of these problems will
High pH (greater than 8) can cause
differ.
excessive ammonia loss and kill bacterial
decomposers. If the pH level of a compost
pile is greater than 8, add acidic material

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-3

such as leaves or sulfates and avoid adding If the hydrogen sulfide odor is caused by
more alkaline material to the pile. wetness, add dry bulking agent, remix and
place piles in an area where they won’t be
Hydrogen sulfide located in standing water. If insufficient
aeration is related to poor structure or
A smell of hydrogen sulfide (rotten eggs) compaction, add bulking agent and remix
indicates that anaerobic conditions are the pile. If airflow through the pile is
present. Anaerobic conditions form if there uneven (short circuiting), turning piles more
are not enough air spaces through which air frequently should eliminate the problem.
can flow. This can be caused by too much
moisture and/or a lack of aeration. A pile Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs)
with too much moisture will lack adequate
aeration because too many of the air spaces VFA’s are not only offensive to the olfactory
are filled with water. Anaerobic conditions senses, their presence can contribute to
can also develop when the pile becomes phytotoxicity problems in finished
compacted or air flow through the pile is compost. Like hydrogen sulfide odors, VFA
short circuited. Compaction occurs when odors are generated by microbial
there are not enough large or rigid particles decomposition that occurs under anaerobic
such as wood chips to maintain structure conditions. Because VFAs are generated
and air spaces in the mass. under anaerobic conditions, it is necessary
to determine why those conditions exist
Short circuiting is a term used to describe and eliminate them.
the tendency of air to follow the route of
least resistance through the pile. Occurrence of VFAs also indicates that
Channeling most often occurs in a compost anaerobic conditions are present within the
pile that is not mixed during the composting compost pile. The remedy applied should
process. In short circuiting, air flows be the same as when hydrogen sulfide
preferentially through the channels rather odors are present.
than being distributed evenly throughout
the mass. Air does pass through the pile If malodorous conditions persist despite
when short circuiting occurs, there are taking the actions previously described, it
areas or pockets within the pile with no air, may be necessary to time the turning of
creating localized anaerobic conditions. compost piles carefully. Turning is best
Rapidly falling temperatures within a when done with sensitive receptors in
compost pile can be an indication that short mind, such as when it is raining or when the
circuiting is causing the odor problem. wind direction is opposite of where
sensitive receptors are located.
Hydrogen sulfide odors (rotten eggs)
indicate that anaerobic conditions are
present within the compost pile. This is
either because the material is too wet or
because there is insufficient aeration.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-4

 Table 1. Summary of Causes and Remedies for Odor Problems

Situation Possible reason Clues Remedy

Ammonia High nitrogen level C:N ratio less than
Add high carbon
odor 20:1 ingredients
Slowly available Large woody Increase available carbon
carbon source particles, C:N ratio
content via leaves, smaller
less than 30:1 particle woodchip
High pH pH greater than 8Lower pH with acidic
ingredients (leaves) or
avoid adding more alkaline
material
Hydrogen sulfide Material too wet Low temperatures Add dry bulking agent
(rotten-eggs) or
VFAs Turn to remove moisture
(also releases odors)
Both odors indicate
anaerobic
conditions
Poor structure Add bulking agent
Pile compacted Remix pile and add bulking
agent if necessary
Insufficient aeration Decrease pile size
Pile too large High temperatures Remix pile so that it's
smaller, change recipe
Airflow uneven or Falling Shorten time between
short circuiting temperatures turnings

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-5

Temperature
there is too much carbon or where the
Identify the Problem
structure of the pile is extremely poor. If
Temperature of the composting mass is a large amounts of woody material are
primary indicator of microbial activity. present in the pile, there is probably too
Compost piles that don’t reach the much carbon for the amount of nitrogen
temperatures that indicate active present. If the pile settles very quickly, it
composting will take much longer to fully can be assumed that structure is the
decompose. The ideal temperature range primary problem.
for active composting is 105-145º F.
Compost piles that have not heated up A combination of cold weather and piles
within 3 days of being formed should be that are too small (3" tall or less) can also
considered problematic and in need of result in failure of piles to heat up.
adjustment.
If low temperatures are caused by materials
Temperatures greater than 170º F create that are too wet, add dry bulking agent and
potential for spontaneous combustion. remix. If dryness is the cause of low
Mesophilic organisms thrive from 104°- temperatures, add water or wet
122°F and their activity is inhibited outside ingredients. If the C:N ratio is too high, add
of this range. High temperatures can be the high-nitrogen ingredients (grass or “green”
result of compost piles that are too big or materials) and remix. If the piles are too
too dry, and from lack of heat removal due small, combine piles together or enlarge by
to insulation or lack of aeration. adding highly degradable ingredients.

Determine the Cause & Remedy

Low temperatures High temperatures

High temperatures can be caused by
A compost pile can fail to heat up because
insufficient aeration for heat removal within
the materials are too dry or too wet. The
piles, low moisture levels or because piles
material is too wet if the material looks
are too large. If high temperatures are
soggy and too dry if no water can be
caused by insufficient aeration, there will be
squeezed by hand out of a handful of
adequate amounts of moisture, as
compost. Piles should be maintained at 50
determined by the squeeze method.
to 60 percent moisture to stimulate and
maintain composting organisms and to
If high temperatures are caused by low
eliminate problems. The “squeeze method”
moisture levels, add water, turn and aerate
as described in BMP#4: Operations can be
to control temperature. If the pile is
used to test whether there is enough
overheating but sufficiently moist, turn the
moisture in the compost pile.
pile or increase air flow to release heat.
Overheating piles that are over 8 feet tall
Other conditions under which material will
should be re-built into smaller piles.
fail to begin composting include where

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-6

 Table 2: Causes and Remedies for Temperature Problems

Situation Possible reason Clues Remedy

Pile fails to heat Too dry Can’t squeeze water out Add water
up from a handful of
compost

Too wet Materials look soggy Add dry material

Not enough Large amounts of woody Add nitrogen-rich material
nitrogen material

Poor structure Pile settles too quickly Add bulking agent

pH too low pH <5.5, garbage-like Add lime or wood ash, re-
odor mix

pile too small Compost piles 3' tall or Re-mix and combine piles
less

Temp. too high Insufficient Pile is moist (as Turn pile more frequently
aeration determined by squeeze or increase air flow.
method)

Moderate to low Pile is dry (as Add water, continue

moisture levels determined by squeeze turning
method)

Pile is too large Height >8’ Decrease pile size

Source: The On-Farm Composting Handbook, Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, 1992.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-7

Dust
Identify the problem dry loads and from handling dry materials
at any stage of the production process. The
Dust is often considered a problem by
very presence of dust from compost
neighbors when if drifts off-site. Dust
feedstock materials, windrows or finished
consists of fine, dry particles that become
product is a sign that conditions are too dry
airborne easily. It irritates eyes and lungs
for composting organisms.
and settles on surfaces and affects
employees, customers, neighbors and
equipment. It is a hazard to workers if it is Remedy the situation
inhaled on a regular basis. The singular solution to dust problems is to
simply add water. This can be done in a
Dust problems have been associated with variety of ways, but often requires
aspergillus fumigatus, a fungus whose specialized equipment such as a watering
spores can produce an allergic response in truck, hoses or irrigation systems. While
susceptible individuals and can cause Michigan’s climate usually provides
infections in persons with weakened adequate moisture to prevent dust, one
immune systems. Although this fungus is month or season of drought can create
omnipresent to varying degrees, it has been significant dust problems.
the basis of costly litigation at some
composting facilities. Water can be added to incoming yard waste
most easily at the pre-processing stage
Dust can also clog radiators, foul oil and fuel before the windrow is built. Thereafter, the
filters and require more frequent moisture content of active windrows should
lubrication of bearings. Dust can also be maintained at 50 to 60 percent. The
promote corrosion because it traps squeeze method can be used to test
moisture on metal surfaces and its whether there is enough moisture in the
insulating properties can cause equipment compost pile.
to overheat. Therefore, dust problems
should be dealt with well before they Unpaved or dirty roads and other
become a nuisance to neighbors. unimproved surfaces should be wet down
as needed to keep dust down during
Determine its cause extended periods of dry weather.
Determine where the dust is originating.
Dust can have many sources. It can come
from unpaved or dirty roads, from emptying

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-8

Noise
determine whether or not ear protection is
Identify the Problem
warranted.
Noise is a sound that is perceived as
unpleasant or unwanted. Noise can affect Talking to neighbors should help to
facility employees, neighbors and determine the nature of the noise that is
customers. Although noise complaints from troublesome to them. It is also important
neighbors are often the driving force behind to identify what times of day neighbors are
having to deal with noise problems; noise is most sensitive to noise so that activities at
unlikely to harm the hearing of neighbors. the compost facility can be done at a time
It can, however, irreversibly damage the that is least disturbing to them.
hearing of facility employees or customers.
Remedy the situation
Excessive noise can be caused by
equipment that needs to be maintained, Equipment that is in need of maintenance
on-site vehicle traffic, engines, should be given the attention it requires.
hammermills, hydraulic motors or the This may mean lubricating bearings or
warning signals of loaders and other replacing worn parts. This is important not
equipment when operated in reverse. only for neighbor relations but is also
Truck traffic to and from the site can also important for the hearing of the equipment
cause noise problems. operator and the longevity of the
equipment itself.
Determine the cause
Employees who, of necessity, must work
Sound levels are measured in decibels (dB) under extremely noisy conditions should be
and the Occupational Safety and Health provided hearing protection and required
Administration (OSHA) has set standards for to wear it. Site modifications that can
exposure to sound at different dB levels. protect neighbors from unwanted noise
Purchase of an inexpensive meter that gives include vegetative buffers or berms around
a direct measurement in dB permits the site, installing sound walls and enclosing
objective measurement of this often noise-producing equipment. If permitted
subjective problem. Exposure of employees by safety regulations, normal backup alarms
who work directly with equipment such as may be substituted with intermittent
hammermills should be measured to alarms.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-9

Flies and other pests
Rodents and small mammals are attracted
to compost piles for the warmth that is
Identify the problem provided when the pile is burrowed into.
Flies and other pests such as gnats, rodents
or other small wildlife are attracted by the Remedy the situation
odor of decomposition, and need to be
In order to eradicate flies and other insects,
controlled for public health and aesthetic
anaerobic conditions must be eliminated.
reasons. Flies may deposit their eggs on the
Remix and turn compost piles if they are
compost and the warm, moist conditions
too wet and ensure that compost is not
just below the surface provide an ideal
located in standing water. Drainage at the
environment for their larvae. While pests
site must be improved if standing water is
may become a problem at any compost
causing anaerobic conditions.
facility, they are often a sign of a poorly
managed site. Process control and good
Because ammonia is such a strong
housekeeping can limit both the number
attractant for flies, it is essential to control
and impact of pests.
ammonia production and kill fly larvae by
frequent turning.
Determine the Cause
Flies and other insects are generally Rodents can be kept away from a compost
attracted to semi-anaerobic environments site by turning piles more frequently.
and can be attracted to a compost pile from Rodents will not burrow into frequently
far away. Points of attraction include grass turned piles or cured piles.
clippings and food waste that have not yet
been incorporated into a compost pile or
organic matter located in standing water.

Insects, mammals
and birds can all
become pest
problems in
poorly managed
compost sites.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-10

Inferior Final Product Quality
Identify the Problem Plastic in compost results mainly from
An inferior final product will result in low accepting yard clippings in plastic bags.
sales and a poor reputation. Problems Bags are removed prior to windrowing, or
associated with final product quality: shredded along with the contents and
screened to remove plastic bits after
• plant toxicity related to immature composting is complete. Debagging is done
compost; by hand or machine. Plastic pieces become
smaller by turning and grinding, but do not
• physical contaminants such as plastic biodegrade.
bits, other manmade inerts, and stones;
Small pieces of compostable plastic from
• chemical characteristics such as odor, accepting compostable products with food
high pH and soluble salts content; scraps may remain even after active
composting and curing. Screening the pre-
• clumping of screened compost. cured or cured product may remove these
pieces.
• weed growth in screened compost.
Contamination with soil or uncomposted
Immature compost can interfere with plant residues, especially after the active phase of
growth and develop odors during storage. composting has finished, can lead to the
Tests for maturity include seedling reintroduction of weed seeds or plant
germination and growth, lab analyses, and pathogens.
rough field methods.
Finished compost can become
Plastic and stones can be identified by a recontaminated with weed seeds if weeds
visual examination. Screened compost are allowed to grow and go to seed on or
should have a uniform particle size, though adjacent to the pile or windrow. Similarly,
sizes can vary for different uses. compost can become contaminated with
vegetative reproductive structures from
Although compost is typically described as some weeds—Canada thistle and
having a neutral pH, levels above 8.0 are rhizomateous grasses, for example—if they
not uncommon for yard waste compost. are allowed to grow on or adjacent to the
Field test kits for various chemical pile.
parameters work well.
Remedy the situation
Determine the cause
Compost matures through a process called
Phytotoxicity is due to immature compost curing that involves ongoing low levels of
or compost that went anaerobic during microbial activity. It begins after active
storage. Maturity requires proper curing: decomposition is complete, takes up to 120
time, moisture and aeration.
Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-11
days in larger piles with good aeration and To prevent clumping, ensure correct
drainage, 40-50 percent moisture. moisture content of compost and screening
rate to allow enough time for clumps to
For most end uses, plastic bits are not break up.
acceptable. The best ways to eliminate
pieces of plastic is to not accept yard When moving or spreading finished
clippings in plastic bags or debag before compost, avoid picking up soil or other
composting. Small screens do a reasonable contaminants from under or around the pile
job of removing inert particles, but or windrow and avoid adding fresh material
screening is costly and small screens after the active phase as it can cause
remove extra compost. reintroduction of weed seeds or plant
pathogens.
Some compostable products may break
down completely and others may not, so Keep vegetation adjacent to stored
testing products and giving your customers compost mowed short, and tarp piles or
feedback on what products to use and not windrows to prevent contamination by
to use may reduce this issue. wind-blown weed seeds.

Site-related problems

Identify the problem Determine the cause

Even well-designed compost facilities can Poor drainage happens when runoff water
experience problems over time due to collects in places that result in standing
facility use and poor maintenance. These water (ponding), and the potential for
may include ponding, poor drainage and erosion as water flows across the pad. This
anaerobic conditions in a retention pond. can be caused by poor pad design or rutting
that occurs when heavy equipment
Poor site design is almost certain to cause operates on a wet surface.
odor production at all but the lowest
volume sites. These situations are often Ponding related to poor site design results
accompanied by odor because they result in wet areas of the pad even where there
from standing water on-site or isn’t much traffic. Where both of these
development of anaerobic conditions. problems, (ponding due to equipment
Detailed information on site design are traffic and poor site design), are interacting
presented in the chapter on Site Design. to create ponding problems, it can be
difficult to establish which is greater.

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-12

Development of anaerobic conditions in a surfacing as needed so water will move
holding pond can be identified by heavy quickly away from the composting piles and
algae and weed growth and/or gas bubbles into a drainage ditch or holding pond. If
on the surface of the pond. This could be ponding is related to ruts caused by the
the result of anaerobic leachate from activity of heavy equipment, alternate plans
compost piles that enters the holding pond must be developed to keep equipment off
as runoff. It could also result from organic the pad while it is wet. This can include
materials decomposing anaerobically in the allowing only smaller, lighter equipment to
holding pond. Placement of fresh grass be used on the pad when moisture levels
directly into a holding pond can also result are high.
in anaerobic conditions.
Anaerobic conditions in holding ponds can
Remedy the situation be remedied by effectively handling
drainage and ponding problems. In
Regardless of why ponding occurs, the
addition, sediment traps can be installed
integrity of the pad surface must be
and the pond’s surface area can be
maintained through regrading and re-
enlarged.

Handling Neighbor Complaints

Identify the problem contact person to call regarding any

Unhappy neighbors may register complaints complaints will send a clear message of
with a local or state government regulator concern for neighbors.
before letting the compost facility operator
know how they feel. It is preferable for an Following up with neighbors after remedial
operator to be the first to know about a action has been taken is important so that
perceived problem their facility may be they will know their complaints were heard
causing. In order to deserve that kind of and the problem was resolved. Regular
relationship with neighbors, compost contact with neighbors regarding positive
operators must demonstrate an openness events will help to foster good relations.
to hearing neighbors’ complaints and
willingness act on complaints immediately. Determine the cause
The first and most important rule for
By reaching out to the surrounding handling complaints is to take each one
community at each stage of facility seriously. Is your fencing or berm properly
development, educating residents about screening your property? Is the wind
the process, and giving tours to show blowing their way today? Did your front
procedures for handling materials, fears gage landscaping not get maintained
and confusion can be alleviated in advance. properly? Are your trucks leaving a mess on
Also, posting the telephone number and

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-13

the roads? Not practicing regular good a prompt, sincere response and clear plan
neighbor relations? of action will be appreciated. Corrective
action must then be taken quickly, whether
Find out why neighbors are complaining a change in procedure, equipment or the
and get to the source of it right away. Is facility is required.
this a regularly occurring complaint?
Periodically survey and talk to your Turning piles, screening and other activities
neighbors. Find out what if any complaints that can bother neighbors should be done
there are. Ask them to contact you any and with neighbors in mind, whenever possible.
every time they have a concern or think By determining when neighbors are most
something is amiss. sensitive to certain activities, a compost
operator can try to work around those
Remedy the situation times. In addition, turning compost piles
The best remedy for neighbor complaints is can be done when the wind is blowing in
to let the individual or group know what the the opposite direction from sensitive
facility is doing to address the perceived receptors or when it is raining. Thoughtful
problem. Even if it will take more time than timing of these activities should reduce the
they would prefer to eliminate the problem, potential to annoy neighbors.

Conclusion
Proper processing of compost will result in the cause can be eliminated and the
fewer complaints from neighbors than problem should not repeat itself.
haphazard practices. Consistently applied
procedures will produce minimal odors, Careful attention should also be given to
draw few pests and produce high quality the concerns and complaints of neighbors
compost. However, even in well-run with regard to problems at a facility. These
facilities, problems can occur. complaints should be addressed quickly and
completely. Results of the actions taken to
It is important to address these problems remediate a problem should be clearly
quickly and with attention to the underlying explained to neighbors as soon as possible.
cause of the problem at hand. In this way

Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 8-14