Compost Operator Guidebook Best Management Practices For Commercial Scale Composting Operation PDF
Compost Operator Guidebook Best Management Practices For Commercial Scale Composting Operation PDF
Operator
Guidebook
Best Management
Practices for
Commercial Scale
Composting
Operations
March 2015
Copyright February 2011
Chapter 5: Operations
Incoming Material Stream .................................................................................................................. 5-1
Quantity of Incoming material ........................................................................................................... 5-4
Pre-processing ................................................................................................................................... 5-6
Compost Production ......................................................................................................................... 5-7
Composting Systems .......................................................................................................................... 5-8
Compost “Recipe”............................................................................................................................. 5-10
Monitoring the Compost Process .................................................................................................... 5-12
Composting Equipment .................................................................................................................... 5-13
Staffing ............................................................................................................................................. 5-18
Low Odor Operations ...................................................................................................................... .5-20
Managing Operations Summary ....................................................................................................... 5-22
Part 4: Troubleshooting
Chapter 8: Troubleshooting
Odor Problems .................................................................................................................................... 8-3
Temperature ....................................................................................................................................... 8-6
Dust..................................................................................................................................................... 8-8
Noise .................................................................................................................................................. .8-9
Flies and other pests ......................................................................................................................... 8-10
Inferior Final Product Quality ........................................................................................................... 8-11
Site-related problems ....................................................................................................................... 8-12
Handling Neighbor Complaints ........................................................................................................ .8-13
MICHIGAN COMPOST OPERATOR TRAINING GUIDEBOOK
Introduction to Composting
Introduction
This chapter reviews the biological aspects of
composting and their role in management of Composting Process p. 2
the process. Topics include definition and
description of the composting process; Microbiology p. 3
historical aspects, microbiology of
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Conditions p. 5
composting monitoring and controlling the
composting process; and characterization of Composting Methods p. 6
finished (marketable) compost. A
Critical Factors Table p. 7
terminology section has been appended, as
well as, journal articles related to biological
aspects of composting.
Compost (Humus)
Mesophilic
Mesophilic
Phase Ambient Air
Phase
(Fungi become or
Thermophilic Psychrophilic
active)
Phase Phase
As shown above, bacteria flourish in the early these are in the form of nutrients necessary
stages of composting consuming the easily for plant growth. Others are “glued” together
degraded materials. Bacteria will dominate by microbes to form organic chains and
composting as long as conditions are polymers such as Glycine and humic acid.
favorable. Fungi and actinomycetes become
Table 2: Microbial Requirements
most active near the end of composting,
feeding on materials that are more difficult to Requirement Benefit to Microbes
break down. Fungi gains advantage at low
Carbon (C) Provides carbohydrates (energy)
pH, while low-moisture favors both fungi and
and builds microbial biomass
actinomycetes. Low oxygen reduces fungi
populations and aerobic bacteria populations Nitrogen (N) Provides proteins, nitrate,
and increases anaerobic bacteria populations ammonia
generating gasses that produce offensive
Oxygen (O2) Respiration (aerobic microbes),
odors.
facilitates metabolism
Many chemical changes are occurring during Critical for promoting and
Moisture
the decomposition process. As sugars, maintaining activity
starches, and proteins and other compounds
are oxidized they produce heat, carbon pH Percent Hydrogen (H), optimal
dioxide, water and compounds that are near neutrality (pH 7), normally
finishes higher (pH 8).
resistant to further decomposition. Many of
Factor Significance
C:N ratio A carbon to nitrogen (C:N) balance of 25:1 to 30:1 helps ensure rapid
(recipe ) decomposition. C:N ratios below 20:1 tend to generate foul odors.
C:N ratios above 40:1 increase composting times.
Volume Characteristics
Leaves 160 lbs/ household /yr C:N ratio: 80:1
0.8 cubic yards, loose Moisture content: 10-50%
Density: 150-700 lbs/cy
High carbon & mineral content
Composts alone, but slowly,
with little odor
Grass 1,040 lbs/ household /yr C:N ratio: 15:1
2.6 cubic yards, loose Percent moisture: 60-80%
Density: 400-800 lbs/cy
Decomposes quickly
Good nitrogen source
Strong potential for odor
Brush and 300 lbs/household/yr C:N ratio: 200-500:1
Tree 1 cubic yard, loose Percent moisture: 40-50%
Density:250-500 lbs/cy
Trimmings
Very slow to break down
Food 255 lbs/household/year C:N ratio: variable, typical 15:1
1.64 tons/employee/yr (food service, markets) Percent moisture: variable
0.71 tons/employee/yr (restaurants) Density: 800-1000 lbs/cy
19.29 tons/employee/yr (food processors)
Biosolids 120 dry pounds/per capita/per year C:N ratio: High nitrogen
Percent moisture: variable
Quality of sludge variable
Michigan Compost Operator Training Guidebook 3-2
Urban 300-5,000 lbs/employee/yr (manufacturers) C:N ratio: 300:1; high in lignin
wood Generation rates vary tremendously depending Percent moisture: 5-20%
on the type of manufacturing. Highest rates Density: 300-600 lbs/cy
waste
occur in the wood processing industry. Slow to compost. Requires
grinding to reduce particle size
Industrial Variable, depending on industry (paper mills, C:N ratio: 6:1
sludge leather, pharmaceuticals) Nutrient value can be high.
Concern about contaminants
varies by industry
Leaves Collect source separated; Fall 6-8 weeks; Spring 1-2 weeks
Loose → vacuum truck or loader
Carts → Automated packer truck
Paper bagged → Packer truck
Grass Clippings Collect at curb source separated, April – September, or provide
drop-off site
Carts or paper bags → Packer truck
No plastic bags!
Encourage on-site handling by generator through pricing,
education incentives
Brush and Tree Curb chip
Trimmings Bulk collect
Food Collection from commercial sector e.g. restaurants, produce
markets, grocers in curb carts or wet-strength compostable
bags
Food processing waste composted or transported to farmers
for feed.
Waste wood Separate collection at C&D sites
Source-separated collection from businesses and contractors
(pallets, clean dimensional wood, other)
Commingled materials
Under a commingled materials collection
program, grass clippings, leaves, brush and Separated materials
other woody items such as vines, are placed
in a single container, bag or pile. Under this system, brush and wood are set
out separately from leaves and grass. Brush
Advantages Disadvantages and wood can be piled loose, placed in bags
or bins, or bundled with twine. Brush
• Convenience = • Where plastic bags are
collection can typically occur less frequently
high participation used for collection,
• One collection extra labor is required (quarterly, monthly) while grass collection
truck can be used to debag would require weekly service to avoid odor
• Carts and • If higher product problems.
automated grades are required,
loading brush separation may
Grass clippings and leaves can be
mechanism can be required
be used • Commingled “hard” &
commingled (although they occur mostly in
• Potentially, less “soft” wastes must all different season, with some spring and fall
collection labor is be ground at overlap), while wood wastes are generally
required than for processing site bundled separately for chipping or collecting
separated • Equipment to separate in bulk.
materials brush from
• Lower overall cost leaves/grass at the site
of collection can be purchased
Advantages Disadvantages
• Fewer vehicles and • Initial investment
workers required for is high if
Advantages Disadvantages collection municipality or
• Less expensive • More expensive • Carts are durable hauler provide
than compostable than traditional • Easy for residents to carts
plastic bags plastic bags load and transport to • Automated
• Bag can be • Heavier than curb tipping
shredded by plastic bags • Eliminates problems equipment may
windrow turners • May lose with plastic bags be needed for
along with strength under which can in turn curb carts and
contents reducing prolonged wet lower tip fee costs possibly bins
pre-processing conditions, and processing site • Smaller bins have
costs making handling • Sticker system can be limited capacity,
• Allows airflow difficult used to allow especially for fall
during collection • Non-degradable homeowners to use leaves
process, items (such as their own container
preventing pre- glass bottles, (supplemental kraft
composting odors bricks, cans) bags could also be
• Most models cannot be seen used)
stand upright, through the
making loading paper
easier
• Less potential for
puncture or tear
than plastic
• May hold more
material than
plastic, which
tears more easily
Following is a summary list of the various types of equipment used for the collection of yard
trimmings.
General gathering Material-specific Transport
• Front-end loader • Leaf vacuum truck • Dump truck
• Mechanical claw • Mobile chipping unit • Rear-loading packer truck
truck for wood waste • Semi-automated rear-
loading truck
• Automated or semi-
automated side-loading
truck
Loose material is typically set in the street Material contained in bags can generally be
for collection. If the material is a mix of manually loaded into packer trucks, but
yard trimmings types, a front-end loader or carts are commonly too large for manual
mechanical claw truck may be required to loading. Semi-automated rear-loading
load the material into a transport truck. trucks or fully automated side-loading trucks
Loose material such as brush may be set on are required to handle carts with capacities
the curb, in which case it would be handled typically need for yard trimmings collection
separately from material set in the street (i.e., 60 or more gallons).
(e.g., leaves and grass).
For efficient yard trimmings collection, the The claw is a pincer loading bucket attached
front-end loader is usually adapted with an to the front-end lift assembly of a tractor. It
oversized bucket (i.e., greater than 4.5 cubic is used for grabbing loose yard trimmings in
yards). It is particularly efficient for the street. As with the conventional front-
collecting leaves where leaf fall is heavy. end loader, material is hoisted into a
This type of operation typically involves one transport vehicle–commonly a rear packer
loader operator, one or two laborers as or dump truck.
rakers, and two or more dump trucks for
transport. Advantages Disadvantages
• Efficient for loose • As with front-end
material collection – loader, relatively
Advantages Disadvantages either leaves or only time-consuming
mixed yard • Potential
• Efficient for • Relatively time trimmings materials contamination
collection of consuming • More adaptability to from street debris
leaves • Potentially high different materials • Can interfere with
• May utilize contamination and conditions than street parking
existing • Dump trucks may conventional front- during collection
municipal fill fast because end loader season
equipment leaves are not • Material is
compacted compacted to some
• Not as thorough as extent, saving space
vacuum truck for in the transport
leaf collection vehicle
Material-Specific Equipment
Food Waste
This section focuses on composting food waste or, more specifically, adding food waste to an
already successful yard waste composting operation. Concepts covered include: assessing needed
capacity; capabilities and the potential cost of adding food waste to operations; maintaining low
odor operations; and characterizing, collecting and processing food waste. Practical tips are
provided to achieve the best return on processing food waste.
According to the EPA, the organic waste in Food scraps are separated from other wastes
supermarkets makes up 75-90% of the entire at the source of generation -- for example, in
waste stream, and in schools and restaurants food preparation areas -- then collected
74%. A study compiled by Draper and Lennon frequently and routinely. Kitchen and wait
Associates estimated the following staff, and possibly customers (if plate
generation rates: schools 0.35 lbs/meal; scrapings are collected) must be taught to
health care 0.6 lbs/meal; prisons 1 separate acceptable materials for
lb/inmate/day, conferences 0.6 lbs/meal and composting. The selection of food waste
supermarkets 3,000 collection containers
lbs/employee/year. should be coordinated with
U.S. supermarkets solid the waste hauler.
Normally, collection costs waste streams are 75 –
are billed by the cubic yard What eventually
(a volume measurement); 90% organic waste. determines whether a
therefore, food waste business undertakes a food
measurements must be waste diversion program is
converted. Volume-to-weight conversions for if the benefits outweigh the cost. To help
food waste vary considerably, depending on make that determination, the following five
the type of food and its moisture content. If factors need to be considered.
trash collected is measured and billed by
weight, a standard container filled with 1. Waste Management Costs
representative samples of the institution’s
food waste should be filled then weighed for Diverting food waste to a composting
an approximate conversion between volume program requires a separate collection and
and weight. transportation system, one that operates in
parallel with a waste management system.
Standard container sizes and their volume Remaining trash will continue to go to the
capacity include (202 gallons = 1 cubic yard): landfill, while food waste will go to a compost
5-gallon container - .025 cubic yards site. As food waste is removed from the
landfill waste stream, the need for frequent
32-gallon container - .16 cubic yards
trash pickup is reduced, as may be the need
64-gallon container - .32 cubic yards for a large trash holding container. Like
landfills, compost operations charge a tip fee,
96-gallon container - .48 cubic yards
but usually at a rate equal to or lower than
landfills.
To avoid odor and health and safety
Another consideration is the seasonality of
concerns, inform your local health
composting sites. Some municipal programs
department of your program to eliminate
cease collection of residential and downtown
misinformation. Educating employees that
yard waste during the winter months, so
would be responsible for separation and
working with residents to give them home-
In order to make an informed decision It’s important to know how much food waste
regarding services, it is important to become is generated by the operation on a daily basis.
familiar with the waste management facilities A way to estimate the amount of waste
and associated management costs in your generated is to measure all of the scraps
vicinity. produced in each area during a typical
operation day or week, and then project this
2. Food Waste Separation and amount over time. For example, if you have
Collection several stores or cafeterias measure one
typical container of food scraps and then
In general, pre-consumer food scraps are multiply this amount by the number of
more easily collected and composted because containers collected. Of course, make sure
it is fairly simple to train food preparation that employees are informed, and that
employees to properly separate compostable containers contain food scraps only.
food scraps from other non-organic waste.
Post-consumer food waste diversion will 3. Storage and Collection Containers
require regular monitoring by trained staff, as
well as training of consumers to reduce the The selection of outside collection containers
level of contamination in collected food should be coordinated with the food waste
waste, which can decrease the value of the hauler. (In some cases, the hauler may
food waste to compost operators. Up-front provide these.) Existing containers can simply
involvement with your procurement be re-labeled, or it may be determined that
department and suppliers to provide only the number or size of containers needs to be
compostable products will ease the post- changed. Collection containers will require
consumer food scrap contamination regular cleaning even if food waste is
concerns, as would switching to reusable contained in bags.
trays, plates and silverware. But, the costs
and benefits of these types of operational The collection system is critical to a food
program changes need to be considered and waste utilization program. The system for
The primary objectives of the collection It is important to ensure that the hauling
system are to: vehicle is equipped with leak-proof seals and
seams that are inspected often. Food waste
• Maximize the capture rate of food that is collected in biodegradable and
waste compostable bags may reduce the frequency
• Eliminate non-organic contaminants of cleaning collection containers.
such as plastic wraps, rubber bands,
glass, and metal The cost to change the number or size of
• Minimize labor and space outside and inside collection containers is
requirements. usually a one-time expense; simply add as
few containers as possible when beginning.
Collection bins should be placed in a Clearly marked and brightly colored
convenient area for staff and/or customers to containers -- such as green for food, blue for
use. Due to the high moisture content of food recyclables, and brown for trash -- are helpful
scraps, containers should be a reasonable size for proper participation and reducing
for employees to lift and load into a central contamination.
collection container or on-site composter.
Containers should only be filled to 2/3 4. Collection Frequency
capacity to reduce spillage.
Just as trash hauling needs to be prompt and
Whether collected in buckets or small, reliable in order to avoid health and safety
biodegradable bags, the collections will be problems, so too does food waste hauling.
accumulated in a larger, centralized tote or Some institutional generators of food waste
small dumpster. If possible, combining food have found it easier and more economical to
waste with yard clippings and leaves in a cart transport collected food waste themselves.
or dumpster will reduce potential odor and Others contract with private waste haulers to
leakage concerns. Haulers can pick-up the collect and deliver the materials to a
food waste in bulk, using roll-off containers, composting site.
compactors, or specialized vehicles for high
volume generators; or they can dump full 32- The collection of food waste should occur
64 gallon totes and dumpsters from small frequently, and upon arrival at the
generators with automated collection composting site, the material should be
vehicles. immediately mixed and incorporated with the
other materials on site.
Containers collecting food waste will require
regular cleaning. One collection option is for Collection and hauling schedules and routines
the hauler to swap clean empty totes with full are dependent upon the amount of food
totes; this means that totes will be tipped and waste collected at the site of generation.
cleaned at the composting site. The totes can Changes in collection frequency necessary to
4
Introduction
Facility Siting and Site Design
A compost site must provide sufficient area Michigan PA 451, Part 115 (formerly P.A. 641)
and conditions for all-weather composting governs the composting of non-exempt
while limiting environmental risk, odor, and organic waste materials (exempt materials
noise. Site development involves creating a include leaves, grass clippings, garden waste,
plan for finding an acceptable location, and brush/wood chips and up to 5% by
adapting the composting method to the site volume Class 1 organics such as food scraps,
(or vice versa), providing sufficient land area paper, food processing residual). Many local
for operations, and implementing surface units of government require compost sites to
runoff and pollution control measures as adhere to specific zoning and land use
needed. regulations that regulate where composting
can take place. All building requirements,
To help understand geographic and other surface and ground water regulations, and
impacts on site planning, operators should federally based NPDES requirements should
make a preliminary sketch of the facility also be investigated. The DEQ’s Water
showing all key areas and factors which will Resource Division has created a compliance
affect operations, including: assistance document entitled "Compost
Wastewater & Storm Water Permit
• prevailing wind direction Information - Compliance Assistance for Yard
• traffic flow patterns Clippings Composting Facilities". This
• land slope document describes the applicable permits
• runoff patterns related to wastewater and storm water
• surrounding land uses discharges from compost facilities. The
• wetlands or water bodies document can be found at
• activity configuration (materials www.michigan.gov/deqstormwater (select
handling and processing) Industrial Program, then under Storm Water
Program Compliance Assistance select
Permitting & Regulation Compost Operations Compliance Assistance.)
Before beginning the planning process, it’s
important to understand local and state NOTE: SEE APPENDIX AT THE END
regulatory requirements including permit
applications that may affect the site OF THE CHAPTER FOR AN
operation. Also be aware that starting a OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STATE
composting facility will raise concerns among
LAWS ABOUT REGISTERING YOUR
neighbors and local public officials. Educating
these groups about composting and its COMPOST FACILITY, AND STATE
advantages will be a critical part of getting OPERATION REGULATIONS.
started smoothly.
An important step in site planning and generated each year. The following rule of
development is calculating the capacity thumb should be considered an average
needed based on projections for volumes of range, assuming leaves, grass and brush are
incoming materials, equipment needs and collected:
materials handling activities.
Lack of adequate space and equipment, Average residential 1-2 cubic yards per
combined with overly large quantities of generation: household per year.
incoming materials can cause dramatic odor
and material management problems. Most Design key: Older communities with
sites cannot efficiently handle more than larger trees may
5,000 cubic yards per acre per year generate more leaves;
(cy/acre/yr) and 8,000 cy/acre/year is newer communities with
generally the upper limit for an intensely large lawns will generate
managed site. Too much material makes it more grass.
difficult for operators to mix and turn
material in proper ratios and frequencies.
The following table identifies optimal
High capacity approaches (e.g. more frequent volumes which can be processed annually
mechanical turning and quicker organic based on low, medium and high intensity
decomposition) allow more efficient use of processing means. This can be used as a rule
sites. of thumb during the design process to
understand that a medium and high intensity
Estimating Generation site, more equipment and more labor will be
needed to push the material through. It is
An important planning step is identifying the important to note that the Michigan compost
geographic area to be served by the site, and rules state a limitation of 5,000 CY per acre at
estimating the volume of organic waste to be any one time (i.e. if you measure an acre at
Site Access
Appropriate site entrances and exits are
especially important in providing the facility
with a good public image. Important Do’s
and Don’ts include:
Area Requirements
Where more sophisticated indoor or in-vessel There is plenty of space at Tuthill Farms for
approaches are used, the area requirements composting.
will be different to accommodate the
Self-propelled and 5’ A = h x (b - h) *
tractor-drawn
windrow turners
* This formula is an approximation and is valid only when the width is greater than or
equal to twice the height.
All storm water runoff controls utilized on site Outdoor compost facilities require a drainage
require design by a qualified professional and system that will appropriately manage
ongoing maintenance to be effective. The compost wastewater (if generated) and storm
MDEQ Nonpoint Source Best Management water runoff. Compost wastewater if
Practices Manual should be referenced to generated should be managed so it does not
appropriately implement controls that will comingle with storm water runoff. All
work effectively given specific site discharges of compost wastewater and storm
characteristics. water generated onsite needs to be covered
by all applicable WRD discharge permits. It is
advisable that compost facility operators
work with DEQ, WRD staff when considering
how to effectively design site drainage and to
appropriately permit compost wastewater
and storm water discharges to waters of the
state.
A. Materials to be Composted
Yard Waste
Yard Waste and other compostable materials (classified as Class 1 compostable material) such as wood,
organic garbage, paper products and manures not generated in the production of livestock or poultry, spent
grain from breweries, sugar beet limes, drywall, and dead animals not managed under dead animals act
DEQ registered composting facilities will be subject to a $600 registration fee. The registration is for
three years. Registered facilities have location restrictions and operating requirements, and are
required to submit annual reports containing information about the amount of yard clippings and
other compostable materials managed during the previous fiscal year.
DEQ registered composting facilities are subject to a $600 registration fee. The registration is for
three years. Registered facilities have location restrictions and operating requirements, and are
required to submit annual reports containing information about the amount of yard clippings and
other compostable materials managed during the previous fiscal year. Questions may be directed
to Mr. Duane Roskoskey at 517-582-3445 or by email at [email protected] .
www.michigan.gov/deq/0,1607,7-135-3312_4123-185537--,00.html
5 Operations
Plastic bags
Gate management
Yard clippings collected and delivered in
The condition of material arriving at a plastic bags present a major operational
compost facility affects variables such as: concern for composters. Accepting grass
• collection containers delivery in plastic causes foul odors, raises
• type of delivery truck (degree of operational costs dramatically, and can
compaction) reduce both the quality and value of the
• amount of physical contaminants finished product (plastic bits, pH problems).
• the length of time since grass has been Plastic bags cause odor problems because
cut and in transport grass turns anaerobic and foul-smelling inside
• curbside collection quality control the airtight container. Nitrogen-rich grass,
Grass stored in plastic bags or a truck for especially with high moisture, begins to
several days will be more odorous than in decompose soon after bagging, and uses up
bulk or paper bags and delivered on the day oxygen. When placed in plastic bags, grass
collected. can become anaerobic within hours.
If a facility’s fee is based on volume rather
than weight, haulers may compact more Debagging is costly, whether done
material into each load to save money. This mechanically or by hand. To save money,
densifies the feedstock and makes it more some operators build compost piles without
difficult to aerate. Also, the site operator first debagging, and rely on a turner or
loses money when the amount of material is grinder to shred the bags open. This system
measured by volume rather than weight. relies on screening to remove plastic later
Brush must be size-reduced or ground into If possible, grind woody material separately
chips in order to compost. Brush mixed with from grass and leaves. Particle size reduction
grass and leaves (commingled) can be costly also occurs each time a mechanical windrow
to grind with equipment that is not designed turner with knives or blades is used to turn
Recipe Tips:
1. Provide enough space on the site for actively composting windrows, storage of leaves and wood
chips, and processing activities.
2. Keep enough leaves and wood chips stockpiled on-site (approximately 1 to 2 months at expected
rate of use) to balance the amount of grass that will come to the site in the spring and summer.
3. Incorporate spring and summer grass into leaf windrows incrementally to “stretch” the value of the
leaves. The ratio of grass to leaves in the initial mixture should be limited to 1 part grass to 4 parts
leaves. Subsequent "doses" of grass added to each windrow should also not exceed one part in
four.
4. Repeated incorporations can bring the final grass to leaf ratio to a much higher level, without
creating odors, than would be possible using a single incorporation approach. This incremental grass
incorporation technique substantially limits odor potential.
5. One good way to form a windrow is to build a grass sandwich: place a load of grass on a leaf/chip
layer; add grass; cover with another leaf/chip load, and mix.
Compost Production
that focuses on minimizing odor production,
Site influences thereby increasing the need for more costly
Sites constrained by close neighbors may equipment. Turning and screening
require additional considerations before a operations on smaller sites must be more
composting system is designed. The compost intensive in order to manage the compost
system must be appropriate to the site, process and use of space effectively.
expected volume and type of incoming Intensive utilization usually requires
materials. The proximity of neighbors can additional or more expensive equipment.
create the need for a composting approach
Composting systems
Windrow composting
Windrow composting consists of placing a windrow turner must be appropriately sized
mixture of raw materials into long, narrow for that turner.
piles that have a triangular cross-section.
These piles, or windrows, are then agitated or It is recommended that windrow height not
turned as needed. Windrows are usually exceed 12 feet due to the potential to
formed by a front-end loader or dump truck develop anaerobic conditions in the center of
and can be turned with bucket loaders or the pile. The lower limit is approximately 3
specialized windrow turners. feet because piles smaller than this are not
Dimensions for height and width of a specific insulated well enough to support composting
windrow will be related to the machinery temperatures during winter. Current
used to create and/or turn it. A pile turned research has indicated that very wide
by a front-end loader will be no higher than windrows also impede natural air flow.
the loader can reach. A pile turned by a
Turning
Turning of compost windrows and piles accomplishes the following: homogenizes
compost materials, ensures that all materials are located in the center of the pile for some length
of time where temperatures are highest, reduces particle size, and temporarily aerates the mix.
Turning should occur when the temperature at the center of the pile reaches 140ºF. Turning
should occur more frequently in the early stages of composting and less frequently when the
composting rate is slower. Sometimes conditions within a pile or windrow warrant more or less
frequent turning. This is covered more fully in the section on troubleshooting.
Aeration
Aeration within a compost windrow or pile is achieved primarily by natural convection which is a
result of the shape of the pile. Cool air flows up from the bottom of the pile through the hot center
and out of the top in what is commonly referred to as "the chimney effect". Air flowing out of a
compost pile is warm.
Compost “Recipe”
affect the composting process, odor
Carbon:Nitrogen ratio production and the quality of the finished
The mixture or “recipe” used to combine product.
organics for compost production is important
for a number of reasons. Characteristics of The most important aspect of the compost
materials added to a mixture can aid or “recipe” is the Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ratio.
inhibit the decomposition process, aeration, The best balance for a compost mix will
microbial growth and odor production. The permit composting to proceed at an
mix of incoming materials can dramatically acceptable rate without generating large
volumes of odors that can offend neighbors.
A mix too high in carbon will decompose at a
slow rate and a mix too high in nitrogen runs
the risk of generating ammonia.
The relative C:N ratios of grass (20:1), leaves
(between 40:1 and 80:1) and woody
trimmings (500:1) require balancing to
achieve the optimal mixture with a 30:1
ratio. Seasonal generation patterns require
that leaves be accumulated on-site in the fall
for mixing with grass and food waste as it
Summer collections are mostly grass
Moisture
Aerobic microbes need moisture to live. The
optimal moisture content of 45-60% moisture
can be determined by a simple test called the
Squeeze method.
Determining moisture content of compost
requires measuring both wet and dry weights.
Drying compost samples in a soil oven at 110
Soil lab drying ovens
Composting Equipment
Equipment choices should be based on the equipment that may enhance marketability of
condition and volume of the incoming the final product can be purchased or rented.
materials. The need for more sophisticated Changes in the overall waste stream including
equipment generally increases as the volume those brought about by climatic differences,
of materials processed increases. Organic changes in community growth, and the
materials in plastic bags require debagging community’s yard waste management
and screening. Brush and other large woody practices can all dramatically affect the type
materials need chipping or grinding whether and relative volumes of materials expected at
they are commingled with or separated from a site. Facility developers should be aware of
grass. All materials composted require community trends before a site is developed
mixing. Finally, screeners and bagging
Windrow Turners
Turning Windrow turners are specially designed for
Turning equipment is used to homogenize turning and aerating compost windrows.
compost materials, ensure that all materials Large turners are self-propelled, straddle the
are in the central portion of the pile where windrow and allow more intensive use of
temperatures are highest for some length of land. Smaller windrow turners are side-
time and reduce particle size. The two major mounted on loaders or tractors which are
types of equipment used to turn piles include: driven in aisle ways beside the windrow.
front-end loaders and specially designed Windrow turners mix piles more thoroughly
turning equipment. than front-end loaders and generally produce
a final product with superior texture.
Front-end Loaders Windrow turners are less flexible than loaders
Front-end loaders can be used for: compost because they cannot be used to move
mixing, pile or windrow formation and material from one area to another and
cannot be used to turn static piles.
Chippers, $5,000 to $135,000 5 to 300 cy/hr Uses knives and blades to cut materials.
shredders
Training Tips:
Train staff members in proper data
collection and record keeping techniques.
Train staff members in proper safety
procedures.
Training in equipment maintenance is
extremely important.
Ongoing training
Training at a composting facility is an ongoing
process. New developments in composting
practice occur constantly and are frequently
presented in periodicals devoted to Trained employees help to maintain
consistency and quality.
Problematic odors
Table 9: Common odors at compost
Composting is a natural process producing
little odor in the forest or a homeowner’s sites
backyard. Larger amounts of yard clippings Odor Cause
increase the possibility of odor generation. A Ammonia Too much nitrogen
variety of odors can be produced as a result Amines (fishy smell) Anaerobic conditions
of the composting process. Typical odors Sulfides (rotten eggs) Anaerobic conditions
include ammonia, amines (fishy smell), Volatile fatty acids Anaerobic conditions
sulfides (rotten eggs) and volatile fatty acids. (VFAs)
The type of odor produced can provide the
compost operator a clue to what’s causing
the problem and how it can be remedied.
Compost “Recipe”
• Balance of several factors: C:N ratio; moisture content; pile shape/size;
temperature; oxygen; bulking agents
Composting Technology/Operations
• Tailor system and operating procedure to type and quantity of feedstock
6
Facility Financing
Introduction
Composting facilities have become an
integral component of our solid waste Establishing Project Credibility p. 2
management infrastructure. Finding capital
to finance composting facilities, especially Financing Capital Costs p. 5
in light of budget constraints in local Financing Operating Costs p. 9
communities, present both a challenge and Table 1: Financing Sources p. 12
an opportunity for facility developers
whether public or private sector. Table 2: Operating Costs p. 13
Partnerships between the public and
private sectors, in a range of variations,
often result in successful financing
strategies.
Material Sales
Material sales are another cash revenue
stream that can be used to offset costs.
Bulk sales may make up the largest portion of your
In general, markets for composted organics business.
are becoming stronger. The successes of
Costs are equally distributed Public approval is difficult to BPW, City or County Councils
get
District Tax Levies Can be used in conjunction Allocation of tax is not based County or District Solid Waste
with bond issue on facility usage Coordinators
Predictable stream of revenue Reduces the leverage of BPW, City or County Councils
consumer choice
Bond Financing Bonds issued by City, state or Bond payments need to be Bond counsel to cities, states,
districts are tax exempt regular or districts
Agency Funds No cost of funds Major facilities could take City Manager, County
years to fully fund Executive, and Solid Waste
Expenditures can be planned Coordinators
in budget cycle Inaccessible to private sector
Public Grants and Low or no cost funding Uncertainty of funding State DNR, Commerce, and
Loans EPA officials
Provide good seed for other Timing of grants is usually
sources longer State legislators
Private Equity and Unlimited and immediate Financing is risk-averse Local bankers
Bank Financing funds for attractive projects
Management interference Venture capitalists
Management assistance from from financiers Private investor services
financiers
Small business assistance
Reduces tax burden agencies
Can easily be used to create In the absence of flow State DNR and EPA
incentives for recovery control, revenues are regulators
unpredictable
Differential tip fees are a fair
way to allocate costs
Collection Fees Common, well understood Costs more to administrate Local solid waste haulers
means of collecting revenue
When fees are poorly
Can easily be used to create applied, costs of
incentives for recovery composting can be
misrepresented
Landfill Surcharges Can be contractually Illegal for public sector to Privately owned landfills
negotiated as part of permit or impose on private landfills
support process Publicly owned landfills
Steadily increasing rates of
Effective means of capturing landfill diversion reduces
future year benefits revenue stream
Material Sales Revenues are proportional to Lack of market awareness State and national EPA,
size of facility reduces current sales Departments of Agriculture
Natural Resources, and
Strengthening markets bode Strength of market varies Commerce
well for economic strength of regionally
facilities Land grant universities
•Composting Council
Soil and Bark Producers
Assoc.
National Recycling Coalition,
National Solid Waste
Management Assoc.
7 Compost Marketing:
Concepts & Tools
To produce compost that meets consumer compost are appropriate for specific uses.
expectation, it is essential to ascertain the In all cases, the compost operator must
potential buyers’ requirements for quality concentrate on delivery of a consistently
and quantity when designing the facility. high quality product that is available in
Attention to incoming material, reliable quantities.
procedures, and adequate curing will ensure
consistently high quality compost. Benefits of Compost p. 2
Compost Market Planning p. 2
A good marketing strategy must Product Quality Standards & Control p. 6
demonstrate the benefits of and Compost Characteristics p. 9
applications for compost to compete Market Sectors p.10
Matching Process to Market Specs p. 11
successfully with other soil products. While
Promotion and Distribution p. 16
compost imparts a broad range of benefits
to soil and plants, different grades of
Good marketing will include a variety of ways that will attract the attention of the consumer.
Market Sectors
Compost users can be grouped into six For example: If an operator wanted to
categories, each with their own application target golf courses, it would be necessary to
quality. Compost operators must become find out what characteristics are important
familiar with the specific applications, in material used for the various turf
needs and concerns of the market sectors requirements of a golf course. Compost
they are targeting. In this way, decisions used in the construction and maintenance
made throughout the entire composting of golf greens would have different
process will work together to produce a characteristics than that used for fairways.
final product that is suitable, even superior,
for that market. Market sectors and the relative volume,
quality and pricing are included in Table 2.
Using Compost
More is not always better Soil with 1 percent organic matter (OM) will
Excessive use of compost can result in generate 10 pounds of nitrogen per acre
reduced plant growth, succulent plants that per year, compared to 100 pounds from soil
are disease prone, ground water with 10 percent OM, based on a
contamination, and potential surface run- mineralization rate of 8% to 10% of N at
off. 72°F. [source: F. Gouin, Better Composting
School]
Plain compost made from yard clippings will
not likely contain sufficient nitrogen (N)
causing over-succulence, but a compost
product supplemented with manure or
fertilizer could. Applying too much compost
wastes money and resources, and can
jeopardize the crop. Compost used and
applied properly, however, will increase the
success of almost any project.
8
Introduction
Troubleshooting
Compost operators may perceive
complaints from neighbors as unfounded
Under normal conditions at a well-designed harassment based on NIMBY attitudes (Not
composting facility using sound in My Backyard). However, sensitivity to
management practices, most problems can odors and other nuisance conditions is
be avoided. However, a number of factors normal and should be anticipated. This is
alone or in combination can cause an especially true in residential and
operator to lose control of the composting commercial areas where people live and
process, resulting in foul odors, leaching, work. Good relationships with your
vectors, and inferior product quality. These neighbors will pay dividends when (if) you
problems are serious and must be corrected do have problems.
or the facility will be susceptible to
complaints which can lead to legal
ramifications. There have been numerous
instances where odor problems have Figure 1: Problem-solving at compost
resulted in costly legal fees and permanent facilities
closure of the composting facility. Other
problems that can trouble compost facilities
include dust, noise, litter, unwanted Identify
wildlife, site degradation. In addition,
operational problems can occur such as Problem
piles that don’t heat up sufficiently or
temperatures that are too high.
Repeat
Odor Problems p. 3
Determine as
Temperature p. 6
Cause needed
Dust p. 8
Noise p. 9
Flies and other pests p. 10
Inferior Final Product Quality p. 11
Remedy
Site-related problems p. 12
Problem
Handling Neighbor Complaints p. 13
Problem: Anaerobic smell. Cause: Water pooling on compost pad. Solution: Restore grade and repair
pad to remove low spots that allow water to puddle.
pile too small Compost piles 3' tall or Re-mix and combine piles
less
Temp. too high Insufficient Pile is moist (as Turn pile more frequently
aeration determined by squeeze or increase air flow.
method)
Insects, mammals
and birds can all
become pest
problems in
poorly managed
compost sites.
Site-related problems
Conclusion
Proper processing of compost will result in the cause can be eliminated and the
fewer complaints from neighbors than problem should not repeat itself.
haphazard practices. Consistently applied
procedures will produce minimal odors, Careful attention should also be given to
draw few pests and produce high quality the concerns and complaints of neighbors
compost. However, even in well-run with regard to problems at a facility. These
facilities, problems can occur. complaints should be addressed quickly and
completely. Results of the actions taken to
It is important to address these problems remediate a problem should be clearly
quickly and with attention to the underlying explained to neighbors as soon as possible.
cause of the problem at hand. In this way