Savio Salesian College History

Department
Unit 1:
Cold War
Revision Guide (A)
Tuesday June 5th

Name:
1
Key Topic 1 - How did the Cold War in Europe develop?
1943–56
Reasons for the Cold War:
Grand Alliance

Teheran

Yalta

Potsdam

The attitudes of Stalin and

Truman and the ideological
differences between the
Superpowers
The division of Germany into
zones of occupation and the
joint occupation of Berlin

The Soviet control of Eastern

Europe, the establishment of
satellite states

Cominform

the Truman Doctrine and the

Marshall Plan

Growing tension in Europe:

Soviet control of satellite
states e.g. Czechoslovakia,
East Germany

Comecon

Bizonia

2
The crisis over Berlin including
the Blockade and Airlift

The formation of NATO

The creation of the FRG and

GDR

The beginnings of the arms

race to 1955

The formation of the Warsaw

Pact

Hungary:
The impact of Soviet rule on
Hungary

Rákosi, de-Stalinisation and

optimism

Nagy’s programmme of
reforms

Soviet reaction and the

uprising

The death of Nagy, the re-

establishment of Soviet
control

International reaction to the

Hungarian uprising and the
Soviet response

3
Revision Notes
CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR [BARE]
1. Beliefs: Russia was a Communist country, ruled by a dictator who cared little about human
rights.
America was a capitalist democracy, which valued freedom.
2. Aims: Stalin wanted reparations from Germany/ a buffer of friendly states.
Britain and the USA [led by President Truman] wanted to help Germany recover/ to prevent
large areas of Europe from coming under Communist control.
3. Resentment about history: The USSR did not trust Britain and the USA – They had tried
to destroy the Russian Revolution in 1918/ Stalin thought they had not helped the USSR
enough in WW2.
Britain & USA did not trust USSR – Stalin had signed the Nazi-Soviet pact in 1939.
4. Events turned the mistrust into war: Yalta/ Potsdam/ Salami tactics/ Fulton (Churchill’s
speech)/ Greece/ Truman Doctrine/ Marshall Plan/ Cominform/ Czechoslovakia

GRAND ALLIANCE (1941)

An alliance created between the USA, GB and the USSR to defeat the common enemy that was
Hitler. It was a’ marriage of convenience’ between communists and capitalists. Once Hitler was
defeated the Alliance became uneasy. Between 1943 and 1945, the leaders of the Grand
Alliance met at three international conferences: Teheran, Yalta and Potsdam.

TEHERAN CONFERENCE (1943)

Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt agreed that:
1. USA and GB would open a second front to split German defences to take pressure off
the Russians
2. USSR would declare war on Japan once Germany was defeated
3. Poland should be given more land from Germany but lose some to Russia
BUT there were points of disagreement:
1. Roosevelt often sided with Stalin and not Churchill eg, Churchill wanted an invasion of
the Balkans to stop spread Soviet advance in Eastern Europe.
2. Stalin disagreed and Roosevelt supported him

YALTA CONFERENCE (February 1945)

1. Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt agreed to Divide Germany into 4 zones (France, Britain, USA,
USSR)/ to hold free elections in Eastern European countries./ to set up the United
Nations./ to set up a government of Communists and non Communists in Poland.
2. On the surface, everything seemed friendly, but there was tension behind the scenes

POTSDAM CONFERENCE (July 1945)

1. At Potsdam the tensions surfaced.
2. Stalin, Truman and Atlee agreed to bring Nazi war criminals to trial/ divide Germany into 4
occupied zones.
3. There were disagreements over Soviet policy in Poland./ The size of German reparations.

SALAMI TACTICS (1945–48) ‘Slice-by-slice’, Stalin ensured all Eastern European .countries
had Communist governments
1. Albania (1945) – the Communists took power after the war without opposition
2. Bulgaria (1945) – the Communists executed the leaders of all the other parties.
3. Poland (1947) – the Communists forced the non-Communist leaders into exile.
4. Hungary (1947) – Russian troops stayed / Stalin allowed elections (non-communists won a big
majority)/ Communists led by the pro-Russian Rakosi./ Rakosi demanded that groups which
4
 opposed him should be banned./ He got control of the police, and arrested his opponents./
He set up a secret police unit, the AVH.
5. Romania (1945–1947) – the Communists gradually took over control.
6. Czechoslovakia (1948) – the Communists banned all other parties/ killed their leaders.
7. East Germany (1949) – Russians turned their zone into German Democratic Republic.

EVENTS 1946–1948
1. FULTON SPEECH (March 1946)
 Churchill described the Soviet bloc as an ‘iron curtain’ – Stalin believed this was necessary
to maintain the safety of the USSR.
 After Fulton, the Cold War worsened. Russia called the speech a declaration of war.
2. GREECE (February 1947)
 US supplied arms and money to defeat the Communists.
3. TRUMAN DOCTRINE (March 1947) – The USA implemented a policy of ‘containment’
towards the USSR – to prevent Communism spreading any further.
4. MARSHALL PLAN (June 1947) – Marshall believed poverty was a breeding ground for
Communism. American introduced ‘Marshall Aid’ – $17 billion to get Europe’s economy going.
5. COMINFORM (October 1947) – Stalin forbade Communist countries to accept Marshall Aid.
(October 1947) Cominform was set up to control all Communist countries in Europe.
6. CZECHOSLOVAKIA (February 1948) – Communists took control
Panicked the US Senate into granting Marshall Aid (31 March 1948)

THE BERLIN BLOCKADE

1. Causes [CABAN]
 Cold War was beginning to bite – created tension.
 Aims – USA+UK wanted Germany to recover/ Stalin looting German industrial capacity.
 Bizonia – USA, UK, France merged zones – became more prosperous than the Soviet.
 American Aid – Marshall Aid was voted 31 March 1948.
 New Currency –Britain and America introduced new currency – destabilised the East German
economy. Stalin said that this was the cause of the blockade.
2. Events – (24 June 1948) – Stalin closed rail + road links to Berlin / Lasted 11 months/ Allies
airlifted supplies to Berlin – 275,000 flights, 1.5m tons/ In winter, Berliners lived on dried
eggs and potatoes/ 4 hours of electricity a day./ US had B29 bombers on standby./ (12 May
1949) – Stalin re-opened the borders.
3. Results [CENA]
 Cold War got worse.
 East/West Germany: German Democratic Republic/ Federal Republic of Germany.
 NATO and Warsaw Pact – NATO (1949) defensive alliance against USSR/ Warsaw Pact 1955
by Russia
 Arms Race. The USA and USSR competed for world domination.

KHRUSHCHEV succeeded Stalin.

1. It seemed he would bring a thaw in the Cold War – He advocated ‘Peaceful Coexistence’/ He
met Western leaders at summit meetings/ He was friendly to Yugoslavia, telling Tito there
were ‘different roads to Communism’/ He criticised Stalin, executed Beria, set free political
prisoners and de-stalinised the eastern bloc countries.
2. In fact 1955–1963 was the time of greatest tension in the Cold War
 Khrushchev used Russian troops when countries tried to leave Russian control.
 By peaceful co-existence, Khrushchev meant ‘peaceful competition’ (He loved to argue
(Kitchen debate with Nixon)/ He gave economic aid to countries like Afghanistan and Burma/
Space Race (1957: Sputnik. 1961: Yuri Gagarin orbits the earth)/ Arms Race (1953: Russia
got the hydrogen bomb)
5
 Warsaw Pact (1955) – USSR/ Albania/ Bulgaria/ Czechoslovakia/ E Germany/ Hungary/
Poland/ Romania
3. In retaliation, in America McCarthy conducted a ‘witchhunt’ for Communists/ In 1955,
NATO agreed to an army of 0.5 m men in W Germany/ rushed to put a man on the moon/
American U2 planes spied on Russia

HUNGARY (1956)
Causes:
 Poverty – When most of Hungary’s food was sent to Russia
 Russian Control – The Hungarians were very patriotic/ They hated censorship, the AVH, and
Russian control of education./ They hated having Russian troops stationed in Hungary
 Catholic Church – Communism tried to destroy religion, but Hungarians were Catholics
 Help from the West – The Hungarians thought Esienhower or UN would help.
 Destalinisation –Led to protests against Rakosi’s harsh government.
Events (3 key dates)
 23 October – Student riots – attcks on AVH and Russian troops
 24 October – 3 November – Reforming government led by Imre Nagy (Democracy/ Freedom
of speech/ Freedom of religion/ Aimed to withdraw from Warsaw Pact.
 4 November – Soviets sent 1000 tanks to crush/ Western powers protested but didn’t want
a war.
Results
Janos Kadar put in control of Hungary/ 4,000 Hungarians killed/ Nagy shot./ 200,000
Hungarians flee to West./ Many westerners leave the Communist party./ Russia stays in
control in Eastern Europe./ Western leaders all the more determined to ‘contain’
communism.

FROM : BBC Bitesize Revision Notes

Arms race

Both sides are now organised into two major military alliances. NATO in the West and the
Warsaw Pact in the East. By 1955 the world is now a much more dangerous place. Each side fears
the other. Therefore they start to build up their armies and weapons. As a result each side felt
more threatened, and so consequently they built even more weapons.

6
 Timetable

Year Event

1952 USA Hydrogen Bomb

1953 USSR Hydrogen Bomb

1957 USSR test Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBMs)

1958 USA Test ICBMs

1959 USA launches submarine loaded with nuclear weapons

1966 USSR builds Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) to protect Moscow

By the 1950s

 The Cold War has become very serious as both sides focused on the development of the
Hydrogen Bomb (H Bomb), 2500 times stronger that the Hiroshima bomb.
 Mutual Assured Destruction (known as M.A.D.) has become increasingly more likely, e.g. in
the event of nuclear war, both sides would be wiped out.
 Both USSR and USA began development on missile technology that could put rockets in
space. This opened up possibilities for the delivery of nuclear weapons.
 By the 1950's, US intelligence estimated that in a Russian missile attack, 20 million
Americans would die and 22 million would be injured.
 The Americans increased their expenditure on weapons massively as a result of the
Missile Gap - the belief that the Russians were way ahead.

The space race

On 4th October 1957, Russia launched the

first satellite into space; Sputnik 1, and the
space age had properly begun!

Sputnik was the first satellite in orbit around

the earth. Today there are over 500 working
satellites in space. Sputnik means "Satellite"
in Russian.

7
EXAM FOCUS

8
 Key Topic 2 Three Cold War crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia c1957–69

Berlin:

The refugee problem

Khrushchev’s Berlin ultimatum

(1958)

Eisenhower and Camp David

Khrushchev’s challenge to
Kennedy

Summit conferences and

growing tension, e.g. U2

The construction of the Berlin

Wall and its impact

Kennedy’s visit to Berlin, 1963.

Cuba:
Soviet control of satellite
states e.g. Czechoslovakia,
East Germany
The context of the developing
arms race to 1961

Cuba’s drift from the USA,

the Bay of Pigs

Castro’s friendship with the

Soviet Union, economic ties

Missile bases

The 13 days

Immediate and longer-term

results, ‘hot line’, the Test Ban
Treaty (1963) and the moves
to détente

9
Czechoslovakia
Opposition to Soviet control

Dubček as party secretary,

the Prague Spring reforms

The Brezhnev doctrine, the

re-establishment of Soviet
control
International reaction to
events in Czechoslovakia

REVISON NOTES

U2 CRISIS
1 May 1960 Soviets shot down American U2 spy plane over USSR, and captured pilot Gary
Powers./ Americans had to admit he was a spy./ Khrushchev demanded apology + end to spy
flights./ Eisenhower refused.
Results
Khrushchev walks out of Paris summit (14 May 1960)/ Eisenhower’s planned visit to Russia
cancelled/ Khrushchev demands US leaves West Berlin/ Americans came off badly – been
caught lying- propaganda victory for USSR./ New American president Kennedy promises to
get tough on Communism.

BERLIN WALL
1. Causes
 Growing tension (U2 crisis/ Kennedy finances anti-Communist forces in Laos and Vietnam)
 Refugees (West Berlin enjoyed much higher standard than East Berlin./ 1945 –1960 3 million
people crossed the border – a propaganda point for the US – most were skilled workers)
 Sabotage –The Russians claimed that America used West Berlin for spies and sabotage in
east Germany..
 The Berlin Ultimatum (November 27, 1958) Krushchev accused the U.S., Great Britain, and
France of breaking Potsdam Agreement. Allies given six months to demilitarize West Berlin
and declare it a “free city.”
2. Events
13 August 1961– East Germans erected a barbed wire wall overnight (later stone)/ All East –
West movement was stopped./ Wall fortified with barbed wire and guns./Western powers
could do nothing.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

1. Causes
 Superpower tension – U2 – Berlin Wall – Laos – Vietnam
 Fidel Castro’s Cuba – only 90 miles off coast of America./ Close relationship with USSR (oil,
machinery and money in return for sugar)/ Cuba nationalises American companies
 Bay of Pigs – (April 1961) America sent in rebels in but they were defeated (a humiliation).
 Missile bases – 14 October 1962: USA U2 spy planes photographs Soviet missile sites on
Cuba.
2. Events

10
 Kennedy ordered a naval blockade and threatened invasion.
 For 10 days the world was on the brink of nuclear war.
 Kennedy promised to remove US missiles from Turkey
 28 October Khrushchev removed the missiles and the crisis was over
3. Results
 Khrushchev seemed to have failed
 Kennedy became the hero of the Western world
 Telephone hot line set up between Moscow and Washington.
 (1963) – Nuclear test ban treaty signed.

BBC Bitesize revision notes

The Berlin Wall

By the 1960s Berlin was still divided - the USSR controlled the East and the USA

guaranteed freedom in the West. Thousands of refugees escaped to West Berlin each day

- much to the embarrassment of the USSR - so in 1961 Khrushchev closed the border and

ordered the construction of a wall to stop people leaving.

The problems in West Berlin

West Berlin was a worry and an embarrassment for the Soviet Union in 1961:

 Nearly 2,000 refugees a day were fleeing to the West through west Berlin - hardly

proof of the Soviet claim that the Communist way of life was better than capitalism!

 Many of those leaving were skilled and qualified workers.

 The Soviets believed (rightly) that West Berlin was a centre for US espionage.

At the Vienna Summit of June 1961, therefore, Khrushchev demanded that the US leave West

Berlin within six months. Kennedy refused and instead guaranteed West Berlin's freedom.

On 13 August, Khrushchev closed the border between East and West Berlin and started building

the Berlin Wall. At first, the Russians regarded it as a propaganda success, but as time went on,

it became a propaganda disaster - a symbol of all that was bad about Soviet rule.

11
The Berlin Wall as a symbol

Source A

A photograph of the Berlin Wall.

The Berlin Wall shortly after its construction

Source B

In 1963, President Kennedy visited West Berlin and made his famous 'I am a Berliner' speech

next to the Berlin Wall:

There are many people in the world who really don't understand what is the great issue between

the free world and the communist world - let them come to Berlin!

There are some who say in Europe and elsewhere we can work with the communists - let them

come to Berlin!

All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin. And, therefore, as a free man, I

take pride in the words 'Ich bin ein Berliner' ['I am a Berliner'].

President Kennedy, 1963

Revision tip

Question

To help you revise this section, try to think of three ways that the Berlin Wall was

a symbol of the Cold War in the 1950s and 1960s.

12
Answer

1. It was a concrete version of the Iron Curtain.

2. It symbolised the divided world.

3. It showed that the difference was a real-life physical division.

4. It showed that the difference was a military confrontation.

5. It was a concrete symbol of the ideological divisions between the "free world" and

the "communist world".

6. It was concrete proof that capitalists could never work with communists.

Answer preparation

As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:

1. Why the Berlin Wall was built.

2. What the Berlin Wall tells us about the nature of the Cold War in the 1960s.

Causes of the Cuban Missile Crisis

In October 1962 the existence of the world was threatened. Experts examining

photographs of Cuba taken by U2 spy planes saw what they believed to be evidence that

the Russians were building nuclear missile sites in Cuba.

It was the beginning of a confrontation that took the world to the brink of a nuclear

holocaust.

Causes summary

In 1962, the Cold War was at its coldest. The Russians had built the Berlin Wall the previous

year. Kennedy who had been elected because he promised to get tough with the Communists felt

that Khrushchev had got one over on him at the Vienna Summit in 1961. In April 1962, the

Americans put nuclear missiles in Turkey.

Also, in 1959, a rebel named Fidel Castro took power in Cuba, an island just 90 miles away from

Florida. Before Castro took over, the government - led by Colonel Batista - had been a corrupt

and right-wing military dictatorship, but the Americans had many business interests in Cuba.

When Castro came to power, however, he nationalised American companies in Cuba. In

retaliation, the Americans stopped all aid to Cuba, and all imports of Cuban sugar. This was a
13
blow to Castro as sugar was the mainstay of the Cuban economy. Castro was forced to look to

the USSR for help, and, in 1960, the USSR signed an agreement to buy 1 million tonnes of Cuban

sugar every year. Castro, who had not been a Communist when he took power, became a

Communist.

America was alarmed. In April 1961, with Kennedy's knowledge, the CIA funded, trained, armed

and transported 1,300 Cuban exiles to invade Cuba. They landed at the Bay of Pigs and made an

attempt to overthrow Castro. The invasion was a disaster, and President Kennedy was humiliated.

A map showing the range of missiles fired from Cuba

In September 1961, Castro asked for - and Russia publicly promised - weapons to defend Cuba

against America. Which is why on 14 October 1962, the Americans discovered the missile

sites in Cuba. These sites brought every town in the US within range of Soviet nuclear missiles.

President Kennedy called a meeting of the National Security Council and on 22 October went on

TV to tell the American people that they were under threat.

The crisis had begun.

Kennedy versus Khrushchev

Revision tip and answer preparation

Revision tip

To help you remember these facts, identify six causes of the Cuban crisis and present them as a

spidergram, showing the links between the different factors.

14
Answer preparation

As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:

1. Why the USA and the USSR clashed over Cuba in 1962.

2. What the issues were - on both sides - in the Cuban missile crisis.

3. Who you would blame for the Cuban missile crisis.

The 13 days and the effects of the crisis

The threat of nuclear war became increasingly apparent. It was vital that Kennedy and

Khrushchev came to some sort of agreement - the future of the world depended on it.

Crisis summary

President Kennedy did not dare to invade Cuba, because that action could have started a world

war - yet he could not let the missile sites be completed. With his advisers, he decided on a

naval blockade to prevent Russian ships delivering the missiles for the Cuban sites.

Khrushchev warned that Russia would see the blockade as an act of war. Russian forces were

put on alert; US bombers were put in the air carrying nuclear bombs; preparations were made

to invade Cuba. There was massive tension in both Washington and Moscow. Everybody thought

the world was going to come to an end. Secretly, the Americans suggested a trade-off of missile

bases - US bases in Turkey for Russian bases in Cuba.

The Russians made the first public move. The ships heading for Cuba turned back, and

Khrushchev sent a telegram offering to dismantle the Cuban bases if Kennedy lifted the

blockade and promised not to invade Cuba. Then, as though having second thoughts, he sent a

second letter demanding the dismantling of the Turkish bases. At the vital moment, a US U2 spy

plane was shot down.

However, Kennedy ignored the U2 attack and agreed publicly to the first letter, and secretly to

the second. The crisis was over.

15
One week in October 1962

Day Events

Monday 22 Kennedy announces a naval blockade of Cuba. B52 nuclear bombers are deployed,
October so that one-eighth of them are airborne all the time. Kennedy warns of a full
retaliatory response, if any missile is launched from Cuba.

Tuesday 23 Khrushchev explains that the missile sites are "solely to defend Cuba against the
October attack of an aggressor".

Wednesday Twenty Russian ships head for Cuba. Khrushchev tells the captains to ignore the
24 October blockade. Khrushchev warns that Russia will have "a fitting reply to the
aggressor".

Thursday 25 The first Russian ship reaches the naval blockade. It is an oil ship and is allowed
October through. The other Russian ships turn back. Secretly, the US government floats
the idea of removing the missiles in Turkey in exchange for those in Cuba.

Friday 26 Russia is still building the missile bases. In the morning, Kennedy considers an
October invasion of Cuba. It seems that war is about to break out. But at 6pm, Kennedy
gets a telegram from Khrushchev offering to dismantle the sites if Kennedy
lifts the blockade and promises not to invade Cuba.

Saturday 27 However, at 11am Khrushchev sends a second letter, demanding that Kennedy
October also dismantles American missile bases in Turkey. At noon on the same day, a U2
plane is shot down over Cuba. It looks as if a war is about to start after all. At
8.05pm, Kennedy sends a letter to Khrushchev, offering that if Khrushchev
dismantles the missile bases in Cuba, America will lift the blockade and promise
not to invade Cuba - and also dismantle the Turkish missile bases (as long as this
is kept a secret).

Sunday 28 Khrushchev agrees to Kennedy's proposals. The crisis is over.

October

Tuesday 20 Russian bombers leave Cuba, and Kennedy lifts the naval blockade.
November

Repercussions/Consequences/Effects of the crisis

Speaking many years later, Khrushchev claimed that he had won the Cuban missile crisis. He

had achieved both his aims - America never bothered Cuba again (which is still a Communist

country) and the US missile sites in Turkey were dismantled in November 1962.

The world did not see it that way at the time, because the Turkey deal was kept secret, the

West saw Kennedy as the hero who had faced down Communism.

Meanwhile, Khrushchev lost prestige. China broke off relations with Russia and, in 1964, he was

forced to resign as Soviet leader.

16
 Lasting effects of the crisis

'OK Mr President, let's talk'

On 29 October 1962, this cartoon was published in the 'Daily Mail'. The caption read: 'OK Mr

President, let's talk'.

The message of the cartoon was clear - the world had avoided a nuclear war, but it was time for

reason. In fact, both leaders had frightened themselves. Soon afterwards:

 In 1963, a telephone hotline was set up to give instant contact between the two leaders

if there was a crisis.

 In 1963, a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed.

 In 1968, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed - the superpowers promised

not to supply nuclear technology to other countries.

Revision tip and answer preparation

Revision tip

Look back through the pages on the Cuban missile crisis, sorting the evidence to support the idea

that Kennedy won the Cuban Missile crisis, and the evidence to suggest that Khrushchev won.

Form your own conclusion.

Answer preparation

As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:

1. What the results of the Cuban crisis were.

2. Who won the Cuban crisis - Kennedy or Khrushchev.

3. How well the Illingworth cartoon represents the Cuban crisis.

17
 The Prague Spring

For four months in 1968 Czechoslovakia broke free from Soviet rule, allowing freedom of

speech and removing some state controls. This period is now referred to as the Prague

Spring but why did it only last four months?

Events in Czechoslovakia 1968

 1. There were no riots or demonstrations but, during 1967, students and writers were
complaining about the lack of freedom, and the poor performance of the Czechoslovak economy.

2. But when Antonin Novotny, the Czechoslovak president, asked Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet
leader, for help, Brezhnev did not support him.

3. Novotny fell from power and on 5 January 1968, Alexandr Dubcek - a reformer - took over as
leader of the Communist Party (KSC).

4. In April 1968, Dubcek's government announced an Action Plan for what it called a new model
of socialism - it removed state controls over industry and allowed freedom of speech.


5. For four months (the Prague Spring), there was freedom in Czechoslovakia. But then the
revolution began to run out of control. Dubcek announced that he was still committed to
democratic communism, but other political parties were set up.

6. Also, Dubcek stressed that Czechoslovakia would stay in the Warsaw Pact, but in August,
President Tito of Yugoslavia, a country not in the Warsaw Pact, visited Prague.


18
 7. At a meeting in Bratislava on 3 August 1968, Brezhnev read out a letter from some
Czechoslovakian Communists asking for help. He announced the Brezhnev Doctrine - the USSR
would not allow any Eastern European country to reject Communism.

8. On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia. Dubcek and three
other leaders were arrested and sent to Moscow.


9. The Czechoslovakians did not fight the Russians. Instead, they stood in front of the tanks,
and put flowers in the soldiers' hair. Jan Palach burned himself to death in protest.

10. Brezhnev put in Gustav Husak, a supporter of Russia, as leader of the KSC.

Causes and effects of the Prague Spring

Causes of the Prague Spring

1. The policy of détente encouraged the uprising. Romania had also broken free of Russian

control, and was improving relations with the West.

2. The Czechs hated Russian control, especially:

o Russian control of the economy, which had made Czechoslovakia poor.

o The censorship and lack of freedom.

3. Some Czechs thought the USA would help them.

Effects of the invasion of Czechoslovakia

1. Czechoslovakia returned to communist control and Russian troops were stationed there.

Half the leadership of the KSC, along with the directors of many firms (especially publishing

companies) were sacked and 47 anti-communists were arrested.

2. Russia stayed in control behind the Iron Curtain. TheBrezhnev Doctrine stated that

Iron Curtain countries would not be allowed to abandon communism, "even if it meant a third

world war".

3. Increase of the Cold War. People in the West were horrified and so were many

communist countries, especially Romania and Yugoslavia.

19
Revision tip and answer preparation

Revision tip

Question

To help you remember this story, compare its details with the story of the Hungarian

Uprising of 1956, listing the similarities and differences.

Answer

Similarities

 Same causes - hostility to Russian control, repression, poor economic

performance/poverty.

 Change started when Russia refused to support the old regime.

 Rakosi = Novotny, Nagy = Dubcek.

 Brief period when the new government introduced reforms and freedom of speech.

 Russia got scared when Hungary planned to leave the Warsaw Pact; Tito visited

Czechoslovakia.

 A letter from some Communists asking for Russia's help was used as the excuse to

invade.

 Russia invaded with overwhelming force.

 Kadar = Husak.

 The West failed to help either Nagy or Dubcek.

Differences

 Started with riots in Hungary, but not in Czechoslovakia.

 Czechoslovakia was much more planned than Hungary; Dubcek's government had a proper

Action Plan.

 Nagy announced he was going to leave the Warsaw Pact; Dubcek stressed that he would

stay in the Warsaw Pact.

 The Hungarians introduced democracy; Dubcek stressed that he wanted communism,

albeit "democratic communism".

 Four months of freedom in Czechoslovakia; five days of freedom in Hungary.

 The Catholic Church took a lead in events in Hungary, but not in Czechoslovakia.

20
  Hungary fought back; Czechoslovakia had passive resistance.

 Some 4,000 Hungarians executed, while 47 Czechoslovaks were arrested.

 Dubcek was arrested; Nagy was executed.

Answer preparation

As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:

1. Why there was a revolution in Czechoslovakia in 1968.

2. What happened in the Prague Spring.

3. Why the Russians crushed the Czechoslovakian Revolution.

4. How the events of 1968 in Czechoslovakia affected East-West relations.

The arms race and the space race revisited

By the 1960s

 Both USSR and USA could deliver nuclear weapons across continents at high speeds
(ICBMs)
 Eventually the USA had 8,000 ICBM's and USSR 7,000 ICBM's
 By the end of the 60s both sides had developed Anti Ballistic Missile systems (ABM) to
counteract the ICBMs
 Troops: NATO had 2.6 million, Warsaw Pact had 4 million

Mutually Assured Destruction

 Both sides knew that any attack upon the other would be suicide. In theory this would
restrain one side from attacking the other.
 Many historians argue that it was due to this that the nuclear arms race actually
prevented war.

In November 1957, the Russian space dog Laika

became the first animal to orbit the earth.

Laika travelled in a spacecraft known as Sputnik 2.

Laika means "Barker" in Russian, and her mission
helped scientists understand whether people could
survive in space.

21
 By 1959 Both American and Russian scientists
were in a race to get a spacecraft to the Moon;
the Russians made it first.

Space-probe Luna 2 crash-landed into the moon at

a speed that would kill an astronaut if one had
been travelling in it! It was ten more years until a
human visited the moon's surface.

On 12th April 1961, Russian Cosmonaut Yuri

Gagarin became the first man in space. Gagarin's
spacecraft, Vostok 1, completed one orbit of the
earth, and landed about two hours after launch.

Gagarin had to bail out and land using his

parachute, because the Vostok 1 was designed to
crash land!

The first woman in space was Russian cosmonaut

Valentina Tereshkova.

After her 1963 mission, Valentina became an

important member of the Russian Government, and
has been awarded many honours and prizes for her
achievements. A crater on the far side of the
Moon is named after her!

22
 In 1963 US President John F. Kennedy promised
the world that the US would land men on the moon
before 1970. Before risking people's lives, NASA
sent a robot spaceship, to make sure they could
land safely.

It was called Surveyor 1, and it made the second

soft landing on the Moon on 30th May 1966, a few
months after Russian probe Luna 9 landed
successfully.

On 20th July 1969, Neil Armstrong, and then Buzz

Aldrin took "one small step" and became the first
men on the moon. The first words said on the
moon were "the Eagle has landed". Their
spaceship, Apollo 11 worked perfectly, flying them
250,000 miles to the moon, and bringing them all
the way back safely to earth. Buzz was a
childhood nickname - his real name was Edwin!

23
EXAM FOCUS

24
OLD STYLE QUESTION! – this question is now worth 13 marks and will give you two bullet
points to get you started.PLUS 3 SPaG

25
Key Topic 3 Why did the Cold War end? From détente (1962) to
the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991)
Détente in the 1970s:
SALT 1

Helsinki and SALT 2

The Soviet invasion of

Afghanistan and its impact on
détente
the Carter Doctrine and
Olympic boycotts.

Reagan and the ‘Second Cold War’:

President Reagan’s approach,
the
Strategic Defence Initiative
(SDI)
Changes after 1985: Reagan
and Gorbachev’s changing
attitudes

Summit conferences

Intermediaterange
Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF)

Gorbachev and the end of the Cold War:

the impact of Gorbachev’s
‘new
thinking’ [glasnost and
perestroika]
the loosening Soviet grip on
Eastern Europe

the fall of the

Berlin Wall

the collapse of the Soviet

Union and the end of the
Warsaw Pact.

26
BBC Bitesize Revision Notes

Détente

The policy of détente refers to the time in the 1960s-1970s when the two

superpowers eased tension and tried to cooperate to avoid conflict in the Cold War. A

number of events happened during this time period that illustrate this new policy.

Key achievements 1960s-1970s

In the late 1960s and 1970s, both superpowers talked a lot about 'détente'. Key achievements

included:

Achievements in détente

Image Date Event

1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: powers with nuclear weapons

agreed not to give any other countries nuclear technology.

1971 The US table tennis team played in China.

1971 The US dropped its veto and allowed China to join the United
Nations.

27
Image Date Event

1972 The US President Nixon visited China.

1972 Russia and America signed theSALT1 Treaty (Strategic Arms

Limitation Talks) agreeing to limit their anti-ballistic missiles and
bombers.

1975 The Helsinki Agreement recognised Soviet control over Eastern

Europe, concluded a trade agreement, and Russia promised to
respect human rights.

1975 Russian and American spacecraft docked in space.

Causes and limitations of détente

Causes of détente

1. America was shocked by the Vietnam War and wanted to stay out of world affairs. There

was also a vociferousCND [CND: Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ]movement in the West.

2. The arms race was very expensive for both superpowers.

3. The price of oil rocketed in the 1970s, and both superpowers experienced economic

problems.

28
Limitations of détente

1. The Non-Proliferation Treaty did not stop other countries developing nuclear weapons

(eg China, and perhaps South Africa and Israel).

2. Neither Russia or America kept to the SALT1 agreement. Neither side reduced their

conventional weapons. Further talks were much less successful and a SALT2 Treaty in 1979

added little.

3. In the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, America supported Israel, and Russia supported Egypt

and Syria.

4. The Helsinki Agreement achieved nothing - it confirmed the Iron Curtain and Russia

ignored its promises about human rights.

5. Table tennis and space meetings were just one-off propaganda stunts.

6. Brezhnev said that Communists would still try to destroy capitalism. Some historians

suggest that Nixon only went to China to drive a wedge between Russia and China

Revision tip and answer preparation

Revision tip

Use the information in this Revision Bite to draw up a table listing the so-called achievements of

détente and why it was a sham?

Try to find at least seven points.

Answer preparation

As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:

1. Why the USA tried to improve relations with China in the 1970s.

2. What détente achieved in the 1970s.

3. How far détente was successful in the 1970s.

4. Whether there was any genuine détente between East and West in the 1970s.

The collapse of communism

The decline of Communism was not a result of American policies and the Cold War, but

more to do with the problems faced by the USSR at home and abroad. This Revision Bite

lists events that led to the decline and fall of Communism, and the end of the Cold War.

29
The end of the Cold War

In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to try to prop up the communist government

there, which was being attacked by Muslim Mujaheddin fighters. This immediately caused a rift

with America, which boycotted the 1980 Olympics.

President Reagan referred to the Soviet Union as the 'evil empire'

In 1980, Ronald Reagan became president of the USA. As a strong anti-communist, he called the

Soviet Union the "evil empire" and increased spending on arms. The US military developed the

neutron bomb, cruise missiles and a Star Wars defence system using space satellites.

By 1985, the Soviet Union was in trouble. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the

USSR.

 He withdrew from Afghanistan.

 He realised that the USSR could not afford the arms race, and opened

the START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) with the USA. He signed the

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987.

 He began to reform the Soviet system by allowing perestroika (competition in business)

and glasnost (freedom).

Mikhail Gorbachev reformed the Soviet system

As in 1956 and 1968, a relaxation by the Soviet government encouraged revolutions in Eastern

Europe only this time, the USSR did not have the means or the will to impose military control.

30
  Free elections held in Poland in June 1989 were won by Solidarity, originally a banned

trade union, and Lech Walesa became the first non-communist president of Poland.

 Revolutions in other Eastern European countries quickly followed - notably the fall of the

Berlin Wall in November 1989.

 In 1991, Gorbachev fell from power and the Soviet Union was dissolved.

Problems facing the USSR in the 1980s

 Afghanistan had become "Russia's Vietnam".

 Russia could not afford the arms race.

 The Soviet economy was backwards - factories and mines were decrepit and out of date.

 Backward industry was causing increasing environmental problems - eg pollution, the

Chernobyl nuclear power plant explosion of 1986, and the Aral Sea dried up.

 Many people were much poorer than the poorest people in the capitalist West - unrest

about shortages was growing.

 Crime, alcoholism and drugs were out of control in Soviet towns.

 The Soviet system had become corrupt and out of date - instead of dealing with

problems, the government just covered them up (eg Chernobyl, 1986).

 Many people were dissatisfied with the Soviet police state and censorship.

Revision tip and answer preparation

Revision tip

Consider these two statements:

1. Increasing détente between the two sides after the Cuban Missiles Crisis gradually

brought the Cold War to an end.

2. The Cold War did not gradually thaw out. It continued with unabated ferocity until 1985,

when the Soviet Union ended things by unilaterally collapsing.

Look back through the pages covering the end of the Cold War, sorting the different evidence

to support the two statements.

Answer preparation

As part of your revision, think about the arguments and facts you would use to explain:

1. How the invasion of Afghanistan worsened relations between the USA and

USSR.

31
2. How détente collapsed in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

3. Why détente collapsed in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

4. How Reagan and Gorbachev were able to improve relations between

America and Russia.

5. Why communism in Central and Eastern Europe collapsed.

6. How important Solidarity was in the collapse of communism.

7. How far Gorbachev was responsible for the collapse of Soviet control

over Eastern Europe.

8. How far Reagan was responsible for the collapse of communism

EXAM FOCUS

32
OLD STYLE QUESTION! – this question is now worth 13 marks and will give you two bullet
points to get you started PLUS 3 SPAG

33
EXAM FOCUS – How Did I Do?

Key Topic 1 - How did the Cold War in Europe develop? 1943-56

34
35
36
37
38
 Key Topic 2 Three Cold War crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia c1957–69

39
40
41
42
43
44
Key Topic 3 Why did the Cold War end? From détente (1972) to the collapse of the Soviet
Union (1991)

45
46
47
48
TOP TIPS
1. You should only spend 1.5 minutes per mark. Therefore, a 2 mark question should take
you 3 minutes, and the 13 mark question 19.5 minutes. Be strict with yourself!

2. Consider starting with the last question [worth 13 marks] and working towards the
front. If you don’t have time to finish the 2 mark question, it’s not going to make much
difference to the final grade. If you don’t do the 13 mark question, it will make a huge
difference.

3. How to answer each question type

Question 6

1. This is a real make or break question and can be

the difference between a couple of grades.
Consider starting with this question, or question 5, and working your way back.
2. You need to think of three reasons to explain the question. These reasons should each
take up a paragraph, so three paragraphs, plus the introduction and conclusion.
3. Two bullet points are given. These are intended to be the ‘subheadings’ for each
paragraph. Therefore, you need to think of a third reason. If you don’t know anything
about the bullet points given, you can come up with three of your own reasons.
4. You need to say what the most important reason out of the three is, the ‘X-factor’.
It doesn’t matter which one you choose! You just need to be able to say why it is the
most important, and why it is more important than the others.
5. Read the question 3 times before attempting it! It is important that you stick to the
dates given! You don’t get any credit for including information outside of these
dates.
6. You should spend 19.5 minutes on this question.
7. Don’t forget your three marks for SPAG! These are given for a good structure, good
spelling and grammar, and use of key terms.

49
Introduction

 The introduction must answer the question directly: USE THE WORDS IN THE
QUESTION and only needs to be one or two sentences, e.g. “The most important
reason for why relations between the USA and the Soviet Union grew worse
between 1945 and 1948 was the Berlin Blockade because…”
 You need to say why your chosen reason is more important than one of the other
reasons. I would recommend doing this in the introduction, e.g. “While ideological
differences were always in the background, it is clear the most important reason
for why relations between the USA and the Soviet Union grew worse between 1945
and 1948 was the Berlin Blockade because…”
 If you can think of a quote that supports your point, put it in the introduction. It makes
you look clever!

Paragraph 1

 The first paragraph should be on the reason you think is the most important.
 Use PEELE:
 Point – Say what you think the most important reason is again, e.g. The most important
reason for why relations between the USA and the Soviet Union grew worse
between 1945 and 1948 was the Berlin Blockade because…”
 Evidence – You must include precise evidence – dates, facts/statistics, quotes. This
is where your revision comes in.
 Explain – say how the evidence you have used supports your point. Students always
miss this bit, but it is important. Just putting evidence in without explaining how it links
to your point is not good enough!
 Link – Include a mini-conclusion linking the paragraph back to your overall argument, e.g.
“Therefore, it is clear that the most important reason for why relations between
the USA and the Soviet Union grew worse between 1945 and 1948 was the Berlin
Blockade because…”
 Evaluate – say why your chosen reason is more important than the reason you are going
to talk about next. E.g. “The Berlin Blockade is more important than ideological
differences because…”

Paragraph 2

 This paragraph should be on what you think is the second most important reason.
 Use PEELE:
 Point – Say why your second point is also important e.g. Another important reason for
why relations between the USA and the Soviet Union grew worse between 1945 and
1948 was the ideological differences because…”
 Evidence – You must include precise evidence – dates, facts/statistics, quotes. This
is where your revision comes in.
 Explain – say how the evidence you have used supports your point. Students always
miss this bit, but it is important. Just putting evidence in without explaining how it links
to your point is not good enough!
 Link – Include a mini-conclusion linking the paragraph back to your overall argument, e.g.
“Therefore, it is clear that another important reason for why relations between the
USA and the Soviet Union grew worse between 1945 and 1948 was the ideological
differences because…”
 Evaluate – say why your chosen reason is more important than the reason you are going
to talk about next. E.g. “While the ideological differences were not as important as
50
 the Berlin Blockade because… they are more important than the Soviet expansion
into Eastern Europe because…

Paragraph 3

 This paragraph should be on what you think is the third most important reason.
 Use PEELE:
 Point – Say why your third point is also important e.g. “The final reason for why
relations between the USA and the Soviet Union grew worse between 1945 and
1948 was the Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe because…”
 Evidence – You must include precise evidence – dates, facts/statistics, quotes. This
is where your revision comes in.
 Explain – say how the evidence you have used supports your point. Students always
miss this bit, but it is important. Just putting evidence in without explaining how it links
to your point is not good enough!
 Link – Include a mini-conclusion linking the paragraph back to your overall argument, e.g.
“Therefore, it is clear that another important reason for why relations between the
USA and the Soviet Union grew worse between 1945 and 1948 was the Soviet
expansion into Eastern Europe because…”
 Evaluate – say why your chosen reason is less important than the other two reasons.
E.g. “Therefore Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe, while significant, is the least
important reason because…”

Conclusion

 Simple! Just restate your overall argument and give reasons for your choices.
 Say what the most important reason is and why it is more important than the other
two reasons.
 E.g. “In conclusion it is clear that while ideological differences were always in the
background, the most important reason for why relations between the USA and the
Soviet Union grew worse between 1945 and 1948 was the Berlin Blockade because…
This was more important than ideological differences because… Soviet expansion into
Eastern Europe was the least important reason because…
 Again, if you can think of another quote that supports your answer, the conclusion is a
good place to put it.

51
Question 5

1. Another important question, this carries the highest amount of marks. If you didn’t
start with question 6, I recommend starting with this one.
2. Make sure you choose three of them, and make sure you indicate your choices by
putting a cross in the box.
3. You should spend 7.5 minutes on each part of this question, for a total of 22.5 minutes.
4. Read the question 3 times. There is always a specific focus to the question. The
example asks you to say why they are important in international relations [relations
between countries]. There is no point talking about the amount of people who died during
the Prague Spring or families being united after the fall of the Berlin Wall because this
doesn’t link to international relations
5. For each bullet point you need three points, each with a supporting piece of evidence. So
three points and three pieces of evidence per bullet point.
6. Use Point, Evidence

E.g. “The first reason why the formation of NATO is important in international
relations is… From my own knowledge I know…

Another reason why it is important is… From my own knowledge I know…

The final reason why this is important is… From my own knowledge I know…”

7. YOU DON’T NEED AN INTRODUCTION OR A CONCLUSION, SO JUST GET

STRAIGHT INTO IT!

52
Question 4

1. Make sure you only answer one of the questions! Indicate your choice by putting a cross
in the box.
2. This question is a describe question, so is all about including facts.
3. Spend 9 minutes on this question.
4. You need to make at least two supported statements. Aim for three to be sure.
5. Use Point Evidence Evidence Evidence

E.g. “ [POINT] One feature of the refugee problem in Berlin in the years 1958-61
was that it led to the loss of skilled workers from communist East Germany.
[EVIDENCE 1] West Berlin enjoyed much higher standard than East Berlin and
between 1945 –1960 3 million people crossed the border. [EVIDENCE 2] November
27, 1958) Krushchev accused the U.S., Great Britain, and France of breaking
Potsdam Agreement. Allies given six months to demilitarize West Berlin and declare
it a “free city.” [EVIDENCE 3] On 13th August 1961 East Germans erected a
barbed wire wall overnight.

REMEMBER ALSO THAT KEY FEATURES CAN BE;

CAUSE EVENT CONSEQUENCE

53
Question 3

1. A tricky question but not one you can afford to skip as it’s worth 10 marks!
2. Read the question 3 times. There is always a focus to the question. In this example it is
asking you to consider how useful the sources are in terms of the reasons for the blockade
of Cuba.
3. You should spend 15 minutes on this question.
4. This question asks you to consider the usefulness of the source in terms of content [what it
tells you and doesn’t tell you] and reliability [whether you can trust it]
5. You also need to include your own knowledge.
6. There are two parts to whether a source is useful, content and reliability. For the content
you need to look at the source itself, for the reliability you need to focus on the bit in bold
at the top of the source.
7. You need an introduction, one paragraph on one source, one paragraph on another source,
and a conclusion.

 What does the source tell you- WHY IS IT USEFUL?

Does it omit anything? Is anything missed? Is it now less useful?
 Where does the source comes from?
 Who will read this source- who is the audience?
 Why was the source made?

8. Try to avoid ‘biased’. Instead use ’ one sided view’

9. Make sure you use quotes from written sources, and describe picture sources. If you don’t
do this you will lose lots of marks!

Introduction

 You need to make a judgment as to which source is most useful. Do this in your introduction,
e.g. “The most useful source is source B because…”
 Your decision can be based upon either content or reliability [see below]. E.g.
o “The most useful source is source B because it contains more useful content
than C as it tells me that...”
o OR “The most useful source is source B because it is the more reliable than
source C because...”
o OR “The most useful source is source B because it both contains more useful
content such as… and is also more reliable because...”
o OR “Despite being more unreliable than C, the most useful source is B
because it contains more useful content such as…”
o OR “Despite containing less useful content that C, the most useful source is
B as it is more reliable because…”

54
Paragraph 1

 This paragraph should be on the source you think is the most useful.
 Restate your argument, e.g. “The most useful source is source B because it contains
more useful content than C as it tells me that...”
 You must cover content and reliability.

Content

 Say what is in the source, and then use your own knowledge to back it up e.g. “The
source tells me that Kennedy is responding to the “aggressive conduct” of the Soviet
Union. From my own knowledge I know that the missiles placed in Cuba meant that the
United States was in range of inter-mediate range missiles which could reach America
in just 17 minutes, which could potentially lead to the death of 80 million Americans.”
 Say what is not in the source, and then use your own knowledge to back it up, e.g.
“However from my own knowledge I know that the source does not tell me that there
were other options to the blockade. For example Kennedy could have ordered an
invasion of Cuba, or a bombing raid on the missile sites.”

Reliability

 You need to use Origin Audience Purpose to decide if this source is reliable.
 Say what makes the source both reliable and unreliable.
 E.g. “This source could be considered reliable as it comes from President Kennedy,
president at the time of the blockade. As Commander in Chief of the armed forces,
Kennedy would have access to all of the information on the missiles in Cuba and the
attempt of the Soviet Union to send more. He would also have made the decision to
blockade after considering all other options. However, the audience of this source is
the American public as it is a television broadcast. Kennedy would want the United
State to appear to be the victims of Soviet aggression, particularly after the
events of the Bay of Pigs. The purpose of this source is Kennedy attempting to
justify to the American public the reasons for his decision to blockade Cuba. He did
have other options, which he would be unlikely to share with the American public as
it may cause him to appear indecisive. Therefore, overall, this source is rather
unreliable due to the audience of the source.

Paragraph 2

 This paragraph should be on the source you think is the least useful.
 Restate your argument, e.g. “Source C is less useful than source B because it has less
useful content. For example…”
 You must cover content and reliability.

55
Conclusion

Re-state your argument, e.g. “Despite being more unreliable than C because…, the most
useful source is B because it contains more useful content such as…”

Question 2

 An easy question! You get one mark for each point, and one mark for each piece of
evidence. Therefore you need to include two reasons and two pieces of evidence.
 You should spend 6 minutes on this question.
 Use Point Evidence, e.g. “Carter ordered a boycott by the USA of the 1980 Moscow
Olympics. He issued an ultimatum in January that if the Soviet Union did not
withdraw from Afghanistan, the United States would boycott the games. The Soviet
Union did not withdraw.”

Question 1

 All you need to do for this question is to translate the source into your own words.
 You need to give two reasons. Imagine you are explaining the reasons to your grandma.
 You get no credit for copying out what is in the source, so don’t bother quoting.
 Spend 3 minutes on this question.

56
 NUMERACY: Cold War Timeline

Date Summary Detailed Information

February 4th Yalta Conference Meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin to decide what would
- 11th 1945 happen at the end of the war. Topics discussed included -
Partitioning of Germany
Fate of Poland
The United Nations
German reparations

May 8th 1945 V E Day Victory in Europe as Germany surrenders to the Russian army.

July 17th - Potsdam The Potsdam Conference formally divided Germany and Austria into four
August 2nd Conference zones. It was also agreed that the German capital Berlin would be divided
1945 into four zones. The Russian Polish border was determined and Korea was
to be divided into Soviet and American zones.

August 6th Hiroshima The United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima
1945

August 8th Nagasaki The United States dropped the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki.
1945

August 14th V J Day The Japanese surrendered bringing World War Two to an end.
1945

September Vietnam Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam an independent republic.

2nd 1945 Independence

March 5th Churchill's Iron Churchill delivers his 'Sinews of Peace' speech which contain the famous
1946 Curtain Speech phrase "..an iron curtain has descended on Europe"

March 12th Truman Doctrine President Truman promised to help any country facing a Communist
1947 takeover

June 5th 1947 Marshall Plan This was a programme of economic aid offered by the United States to
any European country. The plan was rejected outright by Stalin and any
Eastern Bloc country considering accepting aid was reprimanded severely.
Consequently the aid was only given to Western European Countries.

September Cominform The USSR set up Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) which was
1947 the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties
responsible for the creation of the Eastern bloc.

June 1948 Formation of The French, USA and UK partitions of Germany were merged to form
West Germany West Germany

57
June 24th Berlin Blockade Russia's response to the merger of the French, USA and UK partitions of
1948 Berlin was to cut all road and rail links to that sector. This meant that
those living in Western Berlin had no access to food supplies and faced
starvation. Food was brought to Western Berliners by US and UK
airplanes, an exercise known as the Berlin Airlift.

May 1949 End of Berlin Russia ended the blockade of Berlin.

Blockade

April 4th 1949 NATO formed The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation formed with member states
Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United
States

June 25th Korean War The Korean war began when North Korea invaded South Korea.
1950

March 5th Death of Stalin Joseph Stalin died at the age of 74. He was succeeded by Nikita
1953 Khrushchev.

July 27th Korean War The Korean war ended. North Korea remained affiliated with Russia while
1953 South Korea was affiliated with the USA.

Summer 1954 Geneva Accords This set of documents ended the French war with the Vietminh and
divided Vietnam into North and South states. The communist leader of
North Vietnam was Ho Chi Minh while the US friendly south was led by
Ngo Dinh Diem.

May 14th Warsaw Pact The Warsaw Pact was formed with member states East Germany,
1955 Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Albania, Bulgaria, and the
Soviet Union.

October 23rd Hungarian This began as a Hungarian protest against Communist rule in Budapest. It
1956 Revolution quickly gathered momentum and on 24th October Soviet tanks entered
Budapest. The tanks withdrew on 28th October and a
new government was formed which quickly moved to introduce democracy,
freedom of speech, and freedom of religion. The Soviet tanks returned
on 4th November encircling Budapest. The Prime Minister Imre Nagy
made a World broadcast that Hungary was under attack from the Soviet
Union and calling for aid. Hungary fell to Russia on 10th November 1956.

November 1st Space Race USSR Sputnik II carried Laika the dog, the first living creature to go
1957 into space.

May 1959 Geneva Summit No solution to Berlin but led to meeting between Eisenhower and
Khrushchev in USA

September Camp David No solution but further summit the following year. Khrushchev withdraws
1959 the ultimatum

1960 Paris East/West Talks between Nikita Khrushchev and Dwight Eisenhower concerning the

58
 talks fate of Germany broke down when a USA U2 spy plane was shot down
over Russian airspace.

Jan 1961 Vienna Khushchev and Kennedy- Khrushchev believes he can bully Kennedy.
Khrushchev repeats the ultimatum but Kennedy refuses to back down.

October 14th Cuban Missile A US spy plane reported sighting the construction of a Soviet nuclear
1962 Crisis missile base in Cuba. President Kennedy set up a naval blockade and
demanded the removal of the missiles. War was averted when the
Russians agreed on 28th October to remove the weapons. The United
States agreed not to invade Cuba.

November JFK JF Kennedy was assassinated while on a visit to Dallas. Lee Harvey Oswald
22nd 1963 Assassination was arrested for the murder but there has always been speculation that
he was not a lone killer and that there may have been communist or CIA
complicity.

October 15th USSR Nikita Krushchev removed from office. He was replaced by Leonid
1964 Brezhnev.

July 1965 Vietnam War 150,000 US troops sent to Vietnam.

August 20th Soviet invasion Warsaw Pact forces entered Czechoslovakia in a bid to stop the reforms
1968 of known as 'Prague Spring' instigated by Alexander Dubcek. When he
Czechoslovakia refused to halt his programme of reforms Dubcek was arrested.

December Space Race US launched Apollo 8 - first manned orbit of the Moon.
21st 1968

20th July Space Race US Apollo 11 landed on the Moon and Neil Armstrong became the first
1969 man on the Moon.

April 30th Vietnam War President Richard Nixon ordered US troops to go to Cambodia.
1970

September Four Power The Four Power Agreement made between Russia, USA, Britain and
3rd 1971 Agreement France reconfirmed the rights and responsibilities of those countries
Berlin with regard to Berlin.

May 26th SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty signed between the US and USSR.
1972

August 15th Vietnam The Paris Peace Accords ended American involvement in Vietnam.
1973

April 17th Cambodia Killing The Khmer Rouge attacked and took control of Cambodia. Any supporters
1975 fields of the former regime, anyone with links or supposed links to foreign
governments as well as many intellectuals and professionals were
executed in a genocide that became known as the 'killing fields'.

April 30th Vietnam North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam. The capture of Saigon by the
1975 North Vietnamese led to the whole country becoming Communist

59
July 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Joint space venture between USA and USSR heralded as an end to the
Test Project 'Space Race'

January 20th Carter President Jimmy Carter became the 39th President of the United States
1977

November 4th Iranian hostage A group of Iranian students and militants stormed the American embassy
1979 crisis and took 53 Americans hostage to show their support for the Iranian
Revolution.

December Afghanistan Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan

24th 1979

July 1980 Olympic Boycott A number of countries including the USA boycotted the summer Olympics
by USA held in Moscow in protest at the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Other
countries including Great Britain participated under the Olympic flag
rather than their national flag

December Poland Martial law was declared to crush the Solidarity movement
13th 1980

January 20th Iranian hostage The Iranian hostage crisis ended 444 days after it began
1981 crisis ended

June 1982 START During a summit in Geneva Reagan proposed Strategic Arms Reduction
Talks

July 1984 Olympic boycott Russia and 13 allied countries boycotted the summer Olympics held in Los
by Russia Angeles in retaliation for the US boycott of 1980.

March 11th Govbachov Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union
1985 leader of USSR

April 26th Chernobyl An explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine remains
1986 Disaster the worst nuclear disaster in history

June 1987 Glasnost and Mikhail Gorbachev announced his intention to follow a policy of glasnost -
Perestroika openness, transparency and freedom of speech; and perestroika -
restructuring of government and economy. He also advocated free
elections and ending the arms race.

February 15th Afghanistan The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan

1989

June 4th 1989 Tiananmen Anti Communist protests in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, China were
Square crushed by the government. The death count is unknown.

August 1989 Poland Tadeusz Mazowiecki elected leader of the Polish government - the first
eastern bloc country to become a democracy

60
October 23rd Hungary Hungary proclaimed itself a republic
1989

November 9th Fall of the The Berlin wall was torn down
1989 Berlin Wall

November Velvet Revolution The Velvet Revolution, also known as the Gentle Revolution, was a series
17th - of peaceful protests in Czechoslovakia that led to the overthrow of the
December Communist government.
29th 1989

December Malta Summit This meeting between Mikhail Gorbachov and George H W Bush reversed
2nd, 3rd 1989 much of the provisions of the Yalta Conference 1945. It is seen by some
as the beginning of the end of the cold war.

December Romanian Riots broke out which culminated in the overthrow and execution of the
16th - 25th Revolution leader Ceauşescu and his wife.
1989

October 3rd German East and West Germany were reunited as one country.
1990 reunification

1st July 1991 End of Warsaw The Warsaw Pact which allied Communist countries was ended
Pact

31st July START The Strategic Arms Reduction treaty was signed between Russia and the
1991 USA

25th Gorbachev Mikhail Gorbachev resigned. The hammer and sickle flag on the Kremlin
December resigned was lowered
1991

26th End of the Russia formally recognised the end of the Soviet Union
December Soviet Union
1991

61
LITERACY: Cold War Key Terms

Alexander Dubcek leader of Czechoslovakia; elected 1st secretary of Communist party; tried to
relax restrictions on freedom of speech and press and the right to travel abroad; Prague Spring
took place while he was in office; replaced by Husak

Berlin Airlift an attempt by the Soviet Union to secure all of Berlin and to stop the creation of a
West German government; Soviets blockaded any traffic from entering West Berlin through the
East; the Allies responded by sending supplies by plane to the citizens of Berlin

Berlin Blockade the blocking of traffic to West Berlin through the East by the Soviet Union;
Soviets lifted it in May of 1949 because they wanted to avoid war

Berlin Wall built in 1961 by the East Germans as a barrier in between East and West Berlin;
constructed because so many skilled laborers were fleeing from West, causing the East to have
economic issues

Brezhnev Doctrine issued by the USSR to defend their invasion of Czechoslovakia (to crush the
Prague Spring revolt)

Clement Atlee British prime minister who succeeded Churchill; participated in the Potsdam
negotiation; turned Britain into a modern welfare state

Comecon Council for Mutual Economic Alliance; Eastern Europe's economic alliance as a
reaction to the formation of NATO

Containment a policy the US adopted to halt the spread of Communism; adopted by George
Kennan in 1947; utilized any means to stop Communist expansion but actual war; "adroit and
vigilant application of counter-force at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political
points, corresponding to the shifts and maneuvers of Soviet policy"

Cuban Missile Crisis the Soviets were planning to place nuclear weapons in Cuba (governed by
Fidel Castro) within striking distance of the United States; Kennedy tried to blockade Cuba to
prevent the missiles from arriving; Khrushchev agreed not to put the missiles in Cuba as long as
Kennedy promised not to invade Cuba

De-Khrushchevization Brezhnev's policy; reunited the USSR; returning the responsibility for
long-term planning to the central ministries and reuniting the Communist Party apparatus; the
reversal of Khrushchev's policies and ideologies in the Soviet Union after he lost power

De-Stalinization Khrushchev's movement in which he tried to get rid of the Stalinist legacy in
the USSR; began at 20th National Congress of the Communist Party

Detente reduction of tensions on the sides of both Soviets and Americans in the 1970's

Eastern Bloc a term referring to the Communist countries allied with the Soviet Union (basically
the countries of the Warsaw Pact) located in Eastern Europe

EEC European Economic Community; an international organization established in 1957; aimed to

create economic ties among these countries; created by the Treaty of Rome; created a free
trade area and an external tariff

62
Erich Honecker succeeded Ulbricht as the ruler of East Germany in 1971 after the Berlin Wall
was built; instituted propaganda and use of secret police; he essentially created a dictatorship

Fidel Castro a left-wing revolutionary who ruled Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis; created a
Soviet-supported totalitarian regime

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
the title given to the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union; title changed by
Krushchev to ‘First Secretary’ between 1953 and 1966

Georgy Malenkov succeeded Stalin as Soviet leader; administrator of the Politburo; tried to
pass reforms that were opposed by the Communists, the KGB, and the army like cutting back on
the military; tried to do things Khrushchev did; wildly unpopular; was removed from office and
succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev

Glasnost openly and honestly discussing economic and political probles: initiated under Mikhail
Gorbachev in 1985.

Gulags the cruel and unjust system of labor camps in the USSR; at their worst under Stalin;
killed millions of people for committing "crimes" like being late for work

Hardliner an uncompromising authoritarian leader of a country (ex: Stalin, Hitler, etc.)

Helmut Kohl chancellor of West Germany and then the reunited Germany; played a large role in
the German reunification; worked with Mitterand to write the Maastricht Treaty

Helsinki Agreements a symbol of the improving relationships between the Soviets and the West;
signed by all European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain; recognized borders in Europe
established at the end of WWII (including Soviet sphere of influence); protected human rights
in the countries that signed

Hotline a direct telephone connection between Washington and Moscow (USSR) established in
the midst of the Cuban Missile Crisis; "red telephone"

ICBM "inter-continental ballistic missile"; Soviets launched the first one in 1957, causing a
great scare in the US

Imre Nagy Communist leader of Hungary; tried to appeal to public demands without provoking
the USSR; when he tried to create free elections, Soviet troops came and created a new
government

Iron Curtain referenced in Winston Churchill's famous speech; a hypothetical divide that
separated Germany and Europe into two hostile camps

Josef Stalin a Communist hardliner who ruled Russia; instituted many harsh policies including
the Gulags; incredibly paranoid (developed a secret police force)

Josip Tito wanted to make Yugoslavia an independent Communist state; refused to cave to
Stalin's demands

63
KGB "Committee for State Security"; national (secret) security agency for the Soviet Union;
invoked fear in people by the ruthless and arbitrary nature of its actions

Konrad Adenauer former leader of the Christian Democratic Union who served as the first
leader and "founding hero" of the Federal Republic of Germany (the united West Germany);
made huge economic recovery

The Kremlin a group of buildings in Moscow that is now the centre of government of Russia, or
the government itself. In the past the Kremlin also meant the government of the Soviet Union.
Leonid Brezhnev leader of USSR; pursued peaceful coexistence with the West

Little Stalins a group of Eastern European, hardliner leaders who modeled their governments
after Stalin's dictatorship

Margaret Thatcher conservative first female prime minister of GB; involved with the Falkland
Wars; created "Thatcherism"

Marshall Plan June 1947 "European Recovery Program;" gave $13 billion for economic recovery
of war-torn Europe; "capitalist imperialism" to the Soviets; USSR and other Communist countries
refused to participate

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization; formed by Allies to provide mutual assistance if
one was attacked; Communists responded with Comecon

Nikita Khrushchev a hardliner leader of USSR from 1894-1971; continued to attempt to reduce
tensions with the West and improve living standards of the Soviets; established peaceful
coexistence; ruled during the Cuban Missile Crisis

Ostpolitik "opening towards the east;" deals with economic relations; established by Willy
Brandt

Peaceful Coexistence policy adopted by the Soviet Union under Khrushchev in 1955 and
continued by his successors that called for economic and ideological rivalry with the west rather
than nuclear war

Perestroika - the program of economic and political reform in the Soviet Union initiated by
Mikhail Gorbachev in 1986.

Politburo the main group of people in a Communist government who make decisions about policy

Potsdam (suburb of Berlin) Truman, Atlee, and Stalin present; promised trial of war crimes;
demands Japan's unconditional surrender; disarmament, denazification, democratization,
payment of reparations; get rid of German militarism/Nazis

Prague Spring under Alexander Dubcek; period of euphoria and revolution for the Czechs;
crushed by the Soviets

SALT 1 (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) a symbol of detente also known as the Antiballistic
Missile (ABM) Treaty; USSR and USA agreed to limit the size of their ABM systems; USA
wanted to avoid nuclear war

Thaw warming of relations between USSR and USA

64
Tehran (city in Iran) a negotiation between Stalin, FDR, and Churchill; timed D-Day to coincide
with Russian offensive; Stalin promises to join war in Asia after defeating Germany; 2nd front;
structure of international peace-keeping organization; vaguely agree to give Stalin some
territory
Third World Country USSR and USA were fighting to get influence over these countries

Truman Doctrine United States promised to provide money to countries that claimed they were
threatened by Communist expansion; was issued by President Truman as a response to the
weakening of GB and possibility of Soviet expansion

Warsaw Pact the formal military alliance among the Soviet Union and the other Eastern
European countries; a response to NATO

Willy Brandt Chancellor of West Germany; Social Democrat; utilized Ostpolitik

Wladyslaw Gomulka ruler of Poland; agreed to let Poland remain in the Warsaw Pact and to keep
the sanctity of the party rule; annoyed Khrushchev but was eventually allowed to make domestic
reforms like easing restrictions on religion and ending forced collectivization

Yalta Agreement created by FDR, Stalin, and Churchill; demanded Germany's unconditional
surrender and planned to divide it into 4 sectors; USSR promised to enter war vs Japan after
Germany was defeated; instructed the countries to organize free election of democratic
governments throughout Europe

65
66
67
68