6.

NUTRITION
nutrition as the obtaining of organic substances and mineral ions from which organisms obtain their energy and their
raw materials for growth and tissue repair.

6.1 NUTRIENTS

List the chemical elements that make up: Carbohydrates, fats, proteins.

Carbohydrates: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (CHO)

Fats: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (CHO)
Proteins: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen sometimes Sulfur (CHON/S)

Describe the synthesis of large molecules from smaller basic units, e.g., simple sugars to starch and
glycogen, amino acids to proteins, fatty acids and glycerol to fats and oils.

SIMPLE SUGARS TO STARCH AND GLYCOGEN

Carbohydrates are all made up of molecules of glucose bonded (joined) together. The simplest form of carbohydrate
is glucose. Two molecules of glucose joined together with a bond, form maltose, lactose and sucrose sugars.
Starch, cellulose and glycogen are formed when 3 or more glucose molecules are joined together with bonds.
Glucose’s molecule is represented by a hexagon:
A single sugar molecule is called a monosaccharide. Examples of monosaccharaides are glucose and
fructose.

Sucrose, maltose and lactose are all disaccharides because they have 2 sugar molecules bonded together.

Starch, cellulose and glycogen are all polysaccharides because they are made up of 3 or more sugar
molecules bonded together.

AMINO ACIDS TO PROTEINS

Proteins are made by Amino acids. Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds. When 2 amino acids
connected together with a peptide bond, a dipeptide forms. When 3 or more amino acids are joined together, a
polypeptide is formed.
Amino Acid Dipeptide Polypeptide

When proteins are heated, they are denatured; they change shape, its properties and functions are destroyed. Food
rich in proteins are milk, meat, eggs, and nuts, fish etc.

FATTY ACIDS AND GLYCEROL TO FATS AND OILS

Fats are organic substances. Lipids are fats in a liquid state. Fats are useful for our body, because they:
Ft cd
• provide energy,
• can be stored for later use, Fatty Acids
• build up cell membranes,
Fatty Acids
• layers serve as an insulating layers under mammal’s skins and
• Oils on the surface of the skin makes the skin waterproof.

Fat is found in vegetable oil, milk, fried foods, eggs, beef etc. The simplest fat molecule is made up of 1 molecule of
glycerol and 3 fatty acids bonded together.
1
 describe and carry out tests for:
 starch (iodine solution),
 reducing sugars (Benedict's solution),
 protein (biuret test),
 Fats (ethanol).

Iodine test - for starch:

• Solid foods: Add a couple of drops of iodine solution (brown) directly to the substance to be tested, in a
plastic dish.
• Liquids:
 Add 1-5 drops to test substance in a boiling tube or welled tile.
 The result is almost instantaneous, but the liquid needs to soak in to dry solids.
 A colour change from orange to blue-black shows the presence of starch.

Benedict's test - for simple (reducing) sugars:

• Make a solution of the substance to be tested in a boiling tube, and add Benedict's solution (blue).
• Alternatively, add Benedict's solution to a small chunk (of solid fruit, etc.) in a tube.
• Heat the tube gently for about 2 minutes in the water bath.
• A colour change from blue, through murky green to yellow/orange/red shows the presence of a simple
(reducing) sugar.
• Actually an orange precipitate is formed so the (hopefully) initially clear solution not only changes colour
but also becomes opaque.

Biuret test - for Proteins:

• Add Biuret solution (sodium hydroxide + small amount of copper sulphate) - blue, like Benedict's - to the
test substance.
• THERE IS NO NEED TO HEAT, but the result is not quite instantaneous.
• A colour change from blue to mauve shows the presence of a protein.

Emulsion test - for Fats and Oils:

• Add ethanol to a very small amount of the test substance.
• Shake or crush (and possibly heat gently using a water-bath in order to dissolve)
• CAREFULLY - DO NOT USE A BURNER! - ethanol is flammable!).
• Filter or dilute if necessary to obtain fairly clear liquid (which is of course a solution of fat in ethanol).
• Take another tube containing (tap) water, and pour the ethanolic solution (prepared above) into top.
• A white (milk-like) emulsion indicates the presence of fats or oils

List the principal sources of, and describe the importance of: carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
2
vitamins (C and D only), mineral salts (calcium iodine and iron only), fibre (roughage), and water.

MINERALS CALCIUM
CARBOHYDRATES
Source

Source
 dairy products,
 Sugar,
 soy beans,
 sunflower seeds,
 bread,
 legumes
 potatoes,
 cereals Importance
 Build strong bones and teeth,
Importance helps in blood clotting, proper
 Provide energy function of muscles.

IODINE
FATS Source
Source  Table salt,
 Butter,  sea food
 oil,
 cheese, Importance
 nuts  Aids thyroid gland,
 converts carotene to vitamin A,
Importance  aids absorption of
 Provide energy carbohydrates,
 regulates energy production
PROTEINS
Source IRON
 Meat, Source
 eggs,  Liver,
 fish,  red meat,
 milk and its products  nuts,
 legumes e.g. beans  beans,
 oysters,
Importance  oatmeal
 Growth and tissue repair
Importance
 Used to make haemoglobin

FIBRE
Source
 Fruits,
 vegetables,
 whole wheat cereals

Importance
 Stimulate peristalsis,
 Holds water and keep contents of
alimentary canal soft.
3
WATER
Source
 Juices,
 water,
 tea,
 soups

Importance
 Main component of plasma in the blood
 Metabolic reactions can only take place in the presence of water
 Food cannot be transported without being dissolved in water
 The gas exchange in lungs takes place more easily in the presence of water
 To excrete, substances must be dissolved in water
 Sweat is necessary for the regulation of body temperature
 Enzymes and hormones are secreted after being dissolved in water
 It is the main component of cytoplasm

Describe the deficiency symptoms for: vitamins (C and D only) and mineral salts (calcium, iodine
and iron only).

Vitamins

Vitamin C: Scurvy, Bleeding gums

Vitamin D: Rickets

Minerals

Calcium: Rickets

Iodine: Goitre

Iron: Anaemia, Headache, Tiredness.

Describe the use of microorganisms in the food industry, with reference to yoghurt, bread,
brewing, homemade fermented foods and single cell protein.

• Yoghurt,
 Involves the fermentation of milk by bacteria.
 Milk is homogenised by adjusting fat and protein content.
 Homogenised milk is then pasteurised, in order to destroy microorganisms present in the milk.

4
  Pasteurised milk is fermented with a culture (bacteria) called Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
 Bacteria ferments lactose (milk sugar) to lactic acid.
 Lactic acid produced coagulates milk protein, casein, to produce a thick creamy product called
yoghurt.
 Yoghurt is then cooled to lower temperatures to stop bacterial action.

 Brewing

 Yeast is added to a source of sugar (fruit juice or germinated barley grains) and kept in warm conditions.
 Fermentation (yeast respires the sugar) occurs ------> ethanol is formed making the drink
alcoholic.
 CO2 makes the drink fizzy + sharp flavour.

 Bread-making

 Yeast is mixed with water to activate it then added to flour to make dough mixture -----> placed
in a warm place ------> the dough rise.

 yeast releases CO2 ------> dough rises * a warm temperature is important because fermentation is
controlled by enzymes

 When dough is cooked in the oven, high temperature kills yeast and evaporates any formed
ethanol air spaces are left where CO2 was trapped.

• Homemade fermented foods

 Yeast is normally used most fermented food like sour porridge, emahewu, and some traditional
brews.it is mixed with water to activate the yeast then added to mealie-meal to make a mixture
-----> placed in a warm place ------> the mixture get sour and ready for cooking. In the case of
traditional brew, it can then be consumed.

• Single cell protein

 This is the production of microorganisms in large quantities to provide a good source of protein.
 The main aim is to produce microorganisms in bulk to use as human food or animal feed due to a
shortage of protein rich food in some parts of the world.
 Fungus is supplied with oxygen, glucose, mineral salts and ammonia and the fermentation occurs
in large fermenter tanks
 Temperatures are kept at 30oC.
 The fungal hyphae are harvested to make mycoprotein.
 Flavorings are added to produce a variety of products, e.g. burgers, sausages, pies
 High in protein
 Low in fat, so they reduce the chances of having diseases linked to a high fat diet such as coronary
heart diseases, obesity, and diabetes.
 High dietary fibre

Describe the uses, benefits and health hazards associated with food additives, including colourings.

FOOD ADDITIVE USE / BENEFIT

Preservative Help to keep food fresh for a long time, i.e. it gives food a longer shelf life.
Flavoring Makes food to smell or taste better, e.g. vanilla
Colourings 1. Replace colour of food lost during preparation

5
 2. Make food look more colourful and attractive, e.g. tartrazine

Health hazards associated with food additives

• Causes hyperactivity in young children, e.g. sodium benzoate and tartrazine.

• May cause allergies such as asthma and rashes.

6.2 PLANT NUTRITION

6.2.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the fundamental process by which green plants manufacture simple sugars from carbon dioxide
and water in the presence of light energy.

State the equation for photosynthesis in words

Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water Sugar + Oxygen
Chlorophyll

State the equation for photosynthesis in symbols.

Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Describe the intake of the raw materials, the trapping and storing of energy (conversion of light
energy into chemical energy), the formation of food substances and their subsequent storage.

The raw materials are CO2, H2O and light energy.

The products are glucose (starch) and O2

This is how food is formed (PHOTOSYNTHESIS)

• Green plants take in CO2 through their leaves (by diffusion).

• H2O is absorbed through plants’ roots (by osmosis), and transported to the leaf through xylem
vessels.
• Chlorophyll traps light energy and absorbs it.
• This energy is used to break up H2O molecules, than to bond hydrogen and CO2 to form glucose.
• Glucose is usually changed to sucrose for transport around the plant, or to starch for storage.
• O2 is released as a waste product, or used by plant for respiration.
• In this process, light energy is converted to chemical energy for the formation of glucose and its
subsequent storage.

Perform the starch test on a leaf.

A test for starch on the leaf tells whether photosynthesis has taken place or not.
Apparatus
• Beaker containing water
• Tripod and gauze
• Bunsen burner
• Test tube containing ethanol
• Forceps
• White tile
6
 • Iodine solution
Method:
• Place fresh leaf on boiling water for 2 minutes, to soften the tissues.
• Use forceps to remove leaf from boiling water and place into test tube containing ethanol. Ethanol
removes chlorophyll from the leaf.
• Place test tube containing leaf in water bath, boil leaf until all chlorophyll is removed.
• Remove leaf from ethanol and place in hot water, to remove the ethanol.
• Place leaf on white tile and flood with iodine solution
Investigate the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, using
appropriate controls.

Investigate the necessity for chlorophyll for photosynthesis,

Method
 Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white) leaves.
 De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for about 48 hours.
 Expose the plant to the sunlight for a few days.
 Test one of the leaves for starch with iodine solution.

Observations

 Areas with previously green patches test positive (turn blue black).
 Areas with previously pale yellow patches test negative (remain brown).

Conclusion

 Photosynthesis takes place only in green patches because of the presence of chlorophyll.
 The pale yellow patches do not perform photosynthesis because of the absence of
chlorophyll.

Investigate the necessity for light for photosynthesis,

Method
 Take a potted plant.
 Destarch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for about 48 hours.
 Test one of it leaves for starch, to check that is does not contain any.
 Fix a leaf of this plant in between two strips of a thick paper (stencil) on leaf.
 Place the plant in light for a few days.
 Remove the cover from the leaf and test it for starch.

Observations
Positive starch test will be obtained only in the portion of the leaf exposed to
Light and negative test in parts with paper strip.

7
Conclusion
Light is necessary for photosynthesis.
Investigate the necessity for carbon dioxide for photosynthesis,
Method
 Take two destarched potted plants.
 Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them as A and B.
 Inside Set-up A, keep NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate). It produces CO2.
 Inside Set-up B, keep NaOH (Sodium hydroxide). It absorbs CO2.
 Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight at least for 6 hours.
 Perform the starch test on both of the plants.

Observations
 Leaf from the plant in which NaHCO3 has been placed gives positive test.
 Leaf from the plant in which NaOH has been kept give negative test.

Conclusion
 Plant in Set up A gets CO2 whereas plant in Set-up B does not get CO2. It means CO2
is must for photosynthesis.

8
6.2.2 LEAF STRUCTURE

Identify the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross section.

Cuticle:
• Made of wax – waterproofing the leaf
• Secreted by cells of the upper epidermis

Upper epidermis
• Thin and transparent – allows light to pass through
• No chloroplasts are present
• Act as a barrier to disease organisms

Palisade mesophyll
• Main region for photosynthesis
• Cells are columnar (quite long) and packed with chloroplasts to trap light energy
• Receive co2 by diffusion from air spaces in the spongy mesophyll

Spongy mesophyll
• Cells are more spherical and loosely packed
• Contain chloroplasts, but not as many as in palisade cells
• Air spaces between cells allow gaseous exchange – co2 to the cells, o2 from the cells during photosynthesis

Vascular bundle
• This is a leaf vein, made up of xylem and phloem
• Xylem vessels bring water and minerals to the leaf
• Phloem vessels transport sugars and amino acids away (translocation)
9
Lower epidermis
• Acts as a protective layer
• Stomata are present to regulate the loss of water vapour (transpiration)
• Site of gaseous exchange into and out of the leaf

Stomata
• Each stomata is surrounded by a pair of guard cells
• Guard cells – control whether the stoma is open or closed
• Water vapour passes out during transpiration
• Co2 diffuses in and o2 diffuses out during photosynthesis
6.2.3 MINERAL REQUIREMENTS

Describe the importance of: nitrate ions for protein synthesis, magnesium ions for chlorophyll
synthesis.

Nitrate ions
• plants absorb nitrate ions from the soil, through their root hairs
• nitrate ions combine with glucose -----> amino acids
• amino acids bond together -----> protein

Magnesium
• plants absorb magnesium ions from the soil solution
• used for the manufacture of chlorophyll
• each chlorophyll contains one magnesium atom

Explain the effects of nitrate ion and magnesium ion deficiency on plant growth.

 Nitrate ions deficiency causes poor growth, especially of leaves. The stem becomes weak, lower leaves
become yellow and die, while upper leaves turn pale green

 Magnesium deficiency makes leaves turn yellow from the bottom of the stem upwards and eventually
stops photosynthesis

Describe the uses, and the dangers of overuse, of nitrogen fertilisers and local alternatives such as
kraal manure.

Use of Nitrogen fertilizers

Sometimes the soil is lacking of the mineral ions needed, this problem can be solved by adding fertilizers to the soil.
Fertilizers are chemical compounds rich in the mineral ions needed by the plants. They help the plants grow faster,
increase in size and become greener, they simply make them healthier and increase the crop yield.

Intensive farming (repeatedly using the same land for crops) removes nitrates from the soil. These need to be
replaced to prevent a drop in yield. Nitrates can be replaced in 3 ways:
• Applying animal manure
• Crop rotation – growing leguminous plants such as peas, beans and clover every 2 or 3 years: these plants
develop root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the roots are ploughed into the soil, boosting
nitrate levels
• Adding artificial fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate

Danger of overuse

10
 • Apply too much nitrogen fertilizer ----> water is drawn out of plant roots (osmosis) ----> plant wilt/die.

• Eutrophication:
 Nitrates can be leached out of the soil and enter a nearby river polluting it, creating a layer of
green algae on the surface of it causing lack of light in the river thus preventing the aqua
plants photosynthesizing ----> death of algae ----> decomposers (bacteria) multiply and
decay, respire using O2 ---> death of aquatic animals from lack of O2 = Eutrophication

Limiting factors in photosynthesis

Limiting factor is the external factor which restricts the effects of others. When a number of factors are needed, it is
the one in shortest supply.

Interpret the effects of light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration as limiting factors that
affect photosynthesis.

Light intensity
 Light energy is vital to the process of photosynthesis. It is severely limiting at times of partial light
conditions, e.g. dawn or dusk.
 As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis will increase, until the plant is photosynthesizing as
fast as it can. At this point, even if light becomes brighter, the plant cannot photosynthesize any faster.

 Over the first part of the curve (between A and B), light is a limiting factor. The plant is limited in how
fast it can photosynthesize because it does not have enough light.
 Between B and C, light is not a limiting factor.
 Even if more light is shone on the plant, it still cannot photosynthesize any faster.

Carbon dioxide concentration

 In photosynthesis CO2 is a key limiting factor. The usual atmospheric level of CO 2 is 0.03%. In perfect
conditions of water availability, light and temperature this low CO 2 level holds back the photosynthetic
potential.
 The more CO2 a plant is given, the faster it can photosynthesize up to a point, but then a maximum is reach.

11
Temperature
 The chemical reactions of photosynthesis can only take place very slowly at low temperature, so a plant can
photosynthesize faster on a warm day than on a cold one.

Explain the use of carbon dioxide enrichment, optimum light and optimum temperatures in
greenhouse systems.

When plants are growing outside, we cannot do much about changing the conditions that they need for
photosynthesis. But if crops are grown in a greenhouse/ glasshouses, then it is possible to control conditions so that
they are photosynthesizing as fast as possible.

CO2 enrichment
 CO2 concentration can be controlled. CO 2 is often a limiting factor for photosynthesis, because its natural
concentration in the air is so very low (0.04%).
 In a closed glasshouse, it is possible to provide extra CO 2 for the plants, e.g. by burning fossil fuels or
releasing pure CO2 from a gas cylinder.

Optimum light
 Light also can be controlled. In cloudy or dark conditions, extra artificial lighting can be provided, so that
light is not limiting the rate of photosynthesis.
 The kind of lights that are used can be chosen carefully so that they provide just the right wavelengths that
the plants need.

Optimum temperature
 In some countries where it is too cold for good growth of some crop plants, the heated greenhouses can be
used. This is done, for example, with tomatoes. The temperature in the glasshouse can be kept at the
optimum level to encourage the tomatoes to grow fast and strongly, and to produce a large yield of fruit
that ripens quickly.
 The temperature can be raised by using a heating system. If fossil fuels are burned, there is also a benefit
from the CO2 produced.

describe and explain the significance of these features in terms of functions, e.g.,
• distribution of chloroplasts - photosynthesis,
• stomata and mesophyll cells - gaseous exchange,
• Vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) - transport.

Distribution of chloroplasts – photosynthesis

There are more chloroplasts on the upper part of the leaf than the lower part. This is so because the upper part of
the leaf receive the most sunlight. This helps photosynthesis to occur without shortage of sunlight.

Stomata and mesophyll cells - gaseous exchange,

12
 Stomata and mesophyll cells are mostly found on the lower part of the leaf. They are found in the spongy
part of the leaf that contains air spaces. This helps in outward of oxygen and inward of carbon dioxide. This
is what is termed gaseous exchange.

Vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) - transport.

They are grouped together into veins as they pass through the leaf. The biggest vein is found in the middle
of the leaf. Vascular bundles bring raw materials for photosynthesis (xylem vessel) and take away products
of photosynthesis to other parts of the plant.

6.3 ANIMAL NUTRITION

6.3.1 DIET

describe:
• a balanced diet related to age, sex and activity of an individual,
• special dietary requirements of people living with HIV/AIDS,
 The effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, coronary heart disease, constipation
and obesity.

The food an animal eat every day is called diet. Most animals need 7 types of nutrients in their diet: carbohydrates,
proteins, fats , water, fiber, vitamins, minerals.

A balanced diet is a diet which contains all the main nutrients in the correct amounts and proportion.

The amount of energy needed is provided mainly by our carbohydrate and fat intake. Your dietary
requirements depend on your age, sex and activity.
• Age: The energy demand increases until we stop growing. While children are growing they
need more protein per kilogram of body weight than adults do.
• Sex: Generally, males use up more energy than females.
• Pregnant women need extra nutrients for the development of the fetus
• HIV + need extra nutrients and energy, as HIV attacks the body’s immune system, the body has to work
harder to fight the infection.

Malnutrition is the result of not eating a balanced diet. There may be:
• wrong amount of food: too little or too much
• incorrect proportion of main nutrients
• lacking in one or more key nutrients

Effects of malnutrition
Obesity

• too much food (carbohydrates, proteins or fat)

• could lead to diabetes
• increases chances of coronary heart diseases

Coronary heart disease

• Too much saturated/animal fat in the diet results in high cholesterol levels.
• Cholesterol can stick to the walls of arteries, gradually blocking them.
• If coronary arteries become blocked, the results can be angina and coronary heart disease.

Starvation
• Too little food can result in starvation.
13
 • Extreme slimming diets, such as those that avoid carbohydrate foods, can result in the
disease anorexia nervosa.

Childhood protein-energy malnutrition (Kwashiorkor)

• Wrong proportion of nutrients e.g. too much carbohydrates (starchy foods) and a lack
of protein can lead to Kwashiorkor in young children.
Constipation:
• An inability of food to move along alimentary canal
• This condition occurs when a person lacks a dietary fibre – rich diet

discuss:
• the problems of local and world food supplies,
• the problems which contribute to famine (unequal distribution of food, drought and
flooding and increasing population),
• The value and effects of misuse of nutrient supplement products.

The problems of local and world food supplies

There is not always enough food available in a country to feed the people living there. A severe food shortage can
lead to famine.
It has been calculated that more than enough food is produced on Earth to provide every single person with more
than enough for their needs. Yet many people do not have enough food. Each year, many people die because they
have an inadequate diet.
The fundamental problem is that food is distributed unequally on our planet: while some parts of the world
produce more than enough food for the people that live there, in other part of the world not enough food is
produced.
 Although large amounts of food are transported from one area to another, this is still not sufficient to
supply enough food to everybody.
 If food prices rise too high, many people may not be able to afford to buy it.

Famine can occur for many different reasons:

• Climate change and natural disaster such as drought and flooding that prevent crops from growing
• Increasing population: population may grow so large that the land on which they live can no longer
provide enough food for them.
• Unequal distribution of food.

The value and effects of misuse of nutrient supplement products.

• This is a type of food or pill taken in to supply additional nutrients to people who do not get enough energy
or nutrients in their normal diet.
• However, when taken in large amounts, some supplements may be harmful, e.g. overdose of vitamin A by a
pregnant woman may harm the developing baby.

6.3.2 HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL

Identify the gross structure of the alimentary canal and associated organs (mouth, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine:
(duodenum and ileum), large intestine: (colon and rectum), anus, pancreas, liver).

14
Define terms:
• Ingestion is the intake of food into the mouth,
• Digestion is the process of breaking down large, insoluble food molecules into smaller, soluble ones using
enzymes,
• Absorption is the process of passing digested food molecules across the wall of the intestine into the blood
or lymph,
• Assimilation, is use of food molecules by cells in the processes of growth, reproduction and repair (i.e.
building up the cell/incorporating into the cell)
• Egestion is the passing out of undigested food, in the form of faeces, from the anus.

Describe the functions of the alimentary canal's various parts in relation to ingestion digestion
absorption, assimilation and egestion of food.

Part of alimentary canal Function

Mouth Ingestion
Stomach, small intestines Digestion
Small intestines Absorption
Liver Assimilation
Anus Egestion

6.3.3 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL DIGESTION

Identify the types of human teeth and describe their functions.

15
 Incisors Canine Premolar Molar
Position in mouth Front Either sides of Behind the canine Back
incisors
Description Chisel shaped Slightly more 2 points (cusps) 4 or 5 cusps
(sharp edge) pointed than 1 or 2 roots 2or 3 roots
incisors
Function Biting pieces of Biting pieces of Tearing and Chewing and
food food grinding food grinding food

Identify the parts of a human tooth as seen in a longitudinal section.

Enamel – hard outer layer

Dentine
Gum
Pulp – contains nerves and blood tissues.
Blood vessels – supply nutrients and oxygen, also remove waste from teeth
Nerve endings – transmit impulses

Describe and explain dental decay.

• Bacteria are present on the surface of our teeth. Food deposits and bacteria form a layer called
plaque. Bacteria on the plaque feed on sugars, producing acid. This acid dissolves enamel,
forming a hole.
• Dentine underneath the enamel is softer – it dissolves more rapidly.
• If the hole reaches the pulp cavity, bacterial infection can get to the nerve. This results in
toothache and possibly, an abscess (an infection in the jaw).

16
 Explain the probable action of fluoride in reducing tooth decay and present arguments for and
against its addition to public water supplies.

Fluoride helps prevent destruction of the tooth surface caused by acids produced by bacteria. It forms a reservoir
on the teeth from which fluoride is released during attack. It reduces the loss of minerals from the tooth and
promotes repair of early tooth decay. Growing children can absorb fluoride in their diet (from toothpaste of
Fluoridated water). It becomes part of the enamel of their developing teeth, and the enamel; is then more resistant to
tooth decay.

Arguments for and against the addition of fluoride to public water supplies

For:
• Tooth decay in the local population of children decreases.
• There is no need to buy fluoridated toothpaste.
Against:
• It is form of mass medication – people have no choice about whether or not they want the treatment.
• Fluoride is a benefit only to growing children – adults do not benefit.
• If people take proper care of their teeth, fluoridation is unnecessary.
• Fluoride may have side effects, such as an increase in risk of bone cancer (but this is unlikely).

State the causes of dental decay and describe the proper care of teeth.

Causes of dental decay

• Not brushing and flossing
your teeth regularly and not
seeing a dentist for check-
ups and cleanings.
• Eating foods that are high in
sugar and other
carbohydrates, which feed
the bacteria in your mouth.
• Not getting enough fluoride.
Fluoride helps prevent tooth

17
 decay by making teeth more resistant to acids produced by plaque. Fluoride is added to many public water
supplies.
• Not having enough saliva. Saliva washes away food and harmful sugars, so it helps protect your teeth from
decay. A dry mouth maybe caused by a condition such taking certain medicines, or by breathing through
your mouth .Older adults are more likely to have a dry mouth.
• Having diabetes.
• Smoking, using spit (smokeless) tobacco, or breathing second-hand smoke.

Proper care of teeth

• Avoid sugary food, especially between meals, so bacteria cannot make acid and clean teeth regularly to
remove plaque.
• Use dental floss or a toothpick to remove pieces of food and plaque trapped between them.
• Use fluoride toothpaste (or drink fluoridated water) – fluoride hardens tooth enamel.
• Visit a dentist regularly to make sure and tooth decay is reacted early and any stubborn plaque (called
calculus) is removed.

Describe and explain the process of chewing.

Chewing

Mechanical digestion, performed by the teeth. Pieces of food are mixed with saliva and
become smaller which makes food easier to swallow and have a larger surface area.

Describe and explain the process of peristalsis in the alimentary canal.

Peristalsis
• The walls of the alimentary canal have an inner, circular muscle fiber coat and an outer, longitudinal
muscle fiber coat.
• As the ball of food (bolus) formed in the mouth enters the pharynx, a reflex action is initiated.
• This produces slow, wave-like contractions in the walls of the esophagus and later along the whole length
of the tract (peristalsis).
• Peristaltic waves involve the contraction of the circular muscle fibers behind the bolus (A) and their
relaxation in front of the bolus.
• Longitudinal muscles provide the wave-like action. The two functions together push the ball down the
tract (B).

6.3.4 CHEMICAL DIGESTION

18
 DESCRIBE:
• digestion in the alimentary canal,
• The functions of a typical amylase, protease (pepsin and trypsin) and lipase, listing the
substrate and end-products.
• The role of bile in fat digestion.

CHEMICAL DIGESTION
• Involves breaking down large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble ones.
• Enzymes speed up the process. They work efficiently at body temperature (370C) and at suitable pH.
• The main places where chemical digestion happens are the mouth, stomach and small intestine.

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

Enzyme Food Type Digested Products
Amylase Starch Maltose
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Protease (e.g. trypsin) Polypeptides Amino acids
Lipase Fats and oils Fatty acids and glycerol

Role of bile in fat digestion

Another substance is added from the gall bladder. Bile, made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder,
contains no digestive enzymes. It contains bile, which play a vital role in fat digestion. Fats and oils do not
mix with water, but the enzyme lipase which digests them needs water in order to work. Bile salts
breakdown the large fat drops into tiny droplets which can mix better with water to create an emulsion. This
makes it easier for lipase digest the chemicals as it increases the surface area of the fat.

6.3.5 ABSORPTION

Identify the small intestine as the region for the absorption of digested food.

Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the
blood or lymph.

Digestion is completed in the small intestine. By now, most carbohydrates have been broken down to simple sugar,
proteins to amino acids, and fats to fatty acids and glycerol. These molecules are small enough to pass through
the wall of the small intestine and into the blood. This is called absorption. The small intestine is especially
adapted to allow absorption to take place very efficiently.

It has a very rich blood supply. Digested food molecules are small enough to pass through the wall of the intestine
into the bloodstream. Water, mineral salts and vitamins are also absorbed in the small intestine. The small
intestine absorbs 5-10 dm3 of water each day. However, the colon absorbs much less water and salt than the small
intestine, generally around 0.3 – 0.5 dm3 per day.

19
 Describe the adaptations of the ileum for absorption.

Feature How it helps in absorption

• It is very long • This gives plenty time for digestion and absorption.
• It has villi • It gives the insides of the smaller intestine larger surface area for absorption
• It has folds inside • It gives small intestines a larger surface area for absorption.
• Villi have very thin • This makes diffusion of substances easy.
walls ( 1 cell thick)
• it is coiled • It increase surface area for absorption

describe and explain:

• the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface are,
• the structure of a villus, including the role of capillaries and lacteals,

Significance of villi
Villi are finger like projections that increase the surface area for absorption. If a section of small
intestine was turned inside out, its surface would be kike a carpet. Inside each villus are:
• Blood capillaries: absorb amino acids and glucose.
• Lacteals: absorb fatty acids and glycerol.

Structure of villi

20
6.3.6 ASSIMILATION

• describe: the role of the liver in the metabolism of glucose and in the destruction of excess
amino acids
• The role of fat as a storage substance.

Deamination is the removal of the nitrogen- containing part of amino acids as urea, followed by release of energy
from the remainder of the amino acid.

Role of liver in the metabolism of glucose and amino acids

Excess glucose in the blood arriving at the liver is converted into glycogen (animal starch) for storage, or
broken down through respiration, producing energy for other purposes.

Amino acids cannot be stored in our body, so any that is excess has to be dealt with in the liver.
• Some amino acids are transaminated to produce a different amino acid.
• The rest are deaminated to produce ammonia (NH3) and a keto acid.

• + NH3 is converted into urea, which is transported to the kidneys and excreted.
• + The keto acid is used primarily as energy for liver cells

21
 .
Role of liver in the breaking down of alcohol and other toxins
Breaking down any toxins absorbed from the alimentary canal, including drugs such as
alcohol. Cells in the liver are able to convert many toxins to harmless substances that can be
transported in the blood and excreted from the body.

Role of fat as an energy storage substance

Fatty acids and glycerol pass into the lymphatic system and then the bloodstream. Once in the blood
nutrients are carried to all cells of the body. Some are oxidized to produce energy and others are used to
repair the cell, build new cells.
Fat is a good storage compound – it releases twice as much energy as carbohydrates when respired, and
act as insulation in the skin. Some nerve cells form a myelin sheath from fat, to prevent electrical
impulses from leaking out.

State the role of the hepatic portal vein in the transport of absorbed food to the liver.

• The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food from the small intestine to the liver.
• After a meal, the blood in this vein contains very high concentrations of glucose and amino
acids, as well as vitamins and minerals.
• The liver reduces levels backs to normal.

SUMMARY OF PLANT NUTRITION

 Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts in the leaves of plants.

 The word equation for photosynthesis is:
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water Sugar + Oxygen
Chlorophyll

 The balanced equation is:

Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

 Chlorophyll traps energy from light. In photosynthesis, this energy is converted to chemical
energy in carbohydrates.

 Photosynthesis takes place in the cells of the mesophyll layer, especially the palisade mesophyll. Leaves
are thin and have a large surface area, to speed up the supply of carbon dioxide to the palisade cells and to
maximize the amount of sunlight that hits the leaf and can be absorbed by chlorophyll. Stomata and air
spaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse quickly from the air to the chloroplasts. Xylem vessels bring water,
and phloem tubes take away the products of photosynthesis.

 Some of the glucose that is made is used in respiration, to provide energy to the plant cells. Some is stored
as starch. Some is used to make cellulose for cell walls. Some is transported around the plant in the form of

22
 sucrose, in the phloem tubes. Some is combined with nitrate or ammonium ions to make proteins. Some is
used to make other substances such as fats. With the addition of magnesium ions, chlorophyll can be made.

 When testing a leaf for starch, it must first be boiled to break down cell membranes and allow iodine
solution to make contact with any starch inside the cells. Hot alcohol will remove chlorophyll from the
leaf, making it easier to see any color changes.

 Plants need light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

 If either light or carbon dioxide are in short supply, they limit the rate of photosynthesis and
are said to be limiting factors. The rate of photosynthesis is also affected by temperature.

 Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis are:

• Light intensity
• Carbon dioxide concentration
• Temperature

Designing an experiment. Many students find it hard to design or write an experimental report.
A complete experiment must have :
 Title
 Aim
 Hypothesis
 Apparatus
 Procedure
 Results
 Conclusion

SUMMARY OF ANIMAL NUTRITION

 A balanced diet contains suitable proportions of each group of nutrients – carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
minerals, vitamins, water and fiber – and the correct amount of energy.
 Eating food containing more energy than you can use up causes weight increase, which can lead to obesity.
Children who do not get enough food may suffer from energy protein malnutrition, in which they do not
grow properly and have little energy.
 Digestion is the breakdown of large molecules of food into small ones, so that they can be absorbed
through the wall of the alimentary canal.
 Mechanical digestion breaks down large pieces of food to small ones. It is done by the teeth, the muscles in
the wall of the alimentary canal and bile salts. Chemical digestion breaks down large molecules to small
ones. It is done by enzymes.
 Mammals have four types of teeth – incisors, canines, premolars and molars – each with their own
functions.
 Digestion begins in the mouth, as teeth grind food into smaller pieces, and amylase digests starch to
maltose.

23
 Protein digestion begins in the stomach, where pepsin digests proteins to polypeptides. Rennin is present in
young mammals, and clots milk protein. Hydrochloric acid kills bacteria and provides a low pH for the
action of pepsin.
 Pancreatic juice flows into the duodenum. It contains enzymes that digest starch, proteins and lipids, and
also sodium hydrogen carbonate to partly neutralize the acidity of food coming from the stomach.

 Bile also flows into the duodenum. It contains bile salts, which emulsify fats, making it easier for lipase to
digest them.
 The lining of the small intestine is covered with villi, giving it a very large surface area, which helps to
speed up absorption. Cells on the surface of the villi make enzymes, which complete the digestion of food.
The villi contain blood capillaries to absorb glucose, amino acids, water, vitamins and minerals, and
lacteals to absorb fatty acids and glycerol.

 The absorbed nutrients are carried to the liver in the hepatic portal vein. Some are used in the liver, some
are stored, and some are sent on in the blood to be delivered to cells all over the body.
 The colon absorbs more water from the food. In the rectum, the undigested food is formed into faeces,
which are eventually egested through the anus.

24