DIGITAL MODULATION

TECHNIQUES
Part I
by
Dr Debashis Adhikari

Reference: 1. Digital Communication by John Proakis, 4th Edition , McGrawHill

2. Digital Communication by John Proakis & Salehi, 5th Edition , McGrawHill

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 111

1.Introduction to Digital Modulation
2.Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) /
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 20

Objectives of Digital Modulator

• The digital modulator is the interface device that maps the digital
information into analog waveforms, that match the characteristic of the
channel.
• Mapping is generally performed by taking blocks of 𝑘 = log 2 𝑀 binary
digits at a time from the information sequence 𝑎𝑛 and selecting one of
𝑀 = 2𝑘 deterministic, finite energy waveform 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 , 𝑚 = 1,2, . . 𝑀 for
transmission over a channel.

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 3

Objectives of Digital Modulation

1. Maximum data rate and at the same time minimum bandwidth

2. Minimum probability of symbol error.
3. Minimum transmit power
4. Minimum circuit complexity.
5. Immunity from interference

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 4 3

Memory and Memoryless Modulation methods
When the mapping from 𝑎𝑛 to 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 is performed under the constraint that the waveform transmitted in any
time interval depends on one or more previously transmitted waveforms, the modulator is said to have a
memory.
When the mapping from 𝑎𝑛 to 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 is performed without any constraint on previously transmitted
waveforms, the modulator is called memoryless.

Linear and Non-Linear Modulation methods

Linearity of a modulation method requires that the principle of superposition applies in the mapping of the
digital sequence into successive waveforms.
Non-linearity: Superposition principle does not apply to signals transmitted in successive time intervals

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 5

Bandwidth Efficient and Power Efficient Modulation methods
• Bandwidth efficient: it is the ability to accommodate more information (bits / sec)per unit Hz transmission
bandwidth. These are preferred in terrestrial microwave radios, satellite communications and cellular
telephony.
• Power efficient: ability of a modulation scheme to reliably send information at low energy per
information bit (eg., Spread Spectrum techniques).
Modulation Scheme Application
BPSK Telemetry & Telecommand
QPSK Satellite, cellular telephony, Dig. Video Broadcasting
8-PSK Satellite communication
16 QAM / 32 QAM DVB, microwave digital radio links
64 QAM DVP, Set-top boxes
FSK Cordless telephone, paging services
MSK Cellular telephony

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 6

Bit Error Rate (BER)
• Measures quality of information delivered to receiving end user.
• Ratio of =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Accepted BER of toll quality telephone grade speech signal over land-line
telephone is 10-5, 2G is 10-3, data is 10-7.

Symbol Error Rate

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 7

 Carrier – to – Noise power ratio (CNR) and 𝑬𝒃 𝑵𝟎
• Let rate of arrival of information symbol at input of modulator = 𝑅𝑠 symbols /sec.
• Number of different symbols, 𝑀 = 2𝑚 , number of bits grouped = m.
𝑇
• Duration of one symbol = 𝑇𝑠 seconds; corresponding duration of 1 bit = 𝑇𝑏 = 𝑠 seconds
𝑚
𝑁
• Double sideband noise power spectral density at input of ideal noiseless receiver = 20 W/Hz
• Transmission bandwidth in positive frequency region = 𝐵𝑇 Hz
𝑁
• Hence total in-band noise power = 𝑁 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 20 X 2𝐵𝑇 = 𝑁0 𝐵𝑇 Watts
• If C is the total signal power received at the receiver, then the carrier –to- noise power ratio
𝐶
𝐶𝑁𝑅 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 𝑁
𝐸𝑠
• Let 𝐸𝑠 be the energy received on an average per symbol; the received power, 𝐶 = 𝐸𝑠 . 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑇𝑠
• Let 𝐸𝑏 be the energy (J) received per information bit, i.e., 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑛𝐸𝑏

𝐸 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑖𝑡

• Therefore, 𝑁𝑏 =
0 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑠𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛−𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝐵
𝐸𝑏
𝐶 𝐶 𝑚 𝑇𝑠 𝐸𝑏 𝑚 𝐸𝑏 𝑅𝑠 1
• Now, 𝑁 = 𝑁 = = .𝐵 = 2𝑚 as 𝐵𝑇 = = 2𝑇
0 𝐵𝑇 𝑁0 𝐵𝑇 𝑁0 𝑇 𝑇𝑠 𝑁0 2 𝑠
𝐸
𝐶𝑁𝑅 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑁𝑏 + 10log10 2𝑚
0 𝑑𝐵

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 8

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Application: Used in digital data communication for low-frequency RF applications

• The signal waveforms in ASK is represented in a generalized form as

𝑠𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡, 𝑚 = 1,2, … 𝑀, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠

• where 𝐴𝑚 , 1 ≤ 𝑚 ≤ 𝑀 denotes M possible amplitude levels corresponding to M possible k-bit blocks or symbols.
• Signal amplitudes 𝐴𝑚 take the discrete values or levels given by
𝐴𝑚 = 2𝑚 − 1 − 𝑀 𝑑, 𝑚 = 1,2, . . 𝑀
• where 2d is the distance between adjacent signal amplitudes.
• 𝑔 𝑡 is a real valued signal pulse whose shape influences the spectrum of the transmitted signal. Note that in your
practical classes 𝑔 𝑡 is a rectangular pulse. Practically rectangular pulse is bandwidth inefficient (if we take the
Fourier transform, it is a sinc pulse which spreads out hence occupies greater bw than required). Usually 𝑔 𝑡 is a
Nyquist pulse.

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 9

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• Here the message signal is conveyed by the change in amplitude of the carrier.
• The rate at which the amplitude of the carrier changes, to reflect the transmission of new information is
𝑅𝑏
basically the symbol rate given by 𝑘 , which implies
1
• Bit interval, 𝑇𝑏 = and symbol interval, 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑘𝑇𝑏
𝑅𝑏

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 10

 1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Energy of the ASK signal 𝑠𝑚 𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
2
1 − cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝐴2𝑚 𝐴2𝑚
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2𝑚 𝑔2 2
𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2𝑚 2
𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2
𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸𝑔
2 2 2
0 0 0 0

where 𝐸𝑔 denotes the energy of the waveform (pulse) 𝑔 𝑡 .

Basis Function & Basis Coefficients
• If we compare the earlier equation 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡, 𝑚 = 1,2, … 𝑀, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
with the general representation of signal 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑚1 𝜑1 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑚2 𝜑2 𝑡 we find 𝜑2 𝑡 = 0
• Hence we can say the signal has one basis function 𝜑1 𝑡 or in other words it is 1-D (N=1) signal.

𝑠𝑚 𝑡 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 2
Comparing we can note that (from GSOP) 𝜑1 𝑡 = = = 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝐸𝑚 𝐴2
𝑚𝐸 𝐸𝑔
2 𝑔

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 11

 1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Basis Function & Basis Coefficients
• If we compare the earlier equation 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡, 𝑚 = 1,2, … 𝑀, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
with the general representation of signal 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑚1 𝜑1 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑚2 𝜑2 𝑡 we find 𝜑2 𝑡 = 0
• Hence we can say the signal has one basis function 𝜑1 𝑡 or in other words it is 1-D (N=1) signal.

𝑠𝑚 𝑡 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 2
Comparing we can note that (from GSOP) 𝜑1 𝑡 = = = 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝐸𝑚 𝐴2
𝑚𝐸 𝐸𝑔
2 𝑔

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
2 2
𝑠𝑚 = 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 𝜑1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 . 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔2 𝑡 cos 2 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑔
0 0 0

𝑇
2 1 − cos 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 2 𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑔
= 𝐴𝑚 𝑔2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚
𝐸𝑔 2 𝐸𝑔 2 2
0

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 12

 1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Summary:
Signal Waveform 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡, 𝑚 = 1,2, … 𝑀, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠

Signal Amplitude 𝐴𝑚 = 2𝑚 − 1 − 𝑀 𝑑, 𝑚 = 1,2, . . 𝑀

𝑇
Signal Energy 2
𝐴2𝑚
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸𝑔 ,, 𝑚 = 1,2, . . 𝑀
2
0

Basis Function 2
𝜑1 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , 𝑚 = 1,2, . . 𝑀
𝐸𝑔

Basis Coefficients 𝐸𝑔
𝑠𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚 ,, 𝑚 = 1,2, . . 𝑀
2

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 13

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Signal space diagram (Constellation diagram)
Consider a ASK scheme with M = 4, i.e n = 2, and m = 1, 2, 3, 4. Therefore, from the equation of signal amplitude, i.e.,
𝐴𝑚 = 2𝑚 − 1 − 𝑀 𝑑, 𝑚 = 1,2, . . 𝑀, we obtain, the following:
For m = 1, 𝐴1 = 2.1 − 1 − 4 𝑑 = −3𝑑
00 01 11 10
For m = 2, 𝐴2 = 2.2 − 1 − 4 𝑑 = −1𝑑
For m = 3, 𝐴3 = 2.3 − 1 − 4 𝑑 = +1𝑑 Signal amp, 𝑨𝒎
-3d -d +d +3d
For m = 4, 𝐴4 = 2.4 − 1 − 4 𝑑 = +3𝑑
10

Signal amp, 𝐴𝑚
Note: The mapping or assignment of n information bits
(n = 2) to the M = 2n possible signal amplitudes is 11 11
preferably done by Gray coding (adjacent signal
amplitude differ by one binary digit). This is important in
the demodulation process, because most likely errors Time, t
caused by noise involve erroneous selection of an 01
adjacent amplitude to the transmitted signal amplitude. In Ex: transmitted bit
this scheme only a single bit error occurs. sequence 1110000111
00

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 14

 1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
𝑒
Euclidean distance between any pair of signal points 𝑑𝑚𝑞

The energy between two signal points 𝑠𝑞 𝑡 and 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 is

𝑠𝑞 𝑡 𝑒 𝑠𝑚 𝑡
2 2 𝑑𝑚𝑞
given as 𝐸𝑚𝑞 = 𝑠𝑚 − 𝑠𝑞 = 𝑠𝑚 − 𝑠𝑞

Signal amp, 𝑨𝒎
-3d -d +d +3d
𝐸𝑔
Where, 𝑠𝑚 = 𝐴𝑚
2
1
𝑇 2
𝑒 2 2
Hence , 𝑑𝑚𝑞 = 𝑠𝑚 − 𝑠𝑞 = 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑞 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
1
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 2 1
𝐸𝑔 2 2 𝐸𝑔
2
= 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑠𝑞2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − 2 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 𝑠𝑞 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2𝑞 − 2𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑞 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑞
2 2
0 0 0

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 15

 1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
𝑒
Euclidean distance between any pair of signal points 𝑑𝑚𝑞
But, 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑞 = 2𝑚 − 1 − 𝑀 𝑑 − 2𝑞 − 1 − 𝑀 𝑑 = 2 𝑚 − 𝑞 𝑑

𝑒
Therefore, Euclidean distance 𝑑𝑚𝑞 is given as

𝑒 𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑔
𝑑𝑚𝑞 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑞 = 2 𝑑 𝑚 − 𝑞 = 𝑑 2𝐸𝑔 𝑚 − 𝑞 𝑠𝑞 𝑡 𝑒 𝑠𝑚 𝑡
2 2 𝑑𝑚𝑞

Signal amp, 𝑨𝒎
-3d -d +d +3d
From the above, the minimum Euclidean distance (i.e., any
two consecutive or adjacent points on the constellation
diagram) will be (since m and q are now consecutive integers,
m-q =1)
𝑒
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑑 2𝐸𝑔

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 16

 1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Amplitude, Am
3
2 Fig. Baseband ASK Signal
1

-1 Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts 5Ts 6Ts

-2
-3
Mapped
binary bits 110 101 001 010 110 011
Amplitude, Am Fig. Bandpass ASK Signal
3
2 Phase change of fc by 180 degrees
1 because level changes from 3 to -3

-1
-2 Phase change of fc by 180 degrees
-3 because level changes from -1 to +1
Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts 5Ts 6Ts

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 17

 1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Constellation Diagram (1D Signal Space Diagram)

0 1
𝜑1 𝑡
M = 2, m = 1

00 01 11 10
𝜑1 𝑡
M = 4, m = 2

000 001 011 010 110 111 101 100

𝜑1 𝑡

M = 8, m = 3

Note the gray coding scheme where there is single bit change between subsequent symbols

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 18

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

ASK Modulator
M levels
…..

M – ary M to 1 Product
M – ary ASK Waveform
Symbol Multiplexer Modulator

cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

• The incoming M – ary is applied to a M X 1 multiplexer, which outputs appropriate levels. For example let
M = 4, i.e., 𝑀 ∈ 00, 01, 11, 00 . We know 𝐴𝑚 = 2𝑚 − 1 − 𝑀 𝑑, 𝑚 = 1,2, . . 𝑀. Hence if the
incoming symbol is say 11 then m = 3 or 𝐴3 = 2.3 − 1 − 4 𝑑 = +1𝑑. Let d = 2V, then for input symbol
11, output voltage level or amplitude 𝐴3 available at the input of product modulator will be +2V. The
output ASK waveform will be 𝑠3 𝑡 = 2. 𝑔 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 19

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

ASK Modulator
M levels
…..

M – ary M to 1 Product
M – ary ASK Waveform
Symbol Multiplexer Modulator

cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

• Drawback: If there is any amplitude fluctuations due to channel properties, as is seen in Satellite link or
microwave link, then this ASK scheme is not preferred as any amplitude distortion will corrupt the
message, since message is embedded in different amplitude levels.

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 20

End of Digital Modulation Part I

Dr D Adhikari, School of Electrical Engineering 20