ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION NOTES

Credits: Asst Prof Mr. M.DEVANATHAN

CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

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S.No CONTENTS
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UNIT – I ANALOG COMMUNICATION

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1.1 Noise: Source of Noise.

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1.2 External Noise, Internal Noise.

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1.3 Introduction to Communication Systems

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1.4 Modulation, Types, Need for Modulation.

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1.5 Theory of Amplitude Modulation

Frequency spectrum and bandwidth requirement of angle modulated 12

1.6
wave.
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1.7
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The concept of AM and its waveform, FM, PM and its comparison
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UNIT – II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

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2.1 Introduction to digital communication.
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2.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)

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2.3 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
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2.4 Concept of binary phase shift keying to BPSK, 8 PSK, 16 PSK,

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2.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

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2.6 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Techniques and Comparisons

UNIT III - DATA AND PULSE COMMUNICATION

Data Communication: History & Standards Organizations for Data 29

3.1
Communication.
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3.2 Data Communication Circuits, Data Communication Codes.

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

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3.3 Error Detection and Correction Techniques.

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3.4 Pulse Communication: PAM, PCM, PTM. and comparison

UNIT IV - SOURCE AND ERROR CONTROL CODING

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4.1 Source Coding theorem

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4.2 Techniques used for compression of information :Shannon Fano Coding

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4.3 Huffman coding

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4.4 Mutual information

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4.5 Entropy
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4.6 Channel capacity & coding theorem, channel coding theorem

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4.7 Cyclic codes, Error Control Coding
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4.8 Linear block codes

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4.9 Viterbi decoding algorithm
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4.10 convolution codes

UNIT V MULTI-USER RADIO COMMUNICATION 9

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5.1 Introduction.

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5.2 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).

Cellular Concept and Frequency Reuse, Channel Assignment and Hand 73

5.3
offs
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Code division 76
5.4
multiple access (CDMA) and overview.

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

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5.5 Satellite Communication

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5.6 Bluetooth

APPENDICES

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A Two marks Q & A

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B Question Bank

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C University Questions

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

CS6304 - ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

OBJECTIVES:

The student should be made to:

 Understand analog and digital communication techniques.

 Learn data and pulse communication techniques.
 Be familiarized with source and Error control coding.
 Gain knowledge on multi-user radio communication.

UNIT I ANALOG COMMUNICATION 9

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Noise: Source of Noise - External Noise- Internal Noise- Noise Calculation. Introduction to
Communication Systems: Modulation – Types - Need for Modulation. Theory of Amplitude
Modulation - Evolution and Description of SSB Techniques - Theory of Frequency and Phase

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Modulation – Comparison of various Analog Communication System (AM – FM – PM).

UNIT II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION 9

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Minimum Shift Keying
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(MSK) –Phase Shift Keying (PSK) – BPSK – QPSK – 8 PSK – 16 PSK - Quadrature
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Amplitude Modulation (QAM) – 8 QAM – 16 QAM – Bandwidth Efficiency– Comparison
of various Digital Communication System (ASK – FSK – PSK – QAM).

UNIT III DATA AND PULSE COMMUNICATION 9

Data Communication: History of Data Communication - Standards Organizations for Data

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Communication- Data Communication Circuits - Data Communication Codes - Error

Detection and Correction Techniques - Data communication Hardware - serial and parallel
interfaces.
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Pulse Communication: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) – Pulse Time Modulation

(PTM) – Pulse code Modulation (PCM) - Comparison of various Pulse Communication
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System (PAM – PTM – PCM).

UNIT IV SOURCE AND ERROR CONTROL CODING 9

Entropy, Source encoding theorem, Shannon fano coding, Huffman coding, mutual
information, channel capacity, channel coding theorem, Error Control Coding, linear block
codes, cyclic codes, convolution codes, Viterbi decoding algorithm.

UNIT V MULTI-USER RADIO COMMUNICATION 9

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) - Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) Code division multiple access (CDMA) – Cellular Concept and Frequency Reuse -
Channel Assignment and Hand - Overview of Multiple Access Schemes - Satellite
Communication - Bluetooth.

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

TEXT BOOK:

1. Wayne Tomasi, “Advanced Electronic Communication Systems”, 6th Edition,

Pearson Education, 2009.

REFERENCES:

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1. Simon Haykin, “Communication Systems”, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2004
2. Rappaport T.S, "Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice", 2nd Edition,

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Pearson Education, 2007
3. H.Taub, D L Schilling and G Saha, “Principles of Communication”, 3rd Edition,
Pearson Education, 2007.
4. B. P.Lathi, “Modern Analog and Digital Communication Systems”, 3rd Edition,
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Oxford University Press, 2007.
5. Blake, “Electronic Communication Systems”, Thomson Delmar Publications, 2002.
6. Martin S.Roden, “Analog and Digital Communication System”, 3 rd Edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 2002.
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7. B.Sklar, “Digital Communication Fundamentals and Applications” 2 nd Edition

Pearson Education 2007.
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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT I ANALOG COMMUNICATION

1.1 NOISE:

Noise is an unwanted electrical signal which gets added on a transmitted signal when it is
travelling towards the receiver. Electrical noise is defined as any undesired electrical energy. For
Example: In audio recording any unwanted electrical signals that fall within the audio frequency
band of 0 khz to 15khz will interface with the music and therefore considered as noise.

Noise figure is a figure of merit and used to indicate how much the signal to noise ratio

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gets degraded as a signal passes through a series of circuits.

Noise can be divided into two general categories:

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(i) Correlated Noise : Implies a relationship between the signal and the noise.
(ii) Uncorrelated Noise : It is present all the time whether there is a signal or not.

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Uncorrelated Noise:
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Uncorrelated can be divided into two general categories: (i) External noise and (ii) Internal
noise.
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1.2 EXTERNAL NOISE, INTERNAL NOISE:

External Noise:
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It is a Noise generated outside the device or circuit. There are three primary sources of
external noise.
(i) Atmospheric ,
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(ii) Extra terrestrial and

(ii) Manmade noise.

Extraterrestrial Noise consists of electrical signals that originate from outside earths
atmosphere and is therefore also called as deep space noise. This noise originates from the milky
way , other galaxies and the sun.

Extraterrestrial noise is subdivided into two categories.: (i) Solar and (ii) Cosmic.

Internal Noise: It is the noise caused by electrical interference generated within a device or
circuit.

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

There are three primary kinds of internally generated noise are:

(i) Thermal.
(ii) Shot ,Transits time.

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Communication is the process of establishing connection (or link) between two points for
information exchange.

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The Science of Communications involving long distances is called Telecommunication
( the world Tele standing for long distance)

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The Two basic types of communication systems are
(i) Analog.
(ii) Digital.

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In Analog Systems: Both the information and the carrier are analog signals.
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In Digital Systems: The digital pulses are transferred between two or more points in a
communication system.
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Analog communication:

The modulation systems or techniques in which one of the characteristics of the carrier is
changed in proportion with the instantaneous value of modulating signal is called analog
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communication system.

Advantages of Analog communications

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 Transmitters and Receivers are simple

 Low bandwidth requirement
 FDM can be used

Disadvantages of analog communication

 Noise affects the signal quality

 It is not possible to separate noise and signal
 Repeaters can‘t be used between transmitters and receivers
 Coding is not possible
 It is not suitable for the transmission of secret information

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

General Communication Systems:

Information Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination

Source

Noise and
Distortion

Fig: Block diagram of a general communication system

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Drawbacks of Baseband Transmission (without Modulation)
 Excessively large antenna heights.

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 Signals get mixed up.
 Short range of communication.
 Multiplexing is not possible.

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 Poor quality of reception. lvi
The above drawbacks can be overcome by means of modulation techniques:

1.4 Modulation, Types, Need for Modulation:

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Modulation is the changing characteristics of the carrier signal with respect to the
instantaneous change in message signal.
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Needs for modulation: In order to carry the low frequency message signal to a longer distance,
the high frequency carrier signal is combined with it.

a) Reduction in antenna height

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b) Long distance communication

c) Ease of radiation
d) Multiplexing
e) Improve the quality of reception
f) Avoid mixing up of other signals

Frequency modulation: Frequency Modulation is the changing frequency of the carrier signal
with respect to the instantaneous change in message signal.

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Phase modulation: Phase Modulation is defined as changing the phase of the carrier
signal with respect to the instantaneous change in message signal.

Deviation ratio:Deviation ratio is the worst case modulation index and is equal to the
maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating signal frequency.
Mathematically the deviation ratio is DR= f (max)/fm(max).

Amplitude modulation: Amplitude Modulation is defined as changing the amplitude of

the carrier signal with respect to the instantaneous change in message signal.

Carson’s rule: Carson‘s rule states that the bandwidth required to

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transmit an angle modulated wave as twice the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the
highest modulating signal frequency. Mathematically carson‘s rule is B=2( f +fm) Hz.

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Modulation index: It is defined as ratio of amplitude of the message signal to the
amplitude of the carrier signal. m=Em/Ec.

Percentage modulation: It is the percentage change in the amplitude of the output wave

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when the carrier is acted on by a modulating signal. M=(Em/Ec)*100
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1.5 THEORY OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Amplitude Modulation
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Amplitude Modulation is the changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect to
the instantaneous change in message signal.
The amplitude modulated wave form, its envelope and its frequency spectrum and
bandwidth. Fig (a) Sinosoidal modulation signal (b)High frequency carrier (c) AM signal.
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Fig:1.2.3 : Frequency domain Representation of AM Wave

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Amplitude Modulation of Power distribution:

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AM Power Distribution:

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

This equation relates total power of AM wave to carrier power, Maximum Value
of modulation index, m=1 to avoid distortion. At this value of modulation index,
Ptotal = 1.5 Pc. From the above equation we have

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Example Problems:

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

1.6 FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENT OF ANGLE

MODULATED WAVE.

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The values of Bessel functions depend upon modulation index m, They are listed in
Table 2.1.1
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Carson’s Rule:

Carson’s Rule gives appoximate minimum bandwidth of angle modulated signal as

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

1.7 THE CONCEPT OF ANGLE MODULATION AND ITS WAVEFORM,

FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION:

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The expression for frequency deviation, phase deviation and modulation index in
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angle modulation.
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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMMUNICATION:

Digital modulation : Digital Modulation is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier
signal with respect to the binary information or digital signal.

Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second between the transmitter and
receiver.

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Baud rate is the rate of change of signal on transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.

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Bandwidth efficiency : Bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the transmission bit rate to the
minimum bandwidth required for a particular modulation

Advantages of Digital communications

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It has a better noise immunity
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Repeaters can be used between transmitters and receivers
 It becomes simpler and cheaper as compared to the analog communication
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Disadvantages of Digital communications

 It requires a larger channel bandwidth

 Delta modulation needs synchronization incase of synchronous modulation
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2.2 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK) , MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING (MSK)

Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) : The minimum frequency space that allows the 2 fsk
representing symbols 0s and 1s. Thus CP (Continuous Phase) FSK signal with a deviation ratio if
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one half is defined as MSK.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) : Frequency Shift Keying is the as changing amplitude of the
carrier signal with respect to the binary information or digital signal.

The advantages of Minimum Shift Keying :

MSK baseband waveform are smoother compared with QPSK MSK signals have
continuous phase It does not have any amplitude variation

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

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2.3 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK):

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) : Amplitude Shift Keying is the as changing amplitude of the
carrier signal with respect to the binary information or digital signal.

Define Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Phase Shift Keying is the changing amplitude of the carrier
signal with respect to the binary information or digital signal

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Concept Of Amplitude Shift Keying In Detail:

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2.4 CONCEPT OF BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING TO BPSK, 8 PSK, 16 PSK,

CONCEPT OF BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

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2.5 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
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Quadrature Amplitude modulation (QAM): QAM is a form of digital modulation similar
to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the amplitude and phase of the
transmitted carrier.
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 QAM is a combination of ASK and PSKTwo different signals sent simultaneously on the
same carrier frequency ie,M=4, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 As an example of QAM, 12 different
phases are combined with two different amplitudes.
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 Since only 4 phase angles have 2 different amplitudes, there are a total of 16
combinations. With 16 signal combinations, each baud equals 4 bits of information (2 ^ 4
= 16).

 Combine ASK and PSK such that each signal corresponds to multiple bits.

 More phases than amplitudes. Minimum bandwidth requirement same as ASK or PSK.

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2.6 QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING (QPSK) TECHNIQUES AND ITS BLOCK

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DIAGRAM: lvi
Advantages of QPSK

 Very good noise immunity

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 Effective utilization of available bandwidth
 Low error probability

Very high bit rate data transmission

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This is Synchronous reception. Therefore coherent carrier is to be recovered from the

received signal s(t).

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Compare binary PSK with QPSK.

BPSK QPSK

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1. One bit forms a symbol. Two bits form a symbol.
2. Two possible symbols. Four possible symbols.
3. Minimum bandwidth is twice of fb. Minimum bandwidth is equal to fb.

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4. Symbol duration = Tb. Symbol duration = 2Tb.
9. What are the advantages of M-ary signaling scheme?

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1. M-ary signaling schemes transmit bits at a time.
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2. Bandwidth requirement of M-ary signaling schemes is reduced.

The probability of error in M-Ary FSK as the value of m increases:

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As the value of „M‟ increases, the Euclidean distance between the symbols reduces.
Hence the symbols come closer to each other. This increases the probability of error in M-ary
systems.
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Correlative coding allows the signaling rate of 2B0 in the channel of bandwidth B0. This
is made physically possible by allowing ISI in the transmitted signal in controlled manner. This
ISI is known to the receiver. Hence effects of ISI are eliminated at the receiver. Correlative
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coding is implemented by duobinary signaling and modified duobinary signaling.

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT III DATA AND PULSE COMMUNICATION

3.1 DATA COMMUNICATION:

HISTORY OF DATA COMMUNICATION, STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS FOR DATA

COMMUNICATION.

Data communication can be defined as two personal computers connected through a

Public Telecommunication Network (PTN). Point to point communication is the link between

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two stations A and B ie)., information is transferred between a main frame computer and a
remote computer terminal.

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A multipoint line configuration is one in which more than two specific devices share a
single link. Morse code is used to send messages. A key which turned the carrier of a transmitter

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ON and OFF to produce the dots and dashes. These dots and dashes were detected at the receiver
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and it is converter back into letters and numbers makes the original message.

Forward Error Correction (FEC)

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FEC, a receiver can use an error correcting code, which automatically correct certain
errors without any retransmissions
In FEC, bits are added to the message before the transmission
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Purpose of FEC code is to reduce the wasted time of retransmission

Data Communications History

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• 1838: Samuel Morse & Alfred Veil Invent Morse CodeTelegraph System
• 1876: Alexander Graham Bell invented Telephone
• 1910:Howard Krum developed Start/Stop Synchronisation

History of Computing
• 1930: Development of ASCII Transmission Code
• 1945: Allied Governments develop the First Large Computer
• 1950: IBM releases its first computer IBM 710
• 1960: IBM releases the First Commercial Computer IBM 360

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Main Contributors of Data Comm.

• Transmission Technology
• Packet Switching Technology
• Internet – 1967: ARPANET by Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) of U.S.
– 1975: TCP/IP protocol
• LAN Technology
– DIX-Ethernet & IEEE 802 Networks
• WAN – 1976: ISO releases HDLC & CCITT releases X.25 (PSPDN)

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The Applications Of Data Communication:

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 Used in Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) Internet
 Airline and Hotel reservation system

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 Mass media
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 NEWS network
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Advantages And Disadvantages Of Parallel Communication:
Advantages:
Parallel transmission is speed
Used for short distance communication
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Disadvantages:
Require more lines between source and destination
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More cost

3.2 DATA COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS, DATA COMMUNICATION CODES.

NARROWBAND FM.

When the modulation index is less than 1, the angle modulated systems are called low
index. The bandwidth requirement of low index systems is approximately twice of the
modulating signal frequency. Therefore low index systems are called narrowband FM.

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Reactance modulator is direct FM, where as Armstrong method is indirect FM.

Armstrong method generates FM from PM. Hence crystal oscillators can be used in Armstrong
method. Therefore frequency stability is better than reactance modulator.

In narrow band FM, the frequency deviation is very small. Hence the frequency spectrum
consists of two major sidebands like AM. Other sidebands are negligible and hence they can be
neglected. Therefore the bandwidth of narrowband FM is limited only to twice of the highest
modulating frequency.

If the deviation in carrier frequency is large enough so that other sidebands cannot be

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neglected, then it is called wideband FM. The bandwidth of wideband FM is calculated as per
Carson‟s rule.

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FM has following advantages over AM.

i) The amplitude of FM is constant. It is independent of depth of modulation. Hence transmitter

power remains constant in FM whereas it varies in AM.

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ii) Since amplitude of FM constant, the noise interference is minimum in FM. Any noise
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superimposing amplitude can be removed with the help of amplitude limits. Whereas it is
difficult to remove amplitude variations due to noise in AM.
iii) The depth of modulation has limitation in AM. But in FM the depth of modulation can be
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increased to any value by increasing the deviation. This does not cause any distortion in FM
signal.
iv) Since guard bands are provided in FM, there is less possibility of adjacent channel
interference.
v) Since space waves are used for FM, the radius of propagation is limited to line of sight. Hence
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it is possible to operate several independent transmitters on same frequency with minimum

interference.
vi) Since FM uses UHF and VHF ranges, the noise interference is minimum compared to AM
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which uses MF and HF ranges.

Carson‟s rule:

Carson‟s rule of FM bandwidth is given as,

BW = 2(_ f+ fm (max))
Here _f is the maximum frequency deviation and fm (max)) is the maximum signal frequency.
In direct FM type of angle modulation, the frequency of the carrier is varied directly by
the modulating signal. This means; an instantaneous frequency deviation is directly proportional
to amplitude of the modulating signal.

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In indirect FM type of angle modulation, FM is obtained by phase modulation of the

carrier. This means, an instantaneous phase of the carrier directly proportional to amplitude of
the modulating signal

Coherent (synchronous) detection: In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the
receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. The detection is done by correlating
received noisy signal and locally generated carrier. The coherent detection is a synchronous
detection.
Non coherent (envelope) detection: This type of detection does not need receiver carrier to be
phase locked with transmitter carrier. The advantage of such a system is that the system becomes

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simple, but the drawback is that error probability increases. The different digital
modulation techniques are used for specific application areas. The choice is made such that the
transmitted power and channel bandwidth are best exploited.

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ASCII code

ASCII in ANSI X3.4

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 Corresponding CCITT recommendation is IA5 (International Alphabet No.5)
 – ISO specification is ISO 646

Total 128 codes

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 – 96 codes are graphic symbols (in Col. 2~7).
 94 codes are printable
 And 2 codes viz. SPACE & DEL characters arenon printable
 32 codes control symbols (Col. 0 & 1) All are non printable
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EBCDIC code
 It is an 8-bit code with 256symbols
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 No parity bit for error checking

 The graphic symbols are almostsame as ASCII
 Several differences in Controlcharacters as compared to ASCII

BAUDOT code
 It is a 5-bit code also known asITA2 (International TelegraphAlphabet No. 2).
 32 codes are possible. With thehelp of Letter shift & Figure shift key same
code is used torepresent two symbols.
 Maximum symbols in this code are58
 Used in Telegraphy/Telex

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Antipodal Signals

In BPSK, the two symbols are transmitted with the help of following signals,
Symbol „1‟ s1 (t) = 2P cos (2_ f0 t)
Symbol „0‟ s2 (t) = 2P cos (2_ f0 t + _)Here observe that above two signals differ only in a
relative phase shift of 1800. Such signals are called antipodal signals.

3.3 Error Detection and Correction Techniques.

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Different Types Of Error Detection Techniques:
a. Redundancy

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b. Echoplex
c. Exact count encoding

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e. Check sum
f. Vertical Redundancy Check
g. Horizontal Redundancy Check
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h. Cyclic Redundancy Check

Circumstances of M-ary signaling schemes are preferred over binary Schemes:

Binary schemes transmit only one bit at a time. M-ary schemes transmit log2 M bit at a
ar

time. When available channel bandwidth is less, then M-ary schemes are used. M ary schemes
require less bandwidth compared to binary schemes. For example binary PSK requires a
Sm

bandwidth of 2fb. But M-ary PSK requires a bandwidth of 2fb.

The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Series Communication

Advantages:
Number of transmission lines is less Used for long distance communication Low cost
Disadvantages:
Speed is low

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3.4 PULSE COMMUNICATION:

PAM Modulator
The amplitude of a carrier pulse is altered in accordance to that of amplitude of message
signal to make it accommodate the information signal.

• Message signal is transmitted to LPF

m
• LPF performs bandlimiting
• Band limited signal is then sampled at the multiplier.

co
• Multiplier samples with the help of pulse train generator
• Pulse train generator produces the pulse train
• The multiplication of message signal and pulse train produces PAM

.
lvi
tka
signal

PAM DEMODULATOR:

PAM SIGNAL -- RECONSTRUCTION FILTER ------ RECONSTRUCTED

ar

PAM SIGNAL

Pulse width modulation

Sm

In PWM system, the message signals are used to vary the duration of carrier pulse. The
message signal may vary either the trailing edge or leading edge or both of the carrier pulses n
order to accommodate the intelligence of information system.

Width of pulse is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.The amplitude

and position of the pulse remains unchanged.

PWM Modulator
• It is basically a monostablemultivibrator with message signal applied at the control voltage
input.

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• Externally applied modulating signal changes the control voltage and hence the threshold
voltage level
• The time period required to charge the capacitor upto threshold level changes giving pulse
modulated signal

PWM demodulator

Schmitt

m
trigger

co
Ramp adder Level rectifier
Generator shifter

.
lvi LPF
Synchro
pule genr
tka
Demodulated Output.

PPM Modulator
ar

• Sawtooth generator generates sawtooth signal of frequency which is applied to inverting

input of comparator
• Modulating signal is applied to the non-inverting input of comparator
• When the value of message signal is higher than value of sawtooth ,then the output is high
Sm

• When the value of message signal is lower than value of sawtooth ,then the output is high.

PPM demodulator

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

PULSE CODE MODULATION:

Pulse code modulation refers a form of source coding. It is a form of digital modulation
techniques in which the code refers a binary word that represent digital data.With PCM, the
pulses are of fixed length and fixed amplitude.

Block Diagram of Transmitter

m
Block Diagram of Receiver

. co
Pulse position modulation
lvi
The position of a carrier pulse is altered in accordance with information contained in
sampled waveform.
tka

Sampling rate
The sampling rate fs must be atleast two times the highest frequency component of the
original signal to be accurately represented fs>=2fm
ar

Baseband signal receiver.

A baseband signal receiver increases the signal to noise at the instant of sampling.
Sm

This reduces the probability of error. The baseband signal receiver is also called optimum
receiver.

Matched filter.
The matched filter is a baseband signal receiver, which works in presence of white
Gaussian noise. The impulse response of the matched filter is matched to the shape of the input
signal.

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The impulse response of matched filter

Impulse response is given as,
h (t) = [2k/ N0 ]{x1 (T − t)}
Here T is the period of sampling x1 (t) and x2 (t) are the two signals used for
transmission.

The value of maximum signal to noise ratio of the matched filter

m
Maximum signal to noise ratio of the matched filter is the ratio of energy of the signal to
psd of white noise.

co
Correlator: It is the coherent receiver. It correlates the received noisy signal f (t) with
the locally generated replica of the known signal x (t). Its output is given as,
r (t) = 0_T f (t) x(t) dt

.
lvi
Matched filter and correlator are functionally same.
tka

The advantages of QPSK as compared to BPSK

1. For the same bit error rate, the bandwidth required by QPSK Is reduced to half as
ar

compared to BPSK.
2. Because of reduced bandwidth, the information transmission rate of QPSK is higher.
Sm

3. Variation in QPSK amplitude is not much. Hence carrier power almost remains constant

------

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT IV SOURCE AND ERROR CONTROL CODING

4.1 ENTROPY, SOURCE ENCODING THEOREM

Source encoding theorem

The discrete memory less source of entropy H(X), the average code word length
(L) for any distortion less source encoding is bounded.
Code redundancy is the measure of redundancy bits in the encoded message sequence.

m
Mutual information is the amount of information transferred when Xi is transmitted and
Yi is received. It is represented by I(Xi,Yi) .The average mutual information is defined as the

co
amount of source information gain per received symbol.

A block code of length n and 2k code words is calleda linear (n, k) code if and only if its

.
2k code words form a k-dimensional subspace of the vector space of all the n-tuples over the
lvi
field GF(2). The message occurring frequently can be assigned short code words, whereas
message which occur rarely are assigned long code word, such coding is called variable length
tka
coding.

The efficient representation of data generated by a discrete source is known as source

encoding. This device that performs this representation is called source encoder.
ar

The types of error control method

Sm

Error detection and retransmission

Error detection and correction

Channel capacity is defined as the maximum of the mutual information that may be transmitted
through the channel.

The needs for encoding

To improve the efficiency of communication
To improve the transmission quality.

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The entropy of a source is a measure of the average amount of information per source symbol in
a long message. Channel coding theorem is applied for discrete memory less additive white
gaussian noise channels.

The advantages of Shannon fano coding

Reduced bandwidth
Reduced noise
It can be used for error detection and correction.

m
The objectives of cyclic codes :
Encoding and syndrome calculations can be easily implemented by using simple shift

co
register with feedback connection It is possible to design codes having useful error correction
properties

.
Source Coding Theorem
lvi
The source coding theorem shows that (in the limit, as the length of a stream of
independent and identically-distributed random variable (data tends to infinity) it is impossible to
tka
compress the data such that the code rate (average number of bits per symbol) is less than the
Shannon entropy of the source, without it being virtually certain that information will be lost.
However it is possible to get the code rate arbitrarily close to the Shannon entropy, with
negligible probability of loss.
ar

Proof: Source coding theorem

Given X is an i.i.d. source, its time series X1, ..., Xn is i.i.d. with entropy H(X) in the
Sm

discrete-valued case and differential entropy in the continuous-valued case. The Source coding
theorem states that for any ε > 0 for any rate larger than the entropy of the source, there is large
enough n and an encoder that takes n i.i.d. repetition of the source, X1:n, and maps it to n(H(X) +
ε) binary bits such that the source symbols X1:n are recoverable from the binary bits with
probability at least 1 − ε.

Proof of Achievability. Fix some ε > 0, and let

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The typical set, Aεn, is defined as follows:

The Asymptotic Equipartition Property (AEP) shows that for large enough n, the probability that
a sequence generated by the source lies in the typical set, Aεn, as defined approaches one. In

particular there for large enough n, (See AEP for a proof):

The definition of typical sets implies that those sequences that lie in the typical set

m
satisfy:

Note that:

co
 The probability of a sequence from X being drawn from Aε
n is greater than 1 − ε.

 since the

.probability of the whole set Aε

n is at most one.
lvi
 . For the proof, use the upper bound on the probability
tka
of each term in typical set and the lower bound on the probability of the whole set Aε
n.

Since bits are enough to point to any string in

ar

this set.
The encoding algorithm: The encoder checks if the input sequence lies within the typical
set; if yes, it outputs the index of the input sequence within the typical set; if not, the
Sm

encoder outputs an arbitrary n(H(X) + ε) digit number. As long as the input sequence lies
within the typical set (with probability at least 1 − ε), the encoder doesn't make any error.
So, the probability of error of the encoder is bounded above by ε.
Proof of Converse. The converse is proved by showing that any set of size smaller than
Aε
n (in the sense of exponent) would cover a set of probability bounded away from 1.
Proof: Source coding theorem for symbol codes

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For 1 ≤ i ≤ n let si denote the word length of each possible xi. Define ,
where C is chosen so that q1 + ... + qn = 1. Then

m
. co
lvi
where the second line follows from Gibbs' inequality and the fifth line follows
from Kraft's inequality:
tka

so log C ≤ 0.
For the second inequality we may set
ar

so that
Sm

and so

and

and so by Kraft's inequality there exists a prefix-free code having those word lengths.
Thus the minimal S satisfies

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4.2 Techniques used for compression of information.

Shannon Fano Coding Techniques

In the field of data compression, Shannon-Fano coding is a suboptimal technique
for constructing a prefix code based on a set of symbols and their probabilities (estimated
or measured).
In Shannon-Fano coding, the symbols are arranged in order from most probable to
least probable, and then divided into two sets whose total probabilities are as close as

m
possible to being equal.All symbols then have the first digits of their codes assigned;
symbols in the first set receive "0" and symbols in the second set receive "1". As long as

co
any sets with more than one member remain, the same process is repeated on those sets,
to determine successive digits of their codes. When a set has been reduced to one symbol,
of course, this means the symbol's code is complete and will not form the prefix of any
other symbol's code.

.
lvi
The algorithm works, and it produces fairly efficient variable-length encodings;
when the two smaller sets produced by a partitioning are in fact of equal probability, the
tka
one bit of information used to distinguish them is used most efficiently. Unfortunately,
Shannon-Fano does not always produce optimal prefix codes; the set of probabilities
{0.35, 0.17, 0.17, 0.16, 0.15} is an example of one that will be assigned
Shannon-Fano Algorithm
ar

A Shannon-Fano tree is built according to a specification designed to define an

effective code table. The actual algorithm is simple:
Sm

1. For a given list of symbols, develop a corresponding list of probabilities or

frequency counts so that each symbol‘s relative frequency of occurrence is
known.
2. Sort the lists of symbols according to frequency, with the most frequently
occurring symbols at the left and the least common at the right.
1. Divide the list into two parts, with the total frequency counts of the left half being
as close to the total of the right as possible.

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2. The left half of the list is assigned the binary digit 0, and the right half is assigned
the digit 1. This means that the codes for the symbols in the first half will all start
with 0, and the codes in the second half will all start with 1.
3. Recursively apply the steps 3 and 4 to each of the two halves, subdividing groups
and adding bits to the codes until each symbol has become a corresponding code
leaf on the tree.

4.3 Huffmann Coding Techniques

m
Huffman coding is an entropy encoding algorithm used for lossless data
compression. The term refers to the use of a variable-length code table for encoding a

co
source symbol (such as a character in a file)
Huffman coding uses a specific method for choosing the representation for each
symbol, resulting in a prefix code (sometimes called "prefix-free codes") (that is, the bit

.
string representing some particular symbol is never a prefix of the bit string representing
lvi
any other symbol) that expresses the most common characters using shorter strings of bits
than are used for less common source symbols. Huffman was able to design the most
tka
efficient compression method of this type: no other mapping of individual source symbols
to unique strings of bits will produce a smaller average output size when the actual
symbol frequencies agree with those used to create the code.
Although Huffman coding is optimal for a symbol-by-symbol coding (i.e. a
ar

stream of unrelated symbols) with a known input probability distribution, its optimality
can sometimes accidentally be over-stated. For example, arithmetic coding and LZW
Sm

coding often have better compression capability.

Given
A set of symbols and their weights (usually proportional to probabilities).
Find
A prefix-free binary code (a set of codewords) with minimum expected codeword length
(equivalently, a tree with minimum weighted path length).
Input.
Alphabet , which is the symbol alphabet of size n.

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Set , which is the set of the (positive) symbol weights (usually proportional to
probabilities), i.e. .
Output.
Code , which is the set of (binary) codewords, where ci is the codeword for .
Goal.
Let be the weighted path length of code C. Condition: for any code .
For any code that is biunique, meaning that the code is uniquely decodable, the sum of
the probability budgets across all symbols is always less than or equal to one. In this

m
example, the sum is strictly equal to one; as a result, the code is termed a complete code.
If this is not the case, you can always derive an equivalent code by adding extra symbols

co
(with associated null probabilities), to make the code complete while keeping it biunique.
In general, a Huffman code need not be unique, but it is always one of the codes
minimizing L(C).

.
4.4 MUTUAL INFORMATION
lvi
tka
On an average we require H(X) bits of information to specify one input symbol.
However, if we are allowed to observe the output symbol produced by that input, we require,
then, only H (X|Y) bits of information to specify the input symbol. Accordingly, we come to the
conclusion, that on an average, observation of a single output provides with [H(X) – H (X|Y)]
ar

bits of information. This difference is called ‗ Mutual Information‘ or ‗ Transinformation‘ of

the channel, denoted by I(X, Y). Thus:
Sm

I(X, Y) H(X) - H (X|Y)

Notice that in spite of the variations in the source probabilities, p (xk) (may be due to
noise in the channel), certain probabilistic information regarding the state of the input is
available, once the conditional probability p (xk | yj) is computed at the receiver end. The
difference between the initial uncertainty of the source symbol xk, i.e. log 1/p(xk) and the final
uncertainty about the same source symbol xk, after receiving yj, i.e. log1/p(xk |yj) is the
information gained through the channel. This difference we call as the mutual information

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

between the symbols xk and yj. Thus

1 1

I(x k , y j ) log log

p(x k ) p(x k| y j )
p(xk | y j )

m
log
p(xk )

co
p(x k .y j )

Or I (xk, yj) log

.
p(x k ).p(y j )
lvi
p(x k | x k ) 1
tka
I (xk ) = I (x k, xk) = log log
p(x k ) p(xk )
This is the definition with which we started our discussion on informationtheory.Accordingly I
(xk) is also referred to as ‗Self Information‘.
ar

p(xk , y j ) p(y
It is clear from Eq (3.21b) that, as | xk ) ,
Sm

j
p(xk )

p(y j | x k ) 1 1
I (x k ,y j
log = log log
p(y j ) p(y j ) p(y j | x k )

Or I (xk , yj) = I (yj) – I (y j |xk )

Eq (4.22) simply means that “the Mutual information ‟ is symmetrical with respect to
its arguments.i.e.
I (xk, yj) = I (yj, xk)

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Averaging Eq. (4.21b) over all admissible characters xk and yj, we obtain the average
information gain of the receiver:

I(X, Y) = E {I (xk, yj)}

=
∑∑ I(xk , y j ). p(xk , y j )
k j

m
p(xk , y j )

=
∑∑ p(xk , y j ).log

co
k j p(xk )p(y j )

1 1
.

.
1) I(X, Y) = ∑∑ p(xk , y j ) log
lvi
log = H(X) – H(X | Y)
p(x ) p(x | y )
k j k k j
tka

1 1
.
2) I(X, Y) = ∑∑ p(xk , y j ) [log log
k j p(y j ) p(y j | xk )
ar

= H(Y) – H(Y | X)
1 1
Sm

3) I(X,Y) ∑∑ p(xk , y j ) log .∑∑ p(xk , y j ) log

k j p(xk ) k j p(y j )
1

∑∑ p(xk , y j ) log
KJ p(xk y j )

Or I(X, Y) = H(X) + H(Y) – H(X, Y)

Further, we conclude that, ―even though for a particular received symbol, yj, H(X) –
H(X | Yj) may be negative, when all the admissible output symbols are covered, the average

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mutual information is always non- negative‖. That is to say, we cannot loose information on an
average by observing the output of a channel. An easy method, of remembering the various
relationships, is given in Fig 4.2.Althogh the diagram resembles a Venn-diagram, it is not, and
the diagram is only a tool to remember the relationships. That is all. You cannot use this diagram
for proving any result.
The entropy of X is represented by the circle on the left and that of Y by the circle on the right.
The overlap between the two circles (dark gray) is the mutual information so that the remaining
(light gray) portions of H(X) and H(Y) represent respective equivocations. Thus we have

m
H(X | Y) = H(X) – I(X, Y) and H (Y| X) = H(Y) – I(X, Y)

co
The joint entropy H(X,Y) is the sum of H(X) and H(Y) except for the fact that the overlap is
added twice so that

.
lvi
H(X, Y) = H(X) + H(Y) - I(X, Y)
tka
Also observe H(X, Y) = H(X) + H (Y|X)

= H(Y) + H(X |Y)

ar

For the JPM given by I(X, Y) = 0.760751505 bits / sym

Sm

4.5 ENTROPY:
The different conditional entropies, Joint and Conditional Entropies:

It is clear that all the probabilities encountered in a two dimensional communication

system could be derived from the JPM. While we can compare the JPM, therefore, to the
impedance or admittance matrices of an n-port electric network in giving a unique
description of the system under consideration, notice that the JPM in general, need not
necessarily be a square matrix and even if it is so, it need not be symmetric.

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We define the following entropies, which can be directly computed from the JPM.
1 1 1

H(X, Y) = p(x1 , y1) log + p(x1, y 2) log +…+ p(x1, yn) log
p(x1 , y1 ) p(x1 , y2 ) p(x1 , yn )
1 1 1
+…+ p(x2,yn)
+ p (x2, y1) log + p(x2,y2) log log
p(x2 , y1 ) p(x2 , y2 ) p(x1 , y1 )

m
1 1 1
+

co
… p (xm, y1) log + p(xm,y2) log +… p(xm,yn) log or
p(xm , y1 ) p(xm , y2 ) p(xm , yn )
m n

.
1
lvi
H(X, Y) = ∑∑p(x k , y j ) log
tka
p(x k , y j )

m 1

H(X) = ∑ p(xk ) log

ar

k 1 p( xk )
Using Eq (4.6) only for the multiplication term, this equation can be re-written as:
mn 1
Sm

H(X) = ∑ ∑ p( xk , y j ) log
k 1
j 1 p( xk )
n m 1

Similarly, H(Y) = ∑ ∑ p( xk , y j ) log p( y j )

Next, from the definition of the conditional probability we have:

P{X xk ,Y y
P{X = xk | Y = yj} = j }

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P{Y yj }
i.e., p(xk | y j ) = p(xk , y j ) ) / p (yj)

m 1 m 1

Then ∑ p(xk | y j ) = ∑ p(xk , y j) = . p(y j ) =1

k 1 p( y j ) k 1 p( y j )

m
Thus, the set [X | yj] = {x 1 | yj, x 2 | yj… xm | yj}; P [X | yj] = {p(x1 | yj), p(x2 | yj)… p (xm | yj)}, forms a
complete finite scheme and an entropy function may therefore be defined for this scheme as
below:

co
m 1

.
H(X | yj) = ∑ p(xk | y j )log . lvi
k 1 p(xk | y j )

Taking the average of the above entropy function for all admissible characters received,
tka
we have the average ―conditional Entropy” or “Equivocation”:

H(X | Y) = E {H(X | yj)} j

ar

n
= ∑ p( y j ) H(X | yj)
j 1
Sm

n M 1

= ∑ p( y j ) ∑ p( xk | y j ) log
j 1 k 1 p( xk | y j )
nm
1

Or H(X | Y) = ∑∑ p(xk , y j ) log p(xk | y j )

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j k

specifies the ―Equivocation ―

. It specifies the average amount of information n eeded to
specify an input character provided we are allowed to make an observation of the output
produced by that input. Similarly one can define the conditional entropy H(Y | X) by:

m n 1

m
H(Y | X) = ∑ ∑ p( xk , y j ) log
k 1j 1 p( y j | xk )

co
Observe that the manipulations, ‗ The entropy you want is simply the double summation
of joint probability multiplied by logarithm of the reciprocal of the probability of interest‟ . For
example, if you want joint entropy, then the probability of interest will be joint probability. If

.
you want source entropy, probability of interest will be the source probability. If you want the
lvi
equivocation or conditional entropy, H (X|Y) then probability of interest will be the conditional
probability p (xK |yj) and so on.
tka

All the five entropies so defined are all inter-related. For example, We have
1
ar

H(Y | X) = ∑∑ p(x k , y j ) log

k j p(y j | x k )
Sm

1 p(xk )

Since, =
p( y j | x k ) p(xk , y j )
We can straight away write:

1 1

H (Y|X) = ∑∑p(x k , y j )log p(y j | x k ) ∑∑p(x k , y j )log p(x k )

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k j k j
Or H(Y | X) = H(X, Y) – H(X)

That is: H(X, Y) = H(X) + H(Y | X)

Similarly, you can show: H(X, Y) = H(Y) + H(X | Y)
Consider H(X) - H(X |Y). We have:

1 1

m
H(X) - H(X |Y) = ∑∑p(x k , y j ) log log
p(x ) p(x | y )
k j k k j

co
p(xk , y j )
= ∑∑ p(xk , y j )log
k j p(xk ) . p(y j )

.
lvi
Using the logarithm inequality derived earlier, you can write the above equation as:
p(xk , y j )
H(X) - H(X |Y) =log e ∑∑ p(xk , y j )ln
k j p(xk ) . p(y j )
tka

p(xk ) . p(y j )

≥ log e ∑∑ p(xk , y j ) 1 -
ar

k j p(x ,y )
k j
Sm

≥log e ∑ ∑ p(xk , y j ) - ∑∑ p(xk).p(yj)

k j kj

≥log e ∑ ∑ p(xk , y j ) - ∑ p(xk).∑ p(yj) ≥ 0

k j k j
Because ∑∑ p(xk , y j ) ∑ p(xk ) ∑ p(y j ) =1. Thus it follows that:
k j k j
H(X) ≥ H (X|Y)

Similarly, H(Y) H (Y|X)

Equality in holds iffy P (xk , yj) = p(xk) .p(yj); i.e., if and only if input symbols and
output symbols are statistically independent of each other.

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Binary Symmetric Channels (BSC):

The channel is called a ‗Binary Symmetric Channel‘ or ( BSC). It is one of the most
common and widely used channels. The channel diagram of a BSC is shown in Fig 3.4. Here ‗ p‘
is called the error probability.

For this channel we have:

m
H (Y | X ) p1 q1
log log H ( p)

co
p q
1 1
H (Y ) [p p q p

.
q)]log [p plvi q)]log
q)] [q p q)]
I(X, Y) = H(Y) – H (Y|X) and the channel capacity is:
tka
C=1 + p log p +q log q

This occurs when α = 0.5 i.e. P(X=0) = P(X=1) = 0.5

ar

In this case it is interesting to note that the equivocation, H (X|Y) =H (Y|X).

Sm

An interesting interpretation of the equivocation may be given if consider an idealized

communication system with the above symmetric channel.

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m
The observer is a noiseless channel that compares the transmitted and the received
symbols. Whenever there is an error a ‗ 1‘ is sent to the receiver as a correction signal and

co
appropriate correction is effected. When there is no error the observer transmits a ‗ 0‘ indicating
no change. Thus the observer supplies additional information to the receiver, thus compensating
for the noise in the channel. Let us compute this additional information .With P (X=0) = P (X=1)
= 0.5, we have:

.
lvi
Probability of sending a „1‟ = Probability of error in the channel .
tka

Probability of error = P (Y=1|X=0).P(X=0) + P

(Y=0|X=1).P(X=1) = p × 0.5 +
p × 0.5 = p
ar

–p=q
Sm

Thus we have P (Z = 1) = p and P (Z = 0) =q

Accordingly, additional amount of information supplied is:

p1 q1
log log H(X|Y) H(Y|X)
p q

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Thus the additional information supplied by the observer is exactly equal to the equivocation of
the source. Observe that if ‗ p‘ and ‗ q‘ are interchanged in the channel matrix, the trans -
information of the channel remains unaltered. The variation of the mutual information with the
probability of error is
shown in Fig 3.6(a) for P (X=0) = P (X=1) = 0.5. In Fig 4.6(b) is shown the dependence of the
mutual information on the source probabilities.

m
. co
Binary Erasure Channels (BEC):
lvi
BEC is one of the important types of channels used in digital communications. Observe
tka
that whenever an error occurs, the symbol will be received as ‗ y‘ and no decision will be made
about the information but an immediate request will be made for retransmission, rejecting what
have been received (ARQ techniques), thus ensuring 100% correct data recovery. Notice that this
channel also is a symmetric channel and we have with P(X = 0) = -
ar

H (Y | X ) 1 1
Sm

plog qlog
p q
H ( X ) 1 ( 1 1
)log (1
)

The JPM is obtained by multiplying first row of P (Y|X) by and second row by
(1– We get:

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0
P( X ,Y )
p( 1
0
1
Adding column wise we get: P (Y) = [ – ]
From which the CPM P (X|Y) is computed as:

1 0

m
P( X | Y )
0
(1 1
H(X|Y) 1 (1 1

co
log log (1 (1
)
pH ( X )

I(X, Y) =H(X)– H (X|Y) = (1 – p) H(X) = q H(X)

.
Max I (X, Y) = q bits / symbol.
lvi
In this particular case, use of the equation I(X, Y) = H(Y) – H(Y | X) will not be correct, as H(Y)
tka
involves ‗ y‘ and the information given by ‗ y‘ is rejected at the receiver.

4.6 Channel Capacity theorem

Shannon’s theorem: on channel capacity(“coding Theo rem”)
ar

It is possible, in principle, to device a means where by a communication system will

transmit information with an arbitrary small probability of error, provided that the information
Sm

rate R(=r×I (X,Y),where r is the symbol rate) is less than or equal to a rate ‗ C‘ called ―
channel
capacity‖.
The technique used to achieve this objective is called coding. To put the matter more
formally, the theorem is split into two parts and we have the following statements.
Positive statement:
―Given a source of M equally likely messages, with M>>1, which is generating
information at a rate R, and a channel with a capacity C. If R ≤ C, then there exists a
coding technique such that the output of the source may be transmitted with a probability
of error of receiving the message that can be made arbitrarily small‖.

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This theorem indicates that for R< C transmission may be accomplished without error
even in the presence of noise. The situation is analogous to an electric circuit that comprises of
only pure capacitors and pure inductors. In such a circuit there is no loss of energy at all as the
reactors have the property of storing energy rather than dissipating.

Negative statement:

m
―Given the source of M equally likely messages with M>>1, which is generating
information at a rate R and a channel with capacity C. Then, if R>C, then the probability of

co
error of receiving the message is close to unity for every set of M transmitted symbols‖.

This theorem shows that if the information rate R exceeds a specified value C, the error

.
probability will increase towards unity as M increases. Also, in general, increase in the
lvi
complexity of the coding results in an increase in the probability of error. Notice that the
situation is analogous to an electric network that is made up of pure resistors. In such a circuit,
tka
whatever energy is supplied, it will be dissipated in the form of heat and thus is a ―
lossy
network‖.

You can interpret in this way: Information is poured in to your communication channel.
ar

You should receive this without any loss. Situation is similar to pouring water into a tumbler.
Once the tumbler is full, further pouring results in an over flow. You cannot pour water more
Sm

than your tumbler can hold. Over flow is the loss.

Shannon defines ―C‖ the channel capacity of a communication channel a s the maximum
value of Transinformation, I(X, Y):

C = ∆ Max I(X, Y) = Max [H(X) – H (Y|X)]

The maximization in Eq (4.28) is with respect to all possible sets of probabilities that could
be assigned to the input symbols. Recall the maximum power transfer theorem: ‗In any network,

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maximum power will be delivered to the load only when the load and the source are properly
matched‘. The device used for this matching purpose, we shall call a ―
transducer ―
. For example,
in a radio receiver, for optimum response, the impedance of the loud speaker will be matched to
the impedance of the output power amplifier, through an output transformer.

This theorem is also known as ―

The Channel Coding Theorem‖ (Noisy Coding Theorem).
It may be stated in a different form as below:

m
R ≤ C or rs H(S) ≤ rc I(X,Y)Max or{ H(S)/Ts} ≤{ I(X,Y)Max/Tc}

co
“If a discrete memoryless source with an alphabet ‘S’ has an entropy H(S) and produces
symbols every ‘T s’ seconds; and a discrete memoryless channel has a capacity I(X,Y) Max and is
used once every Tc seconds; then if

.
H(S) I ( X ,Y )Max
lvi
Ts Tc
tka

There exists a coding scheme for which the source output can be transmitted over the
channel and be reconstructed with an arbitrarily small probability of error. The parameter C/T c
is called the critical rate. When this condition is satisfied with the equality sign, the system is
ar

said to be signaling at the critical rate.

Sm

Conversely, if H ( S ) I ( X ,Y )Max
, it is not possible to transmit information over the Ts Tc

channel and reconstruct it with an arbitrarily small probability of error

A communication channel, is more frequently, described by specifying the source

probabilities P(X) & the conditional probabilities P (Y|X) rather than specifying the JPM. The
CPM, P (Y|X), is usually referred to as the ‗ noise characteristic‘ of the channel. Therefore
unless otherwise specified, we shall understand that the description of the channel, by a matrix
or by a ‗Channel diagram‘ always refers to CPM, P (Y|X). Thus, in a discrete communication

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channel with pre-specified noise characteristics (i.e. with a given transition probability matrix,
P (Y|X)) the rate of information transmission depends on the source that drives the channel.
Then, the maximum rate corresponds to a proper matching of the source and the channel. This
ideal characterization of the source depends in turn on the transition probability characteristics
of the given channel.

Bandwidth-Efficiency: Shannon Limit:

m
In practical channels, the noise power spectral density N0 is generally constant. If Eb is
the transmitted energy per bit, then we may express the average transmitted power as:

co
S = Eb C

(C/B) is the ―
bandwidth efficiency‖ of the syste m. If C/B = 1, then it follows that Eb = N0.This

.
implies that the signal power equals the noise power. Suppose, B = B0 for which, S = N, then Eq.
(5.59) can be modified as:
lvi
tka
That is, ―the maximum signaling rate for a given S is 1.443 bits/sec/Hz in the bandwidth
over which the signal power can be spread without its falling below the noise level‖.

4.7 CYCLIC CODES:

ar

In coding theory, cyclic codes are linear block error-correcting codes that have
convenient algebraic structures for efficient error detection and correction.
Sm

Let C be a linear code over a finite field GF(q)n of block length n. C is called a cyclic
code, if for every codeword c=(c1,...,cn) from C, the word (cn,c1,...,cn-1) in GF(q)n obtained by a
cyclic right shift of components is again a codeword. Same goes for left shifts. One right shift is
equal to n − 1 left shifts and vice versa. Therefore the linear code C is cyclic precisely when it is
invariant under all cyclic shifts.
Cyclic Codes have some additional structural constraint on the codes. They are based on
Galois fields and because of their structural properties they are very useful for error controls.
Their structure is strongly related to Galois fields because of which the encoding and decoding
algorithms for cyclic codes are computationally efficient.

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Cyclic code for correcting error:

a) For correcting single error

The cyclic codes explicitly with error detection and correction. Cyclic codes can be used
to correct errors, like Hamming codes as a cyclic codes can be used for correcting single error.
Likewise, they are also used to correct double errors and burst errors. All types of error
corrections are covered briefly in the further subsections.
The Hamming code has a generator polynomial g(x)=x3+x+1. This polynomial has a zero

m
in Galois extension field GF(8) at the primitive element , and all codewords satisfy .
C()=0 Cyclic codes can also be used to correct double errors over the field GF(2).

co
Blocklength will be n equal to and primitive elements and as zeros in the GF(2 m)
because we are considering the case of two errors here, so each will represent one error.The
received word is a polynomial of degree n-1 given as

.
lvi
where e(x) can have at most two nonzero coefficients corresponding to 2 errors.
Syndrome Polynomial, S(x) as the remainder of polynomial v(x) when divided by the
tka
generator polynomial g(x) i.e.
S(x)=v(x) mod g(x)= (a(x)g(x)+e(x)) mod g(x)=e(x) mod g(x) as (a(x)g(x)) mod g(x) is
zero
b) For correcting two errors
ar

Let the field elements X1and X2 be the two error location numbers. If only one error occurs then
is equal to zero and if none occurs both are zero.
Sm

Let and .

These field elements are called "syndromes". Now because is zero at primitive elements

and , so we can write and . If say two errors occur,

then

and .

And these two can be considered as two pair of equations in with two unknowns and
hence we can write

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and .
Hence if the two pair of nonlinear equations can be solved cyclic codes can used to correct two
errors.
Syndrome Calculator
We know r (X) = q(X)g(X) + S(X).
We can also write r (X) = c(X) + e(X).
Rewrite the expression to:

m
(X) = c(X) + r (X)
= c(X) + q(X)g(X) + S(X)
= (f (X) + q(X))g(X) + S(X)

co
If error polynomial e(X) is divided by generator polynomial g(X), the
remainder is the syndrome polynomial S(X).

.
Error Detection
lvi
r (X) = c(X) + e(X) = q(X)g(X) + S(X)
tka
e(X) = c(X) + q(X)g(X) + S(X) = (f (X) + q(X))g(X) + S(X)
Investigate error detecting capability of cyclic code:
Assuming e(X) is a burst of length n - k or less, i.e., errors are confined to n - k or fewer
consecutive positions;
ar

e(X) can be expressed by e(X) = XjB(X), here B(X) is a polynomial of degree n – k – 1 or

less;
Sm

Xj cannot divided by g(X), B(X) cannot divided by g(X) neither,

e(X) = XjjB(X) is NOT divisible by g(X);
Thus the syndrome polynomial is not equal to zero.
It means that a cyclic code Ccyc (n,k) can detect any error burst of length n - k or less.
A cyclic code Ccyc (n; k) can also detect all the end-around error bursts
of length n - k or less.
e = (1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1)

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Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) codes:

Cyclic redundancy .check codes are extremely well suited for "error detection". The two
important reasons for this statement are,
(1) they can be designed to detect many combinations of likely errors.
(2) The implementation of both encoding and error detecting circuits is practical.
Accordingly, all error detecting codes used in practice, virtually, are of theCRC -type. In
ann-bit received word if a contiguous sequence of ‗b-bits‘ in which the first and the last bits and
any number of intermediate bits are received in error, then we say aCRC "error burst' of length

m
‗b‘
has occurred. Such an error burst may also include an end-shifted version of the contiguous

co
sequence.
In any event, Binary (n, k)CRC codes are capable of detecting the following error patterns:
1. All CRC error bursts of length (n-k) or less.
2. A fraction of (1

.
- 2 (n –k - 1)) of CRC error bursts of length (n – k + 1 ).
lvi
3. A fraction (1-2(n – k)) of CRC error bursts of length greater than (n – k + 1 ).
4. All combinations of (d min – 1) or fewer errors.
tka
5. All error patterns with an odd number of errors if the generator polynomial
g (X) has an even number of non zero coefficients.

Generator polynomials of three CRC codes, internationally accepted as standards are listed
ar

below.
All three contain (1 +X) as a prime factor. TheCRC-12 code is used when the character lengths is
Sm

6- bits. The others are used for 8-bit characters.

* CRC-12 code: g (X) = 1 + X + X2+X3 + X11 + X12*
*CRC-16 code: g (X) = 1 +X2 + X15 + X16

*CRC-CCITT code: g (X) = 1 + X5 + x12+ X26 .

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m
. co
lvi
tka
ar
Sm

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m
. co
lvi
tka
ar
Sm

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m
. co
lvi
tka
ar
Sm

4.8 LINEAR BLOCK CODES.

Error-Control Coding
Error-control coding techniques are used to detect and/or correct errors that occur in the
message transmission in a digital communication system. The transmitting side of the error-
control coding adds redundant bits or symbols to the original information signal sequence. The
receiving side of the error-control coding uses these redundant bits or symbols to detect and/or
correct the errors that occurred during transmission. The transmission coding process is known
as encoding, and the receiving coding process is known as decoding.

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There are two major classes in error-control code: block and convolutional. In block
coding, successive blocks of K information (message) symbols are formed.

The coding algorithm then transforms each block into a codeword consisting of n
symbols where n>k. This structure is called an (n,k) code. The ratio k/n is called the code rate.
A key point is that each codeword is formed independently from other codewords.

m
An error-control code is a linear code if the transmitted signals are a linear function of
the information symbols. The code is called a systematic code if the information symbols are

co
transmitted without being altered. Most block codes are systematic, whereas most convolutional
codes are nonsystematic.

.
Almost all codes used for error control are linear. The symbols in a code can be either
lvi
binary or non-binary. Binary symbols are the familiar '0' and '1'.
tka
Linear Block Codes
Linear block coding is a generic coding method. Other coding methods, such as
Hamming and BCH codes, are special cases of linear block coding. The codeword vector of a
linear block code is a linear mapping of the message vector. The codeword x and the message m
ar

have the relationship

x  mG
Sm

where G is a K-by-N matrix and is known as the generator matrix.

Linear block code is called a systematic linear code if the generator matrix has the form
G  P I k 
where P is an (n-k)-by-k matrix and I k is a k-by-k identity matrix. A systematic linear
code renders a length k message into a length n codeword where the last k bits are exactly the
original message and the first (n-k) bits are redundant. These redundant bits serve as parity-
check digits.

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4.9 VITERBI ALGORITHM.

ML algorithm is too complex to search all available pathes.

 End to end calculation.
 Viterbi algorithm performs ML decoding by reducing its complexity.
 Eliminate least likely trellis path at each transmission stage.
 Reduce decoding complexity with early rejection of unlike pathes.

m
 Viterbi algorithm gets its efficiency via concentrating on suvival paths of the trellis.

. co
lvi
tka
ar
Sm

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Example of viterbi Decoding:

Input data: m =1 1 0 1 1
Codeword: X = 11 01 01 00 01
Received code: Z = 11 01 01 10 01

m
. co
lvi
tka
4.10 CONVOLUTIONAL CODES.

* Convolutional codes are widely used as channel codes in practical communication systems
for error correction.
ar

* The encoded bits depend on the current k input bits and a few past input bits.
* The main decoding strategy for convolutional codes is based on the widely used Viterbi
Sm

algorithm.
* Convolutional codes are commonly described using two parameters: the code rate and the
constraint length. The code rate, k/n, is expressed as a ratio of the number of bits into the
convolutional encoder (k) to the number of channel symbols output by the convolutional
encoder (n) in a given encoder cycle.
* The constraint length parameter, K, denotes the "length" of the convolutional encoder, i.e.
how many k-bit stages are available to feed the combinatorial logic that produces the
output symbols. Closely related to K is the parameter m, which can be thought of as the
memory length of the encoder. A simple convolutional encoder is shown below(fig 3.1).

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The information bits are fed in small groups of k-bits at a time to a shift register. The
output encoded bits are obtained by modulo-2 addition (EXCLUSIVE-OR operation) of
the input information bits and the contents of the shift registers which are a few previous
information bits.

m
. co
lvi
A convolutional encoder with k=1, n=2 and r=1/2
tka
The operation of a convolutional encoder can be explained in several but equivalent ways such
as, by
a) state diagram representation. b) tree diagramrepresentation.
c) trellis diagram representation.
ar

a) State Diagram Representation: A convolutional encoder may be defined as a finite state

Sm

machine. Contents of the rightmost (K-1) shift register stages define the states of the encoder. So,
the encoder in Fig. 3.1 has four states.

The transition of an encoder from one state to another, as caused by input bits, is depicted
in the state diagram.Fig. 3.2 shows the state diagram of the encoder in Fig. 3.1.

A new input bit causes a transition from one state to another.

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m
co
State diagram representation for the encoder.

.
b) Tree Diagram Representation: The tree diagram representation shows all possible
lvi
information and encoded sequences for the convolutional encoder. Fig. 3.3 shows the tree
diagram for the encoder in Fig. 3.1. The encoded bits are labeled on the branches of the tree.
Given an nput sequence, the encoded sequence can be directly read from the tree. Representing
tka

convolutional codes compactly: code trellis and state diagram: State diagram
ar
Sm

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Inspecting state diagram: Structural properties of convolutional codes:

• Each new block of k input bits causes a transition into new state
• Hence there are 2k branches leaving each state
• Assuming encoder zero initial state, encoded word for any input of k bits can thus be
obtained. For instance, below for u=(1 1 1 0 1), encoded word v=(1 1, 1 0, 0 1, 0 1, 1 1, 1
0, 1 1, 1 1) is produced:
- encoder state diagram for (n,k,L)=(2,1,2) code - note that the number of states is 2L+1 =

m
8

co
Distance for some convolutional codes:

.
lvi
tka

Fig. A tree diagram for the encoder

ar

c) Trellis Diagram Representation:

The trellis diagram of a convolutional code is obtained from its state diagram. All state
transitions at each time step are explicitly shown in the diagram to retain the time dimension, as
Sm

is present in the corresponding tree diagram.

Usually, supporting descriptions on state transitions, corresponding input and output bits
etc. are labeled in the trellis diagram.

It is interesting to note that the trellis diagram, which describes the operation of the
encoder, is very convenient for describing the behavior of the corresponding decoder, especially
when the famous „Viterbi Algorithm (VA)‟ is followed.

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m
. co
lvi
Fig.. Trellis diagram for the encoder in Fig. 3.1
tka

1/3 rate convolutional encoder has the following generator g1=(1 0 0), g2=(1 0 1),
g3=(1 1 1)
ar

i)Draw the encoder circuit corresponding to this code (3)

ii) Draw the code tree (3) iii) Draw the state Diagram (3) v) Draw the trellis Diagram (3)
Sm

v)This code is used for transmission over a Awgn channel with hard decision decoder.
Using viterbi algorithm

-------

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UNIT V MULTI-USER RADIO COMMUNICATION

5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for
digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982
to create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for
a pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many

m
countries outside of Europe will join the GSM partnership.

co
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). It is a memory device that stores information such as the
subscribers identification number, the networks and countries where the subscriber is entitled to
service, privacy tax and other user specific information A subscriber uses the SIM with a four

.
digit personal ID number to activate service from GSM phone.
lvi
5.2 Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS).
tka
AMPS is a Standard Cellular Telephone Service (CTS). The AMPS system uses a seven
cell reuse pattern with provisions for sectoring and cell splitting to increase channel when
needed. AMPS uses frequency modulation and frequency division duplex for radio
transmission.
ar

The concept of AMPS.

• AMPS channel
Sm

 Explanation
• N AMPS
 Explanation
• Voice modulation and Demodulation
 Compander
 Pre-emphasis
 Post Deviation Limiter filter.
 Supervisory signal.
 Division Limiter.

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5.3 Cellular Concept and Frequency Reuse, Channel Assignment and Handoffs
• When a user/call moves to a new cell, then a new base station and new channel
should be assigned (handoff)
• Handoffs should be transparent to users, while their number should be kept to minimum
• A threshold in the received power (Pr, handoff) should be determined to trigger the
handoff process. This threshold value should be larger than the minimum acceptable
received power (Pr, acceptable)

m
• Define: Δ=Pr,handoff - Pr,acceptable
– If Δ is large then too many handoffs

co
– If Δ is small then insufficient time to complete a handoff

• In order to correctly determine the beginning of handoff, we need to determine that a

.
drop in the signal strength is not due to the momentary (temporary) bad channel
lvi
condition, but it is due to the fact that the mobile is moving away from BS.
tka
• Thus the BS needs to monitor the signal level for a certain period of time before
initiating a handoff. The length of the time (running average measurements of signal) and
handoff process depends on speed and moving pattern.
ar

• First generation systems typical time interval to make a handoff was 10 seconds (large
Δ). Second generations and after typical time interval to make a handoff is 1-2 seconds
Sm

(small Δ).

• First generation systems: handoff decision was made by BS by measuring the signal
strength in reverse channels.

• Second generation and after: Mobile Assisted Hand-Off (MAHO).

Mobiles measure the signal strength from different neighboring BSs. Handoff is
initiated if the signal strength from a neighboring BS is higher than the current BS‘s
signal strength.

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Cell Dwell Time

• It is the time over which a call maybe maintained within a cell (without handoff).
• It depends on: propagation, interference, distance between BS and MS, speed and
moving pattern (direction), etc.
• Highway moving pattern: the cell dwell time is ar.v. with distribution highly
concentrated around the mean.
• Other micro-cell moving patterns mix of different user types with large variations of
dwell time (around the mean).

m
Prioritizing Handoffs

co
• Guard Channels: Fraction of total bandwidth in a cell is reserved for exclusive use of
handoff calls. Therefore, total carried traffic is reduced if fixed channel assignment is
used. However, if dynamic channel assignment is used the guard channel mechanisms
may offer efficient spectrum utilization.

.
lvi
– Number of channels to be reserved: If it is low (under-reservation) the QoS on handoff
tka
call blocking probability can not be met. If reservation is high (over-reservation) may
result in waste of resources and rejection of large number of new calls.

– Static and Dynamic schemes: Advantage of static scheme is its simplicity since no
ar

communication and computation overheads are involved.

 However problems of under- reservation and over reservations may occur if
Sm

traffic does not conform to prior knowledge.

 Dynamic schemes may adjust better to changing traffic conditions.

Prioritizing Handoffs
• Queuing Handoffs: The objective is to decrease the probability of forced determination
of a call due to lack of available channels. When a handoff call (and in some schemes a
new call) can not be granted the required resources at the time of its arrival, the request is
put in a queue waiting for its admitting conditions to be met.

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– This is achieved because there is a finite time interval between the time that the signal
of a call drops below the handoff threshold, and the time that the call is terminated due to
low (unacceptable) signal level. Queuing and size of buffer depends on traffic and QoS.
Queueing in wireless systems is possible because signaling is done on separate control
channels (without affecting the data transmission channels).

• According to the types of calls that are queued, queuing priority schemes are classified
as: handoff call queuing, new call queuing and handoff/new call queuing (handoff calls

m
are given non-preemptive priority over new calls).

co
Practical Issues (Capacity/Handoff)
• To increase capacity, use more cells (add extra sites).
• Using different antenna heights and powers, we can provide ―
large‖ and ―
small‖ cells

.
co-located at a signal location (it is used especially to handle high speed users and low
speed users simultaneously.
lvi
• Reuse partitioning (use of different reuse patterns)
tka
• Cell splitting: Change cell radius R and keep co-channel reuse ratio (D/R) unchanged. If
R‘=R/2 than the transmit power needs to be changed by (1/2)4 = 1/16.
• Another way is to keep cell radius R unchanged and decrease D/R ratio required (that is
decrease the number of cells in a cluster). To do this it is required to decrease interference
ar

without decreasing transmit power.

• Sectoring: Use directional antennas (instead of omni-directional) and therefore you
Sm

receive interference from only a fraction of the neighboring cells.

• Hard handoffs vs. soft handoffs: more than one BSs handle the call during
handoff phase (used in CDMA systems)

Super audio tone (SAT): SAT is superimposed on the voice signal on both the forward and
reverse link and is barely audible to the user
• The particular frequency of the SAT denotes the particular base station location for a
given channel and is assigned by the MSC for each call.

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5.4 Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Code division multiple access
(CDMA)
Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standardfor
digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization groupestablished in 1982
to create a common European mobile telephone standardthat would formulate specifications for a
pan-European mobile cellular radiosystem operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many
countries outside ofEurope will join the GSM partnership.

m
Throughout the evolution of cellular telecommunications, various systems havebeen
developed without the benefit of standardized specifications. This presented many problems

co
directly related to compatibility, especially with the development of digital radio technology. The
GSM standard is intended to address these problems.

.
lvi
tka
ar

GSM network elements

Sm

GSM SERVICES
• Telephone Services
 Explanation
• Data Services
 Explanation
• Supplementary Services
 Explanation

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GSM Features:
 Explanation
GSM System Architecture:
• Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
• Network and Switching Subsystems (NSS)
• Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
GSM interface:
• Abis interface

m
• A – interface
GSM channel Types:

co
• Traffic channels
• Control channels
Frame structure for GSM.

.
Different types of GSM services
• Telephone services
lvi
• Data services
tka
• Supplementary services

Signaling tone :
The signaling tone is a 10 kbps data base which signals call termination by the subscriber.
ar

It is a special end of call message consisting of alternating 1s and 0s which is sent on the RVC by
the subscriber unit for 200ms. The signaling tone alerts the base station that a subscriber has
Sm

ended the call.

Telephone services in GSM: Teleservices provides communication between two end user
applications according to a standard protocol. GSM mainly focuses on voice oriented tele
services. This service includes emergency calling and facsimile. GSM also supports video text
and tele text.

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Handoff.
When a user/call moves to a new cell, then a new base station and new channel should be
assigned (handoff)
• Handoffs should be transparent to users, while their number should be kept to minimum
• A threshold in the received power (Pr, handoff) should be determined to trigger the
handoff process. This threshold value should be larger than the minimum acceptable
received power (Pr, acceptable)
• Define: Δ=Pr,handoff - Pr,acceptable

m
– If Δ is large then too many handoffs
– If Δ is small then insufficient time to complete a handoff.

co
Features of CDMA
• Frequency reuse

.
• Soft capacity
lvi
• Multipath fading
tka
• Data Rate
• Soft Handoff
• Self Jamming
• Flexibility.
ar

5.5 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Sm

TYPES OF SATELLITES (BASED ON ORBITS) Geostationary or geosynchronous earth

orbit (GEO)
GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed point from Earth,
these satellites appear to be stationary. These satellites are placed in the space in such a way that
only three satellites are sufficient to provide connection throughout the surface of the Earth (that
is; their footprint is covering almost 1/3rd of the Earth). The orbit of these satellites is circular.
There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites. Lifetime expectancy of these
satellites is 15 years.

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1) The satellite should be placed 37,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms) above the surface of
the earth.
2) These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction of motion of
earth, that is eastward.
3) The inclination of satellite with respect to earth must be 00.

Geostationary satellite in practical is termed as geosynchronous as there are multiple factors

which make these satellites shift from the ideal geostationary condition.

m
1) Gravitational pull of sun and moon makes these satellites deviate from their orbit. Over the
period of time, they go through a drag. (Earth‟s gravitational force has no effect on these

co
satellites due to their distance from the surface of the Earth.)
2) These satellites experience the centrifugal force due to the rotation of Earth, making them
deviate from their orbit.

.
3) The non-circular shape of the earth leads to continuous adjustment of speed of satellite from
the earth station.
lvi
These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also, these satellites
tka
are operating as backbones for the telephone networks.

Disadvantages of GEO:
Northern or southern regions of the Earth (poles) have more problems receiving
ar

these satellites due to the low elevation above a latitude of 60°, i.e., larger antennas are
needed in this case. Shading of the signals is seen in cities due to high buildings and the
Sm

low elevation further away from the equator limit transmission quality.
The transmit power needed is relatively high which causes problems for battery powered
devices. These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones. The biggest problem for voice
and also data communication is the high latency as without having any handovers, the signal has
to at least travel 72,000 kms.
Due to the large footprint, either frequencies cannot be reused or the GEO satellite needs
special antennas focusing on a smaller footprint. Transferring a GEO into orbit is very expensive.

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Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites:

These satellites are placed 500-1500 kms above the surface of the earth. As LEOs
circulate on a lower orbit, hence they exhibit a much shorter period that is 95 to 120 minutes.
LEO systems try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide a high quality
communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for around ten
minutes.
Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be
enough for voice communication. LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with

m
Omni-directional antennas using low transmit power in the range of 1W. The delay for packets
delivered via a LEO is relatively low (approx 10 ms).

co
The delay is comparable to long-distance wired connections (about 5–10 ms). Smaller
footprints of LEOs allow for better frequency reuse, similar to the concepts used for cellular
networks. LEOs can provide a much higher elevation in Polar Regions and so better global
coverage.

.
lvi
These satellites are mainly used in remote sensing an providing mobile communication
services (due to lower latency).
tka

Disadvantages:
The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if global
coverage is to be reached. Several concepts involve 50–200 or even more satellites in orbit.
ar

The short time of visibility with a high elevation requires additional mechanisms for
Sm

connection handover between different satellites.

The high number of satellites combined with the fast movements resulting in a high
complexity of the whole satellite system.

One general problem of LEOs is the short lifetime of about five to eight years due to
atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt1. Assuming 48 satellites and a
lifetime of eight years, a new satellite would be needed every two months.

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The low latency via a single LEO is only half of the story. Other factors are the need for
routing of data packets from satellite to if a user wants to communicate around the world.

Due to the large footprint, a GEO typically does not need this type of routing, as senders
and receivers are most likely in the same footprint.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites:

m
MEOs can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of their
orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages.

co
Using orbits around 10,000 km, the system only requires a dozen satellites which is more
than a GEO system, but much less than a LEO system. These satellites move more slowly

.
relative to the earth‟s rotation allowing a simpler system design (satellite periods are about six
hours).
lvi
tka
Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger populations, so requiring fewer
handovers.

Links in satellite communication

ar

1. Uplink , 2. Downlink & 3. Crosslink.

Disadvantages:
Sm

Again, due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70 – 80 ms.
the satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller footprints

The three orbits of satellite. Low Earth orbit : Medium Earth orbit & Geosynchronous Earth
orbit
Visitor location register (VLR)—The VLR is a database that contains temporary
information about subscribers that is needed bythe MSC in order to service visiting subscribers.
The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC

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area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR.
Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup
without having to interrogate the HLR each time.

Mobile services switching center (MSC)—The MSC performs the telephony switching
functions of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems. It also
performs such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and
others.

m
Home location register (HLR)—The HLR is a database used for storage and management of

co
subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data
about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity
status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or she is
registered in the HLR of that operator.

.
lvi
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
tka
1. A satellite will orbit a primary body following an elliptical path
2. For equal intervals of time a satellite will sweep out equal areas in orbital plane
3. The square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance
between the primary and the satellite.
ar

The links in satellite communication?

Sm

i) Uplink
ii) Downlink iii) Crosslink
15. Define apogee
The point in an orbit that is located farthest from earth.

The point in an orbit that is located closest to earth .

Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile
applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and for TV

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and radio broadcasting They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region
(area) on the earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the preferred size
of the footprint, complexity of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground
stations.

A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area.
When the area is focused, then the emissions don‟t go outside that designated area and thus
minimizing the interference to the other systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage.

m
Satellite‘s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the

co
designated geographical area (which is generally irregular in shape). Satellites should be
designed by keeping in mind its usability for short and long term effects throughout its life time.

.
The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit it
lvi
is subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.
tka
Kepler’s laws:
Kepler’s first law
A satellite will orbit a primary body following an elliptical path
Kepler’s second law
ar

For equal intervals of time a satellite will sweep out equal areas in orbital plane
Kepler’s third law
Sm

The square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean
distance between the primary and the satellite

5.6 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a standard developed by a group of electronics manufacturers that allows
any sort of electronic equipment from computers and cell phones to keyboards and headphones
to make its own connections, without wires, cables or any direct action from a user. Bluetooth is
intended to be a standard that works at two levels.
------

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

APPENDICES - 1

TWO MARKS Q & A

UNIT I ANALOG COMMUNICATION

1. Define modulation.
Modulation is defined as changing the characteristics of the carrier signal with respect to the
instantaneous change in message signal.

m
2. What are the needs for modulation. Nov/Dec 2014

co
In order to carry the low frequency message signal to a longer distance, the high frequency
carrier signal is combined with it.
a) Reduction in antenna height

.
b) Long distance communication c) Ease of radiation
d) Multiplexing
lvi
e) Improve the quality of reception f) Avoid mixing up of other signals
tka

3. Define Frequency modulation.

Frequency Modulation is defined as changing the frequency of the carrier signal with respect to
the instantaneous change in message signal.
ar

4. Define Phase modulation.

Sm

Phase Modulation is defined as changing the phase of the carrier signal with respect to the
instantaneous change in message signal.
5. Define noise
Noise is an unwanted electrical signal which gets added tom a transmitted signal when it is
travelling towards the receiver

6. Define noise figure

Noise figure is a figure of merit and used to indicate how much the signal to noise ratio gets
degraded as a signal passes through a series of circuits

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7. Define Deviation ratio.

Deviation ratio is the worst case modulation index and is equal to the maximum peak frequency
deviation divided by the maximum modulating signal frequency. Mathematically the deviation
ratio is DR= f (max)/fm(max).

8. Define Amplitude modulation.

m
Amplitude Modulation is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect to
the instantaneous change in message signal.

co
9. State Carson’s rule.
Carson‘s rule states that the bandwidth required to transmit an angle modulated wave as twice

.
the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the highest modulating signal frequency.
lvi
Mathematically carson‘s rule is B=2( f +fm) Hz.
tka
10. Define modulation index
It is defined as ratio of amplitude of the message signal to the amplitude of the carrier signal.
m=Em/Ec.
ar

11. What is meant by analog communication system?

The modulation systems or techniques in which one of the characteristics of the carrier is
Sm

changed in proportion with the instantaneous value of modulating signal is called analog
communication system.

12. What are the advantages of Analog communications

Transmitters and Receivers are simple
Low bandwidth requirement
FDM can be used

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13. What are the disadvantages of analog communication?

Noise affects the signal quality
It is not possible to separate noise and signal
Repeaters can‘t be used between transmitters and receivers
Coding is not possible
It is not suitable for the transmission of secret information
14. Define percentage modulation
It s defined as the percentage change in the amplitude of the output wave whn the carrier is acted

m
on by a modulating signal. M=(Em/Ec)*100

co
UNIT II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
1. Define bit rate
Bit rate is defined as number of bits transmitted during one second between the transmitter and
receiver.

.
2. Define baud rate.
lvi
Baud rate is defined as the rate of change of signal on transmission medium after encoding and
tka
modulation have occurred.
3. Define bandwidth efficiency
Bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth required
for a particular modulation
ar

4. Define Digital modulation

Digital Modulation is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect to the
Sm

binary information or digital signal.

5. What are the advantages of Digital communications
It has a better noise immunity
Repeaters can be used between transmitters and receivers
It becomes simpler and cheaper as compared to the analog communication

6. What are the disadvantages of Digital communications

It requires a larger channel bandwidth
Delta modulation needs synchronization incase of synchronous modulation

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7. Define Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).

Amplitude Shift Keying is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect to
the binary information or digital signal.

8. Define Phase Shift Keying (PSK).

Phase Shift Keying is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect to the
binary information or digital signal.

m
9. Define Minimum Shift Keying (MSK).
The minimum frequency space that allows the 2 fsk representing symbols 0s and 1s. Thus CP

co
(Continuous Phase) FSK signal with a deviation ratio if one half is defined as MSK.

10. Define Quadrature Amplitude modulation (QAM).

.
QAM is a form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital information is contained
lvi
in both the amplitude and phase of the transmitted carrier.
11. Define Frequency Shift Keying (FSK).
tka
Frequency Shift Keying is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect to
the binary information or digital signal.

12. What are the advantages of MSK?

ar

MSK baseband waveform are smoother compared with QPSK MSK signals have continuous
phase It does not have any amplitude variation
Sm

13. What are the advantages of QPSK?

Very good noise immunity
Effective utilization of available bandwidth
Low error probability
Very high bit rate data transmission

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CS6304 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT III DATA AND PULSE COMMUNICATION

1. Define Morse code.

It is used to send messages. A key which turned the carrier of a transmitter ON and OFFto
produce the dots and dashes. These dots and dashes were detected at the receiver and it is
converter back into letters and numbers makes the original message.
2. What is multipoint communication?
A multipoint line configuration is one in which more than two specific devices share a single

m
link.
3. What is meant by point to point communication?

co
Point to point communication is the link between two stations A and B ie)., information is
transferred between a main frame computer and a remote computer terminal.
4. What is meant by Forward Error Correction (FEC)?

.
FEC, a receiver can use an error correcting code, which automatically correct certain errors
without any retransmissions
lvi
In FEC, bits are added to the message before the transmission
tka
Purpose of FEC code is to reduce the wasted time of retransmission
5. What is meant by data communication
Data communication can be defined as two personal computers connected through a Public
Telecommunication Network (PTN)
ar

6. What are the applications of data communication?

Used in Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) Internet
Sm

Airline and Hotel reservation system

Mass media
NEWS network
7.What are the advantages and disadvantages of Parallel communication
Advantages:
Parallel transmission is speed
Used for short distance communication
Disadvantages:
Require more lines between source and destination & More cost

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8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of series communication

Advantages:
Number of transmission lines is less Used for long distance communication Low cost
Disadvantages:
Speed is low
9. Define Pulse Amplitude modulation
The amplitude of a carrier pulse is altered in accordance to that of amplitude of message signal to

m
make it accommodate the information signal.
10. What are the different types of error detection techniques?

co
a. Redundancy b. Echoplex
c. Exact count encoding d. Parity
e. Check sum
f. Vertical Redundancy Check

.
lvi
g. Horizontal Redundancy Check h. Cyclic Redundancy Check
11. Define Pulse width modulation
tka
In PWM system, the message signals are used to vary the duration of carrier pulse. The message
signal may vary either the trailing edge or leading edge or both of the carrier pulses n order to
accommodate the intelligence of information system.
12. Define sampling rate
ar

The sampling rate fs must be atleast two times the highest frequency component of the original
signal to be accurately represented fs>=2fm
Sm

13. Define Pulse position modulation

The position of a carrier pulse is altered in accordance with information contained in sampled
waveform.
14. Define Pulse code modulation
Pulse code modulation refers a form of source coding. It is a form of digital modulation
techniques in which the code refers a binary word that represent digital data.With PCM, the
pulses are of fixed length and fixed amplitude.

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UNIT IV SOURCE AND ERROR CONTROL CODING

PART - A

1. Define mutual information [Nov/Dec-2010, May/June-2011, 2013]

It is defined as the amount of information transferred when Xi is transmitted and
Yi is received. It is represented by I(Xi,Yi)
The average mutual information is defined as the amount of source information gain per received

m
symbol

co
2. Define channel capacity [Nov/Dec-2010, 2011, May/June-2011]
Channel capacity is defined as the maximum of the mutual information that may be transmitted
through the channel

.
lvi
3. Define entropy Nov/Dec-2006, 2010, 2014, May/June- 2004, 2007, 2011, 2013]
tka
The entropy of a source is a measure of the average amount of information per source symbol in
a long message.

4. Define linear block codes

ar

A block code of length n and 2k code words is calleda linear (n, k) code if and only if its 2k code
words form a k-dimensional subspace of the vector space of all the n-tuples over the field GF(2).
Sm

5. What is meant by variable length coding?

The message occurring frequently can be assigned short code words, whereas message which
occur rarely are assigned long code word, such coding is called variable length coding.

6. Define source encoder

The efficient representation of data generated by a discrete source is known as source encoding.
This device that performs this representation is called source encoder.

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7. Define source encoding theorem

The discrete memory less source of entropy H(X), the average code word length
(L) for any distortion less source encoding is bounded.
8. Define code redundancy
It is the measure of redundancy bits in the encoded message sequence.

9. Mention the needs for encoding

To improve the efficiency of communication

m
To improve the transmission quality.

co
10. What are the advantages of Shannon fano coding [Nov/Dec- 2012]
Reduced bandwidth
Reduced noise
It can be used for error detection and correction.

.
lvi
11. Define channel coding theorem
tka
Channel coding theorem is applied for discrete memory less additive white gaussian noise
channels

12. What are the types of error control method?

ar

Error detection and retransmission

Error detection and correction
Sm

13. What are the objectives of cyclic codes

Encoding and syndrome calculations can be easily implemented by using simple shift register
with feedback connection It is possible to design codes having useful error correction properties

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UNIT V MULTI-USER RADIO COMMUNICATION

1. Define GSM.
Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital
cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to
create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a
pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many
countries outside of Europe will join the GSM partnership.

m
2. Define Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).

co
It is a memory device that stores information such as the subscribers identification number, the
networks and countries where the subscriber is entitled to service, privacy tax and other user
specific information A subscriber uses the SIM with a four digit personal ID number to activate
service from GSM phone.

.
lvi
3. What is meant by super audio tone (SAT)?
tka
• SAT is superimposed on the voice signal on both the forward and reverse link and is barely
audible to the user
• The particular frequency of the SAT denotes the particular base station location for a given
channel and is assigned by the MSC for each call.
ar

4. What is meant by signaling tone?

Sm

The signaling tone is a 10 kbps data base which signals call termination by the subscriber. It is a
special end of call message consisting of alternating 1s and 0s which is sent on the RVC by the
subscriber unit for 200ms. The signaling tone alerts the base station that a subscriber has ended
the call.

5. What is meant by Telephone services in GSM?

Teleservices provides communication between two end user applications according to a standard
protocol. GSM mainly focuses on voice oriented tele services. This service includes emergency
calling and facsimile. GSM also supports video text and tele text.

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6. Name the different types of GSM services

• Telephone services
• Data services
• Supplementary services

7. Define Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS).

AMPS is a Standard Cellular Telephone Service (CTS). The AMPS system uses a seven cell

m
reuse pattern with provisions for sectoring and cell splitting to increase channel when needed.
AMPS uses frequency modulation and frequency division duplex for radio transmission.

co
8. What are the three orbits of satellite? Low Earth orbit
Medium Earth orbit & Geosynchronous Earth orbit

.
9. Define VLR.
lvi
Visitor location register (VLR)—The VLR is a database that contains temporary information
tka
about subscribers that is needed bythe MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is
always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR
connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the
mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without
ar

having to interrogate the HLR each time.

10. Define MSC.
Sm

Mobile services switching center (MSC)—The MSC performs the telephony switching
functions of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems. It also
performs such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and
others.
11. What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth is a standard developed by a group of electronics manufacturers that allows any sort of
electronic equipment from computers and cell phones to keyboards and headphones to make its
own connections, without wires, cables or any direct action from a user. Bluetooth is intended to
be a standard that works at two levels.

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12. Define HLR.

Home location register (HLR)—The HLR is a database used for storage and management of
subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data
about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity
status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or she is
registered in the HLR of that operator.

m
13. State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
1. A satellite will orbit a primary body following an elliptical path

co
2. For equal intervals of time a satellite will sweep out equal areas in orbital plane
3. The square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance
between the primary and the satellite.
14. What are the links in satellite communication?

.
i) Uplink
lvi
ii) Downlink iii) Crosslink
tka
15. Define apogee
The point in an orbit that is located farthest from earth.
15. Define perigee
The point in an orbit that is located closest to earth .
ar

16. Define Handoff.

When a user/call moves to a new cell, then a new base station and new channel should be
Sm

assigned (handoff)
• Handoffs should be transparent to users, while their number should be kept to minimum
• A threshold in the received power (Pr, handoff) should be determined to trigger the handoff
process. This threshold value should be larger than the minimum acceptable received power (Pr,
acceptable)
• Define: Δ=Pr,handoff - Pr,acceptable
– If Δ is large then too many handoffs
– If Δ is small then insufficient time to complete a handoff.

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APPENDICES - B
QUESTION BANK
UNIT -1
PART- A (2 MARKS)

1. Define amplitude modulation. (nov/dec 2011)

2. Define modulation index of an AM signal. (may/june 2012, nov/dec 2011)

m
3. A transmitter radiates 9 kW without modulation and 10.125 kW after modulation. Determine
depth of modulation. (nov/dec 2009)

co
4. Define the transmission efficiency of AM signal. (april/may 2009)
5. Draw the phasor diagram of AM signal. (nov/dec 2011)
6. What are the disadvantages of DSB-FC modulation. (nov/dec 2009)

.
7. Distinguish between low level and high level modulator. (nov/dec 2009)
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8. List out the application of AM. (april/may 2009).
9. Define bandwidth efficiency (nov/dec 2012)
10. Distinguish between FM and PM (nov/dec 2012)
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11. What is the bandwidth need to transmit 4kHz voice signal using AM? (nov/dec 2012)
12. Define modulation and modulation index (may/jun 2012)
13. What is the purpose of limiter in FM receiver? (may/jun 2012)
ar

14. Draw the frequency spectrum and mention the bandwidth of Am signal (nov/dec 2011)
15. In an AM transmitter, the carrier power id 10kW and the modulation index is 0.5. Calculate
the total RF power delivered (nov/dec 2011).
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16. State Carson`s rule (nov/dec 2010)

17. For an AM DSBFC modulator with carrier frequency of 100 kKZ and and modulating
frequency of 5kHz, determine upper and lower sideband frequencies and bandwidth.(nov/dec
2010)
PART- B (16 MARKS)

1. What is the principle of Amplitude modulation? Derive expression for the AM wave and
draw its spectrum. (nov/dec 2009, nov/dec 2010)
2. Describe the frequency analysis of Angle modulated waves. Explain their

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Bandwidth requirements. (nov/dec 2009)

3. A modulating signal of 2 cos5000t is amplitude modulated over a carrier
signal of 5cos20000t . Derive expressions for the modulation index, LSB and VSB frequencies,
Bandwidth and the ratio of Side Band Power in the Total Power of AM wave. (april/may 2009).
4. Explain the principle of Angle Modulation. Derive and explain phase deviation, Modulation
index, frequency deviation and percent modulation (april/may 2009)
5. Compare FM and AM. (nov/dec 2012)
6. With a neat block diagram describe AM transmitter. (nov/dec 2012)

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7. Derive for carrier power and transmitter power in terms of modulation index? (nov/dec 2012)
8. Explain the function of every block of superhetrodyne receiver? (nov/dec 2012)

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9. Draw the block diagram and explain the function and working of DSBSC system. (may/june
2012)
10. Obtain a relationship between carrier and side band powers in an AM DSBFC wave and

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explain how power distribution takes place in AM DSB FC system. (apr/may 2012)
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11.Define modulation index for FM and PM and obtain the relation between modulation index
and modulating signal for FM and PM (apr/may 2012).
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12. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of angle modulation with
amplitude modulation (nov/dec 2010).
13. Distinguish between FM and PM by giving its mathematical analysis. (nov/dec 2010)
14. Derive the relationship between the voltage amplitudes of the side band
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frequencies and the carrier and draw the frequency spectrum.

15. The output of a AM transmitter is given by Um ( t) = 600 (1 + 0.5 sin 3140t) sin 6.28*107t.
Sm

Calculate

(1) Carrier frequency

(2) Modulating frequency.

(3) Modulation index

(4) Carrier power if the load is 600 Ohm

(5) Total power. (nov/dec 2011)

16. Explain the Bandwidth requirement for FM and define Carson‘ rule. (nov/dec 2011)

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UNIT – II
PART – A (2 MARKS)
1. Differentiate coherent and non coherent digital modulation methods (nov/dec 2009)
2. Compare bandwidth of m-ary PSK signal and m-ary FSK signal.
4. Sketch the waveform of ASK and PSK for binary sequence 1100101(nov/dec 2011, apr/may
2010).
5. Differentiate QPSK and BPSK. (april/may 2010).
6. Differentiate ASK and FSK (april/may 2011)

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7. Define minimum Shift keying.
8. Define Duo binary encoding

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9.Define DPSK (nov/dec 2007).
11 What are the advantages of QPSK? (nov/dec 2011)
13 Define information capacity and bit rate (nov/dec 2010) .

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15. What is the relation between bit rate and baud for a FSK system?
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16. What are the advantages of digital transmission?
17. Define ASK, PSK and FSK.
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19. Why is ASK called as ON-OFF keying? (nov/dec 2006)
20. What are the differences between QASK and QPSK?
21. Draw the block diagram of a BPSK transmitter? (nov/dec 2012)
22. Draw 8-QAM phasor diagram. (apr/may 2012)
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23. Determine the peak frequency deviation and minimum bandwidth for binary FSK signal with
mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51 kKz (apr/may 2012)
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24. What is the relation between bit rate and baud for a FSK system (nov/dec 2010)
25. Draw the block diagram of a BFSK transmitter. (nov/dec 2012)
26. What are the advantages of QPSK? (apr/may 2010)

PART – B (16 MARKS)

1. Draw FSK Transmitter and explain. Describe its Bandwidth Considerations.( nov/dec 2011)

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2. For a BPSK modulator with a Carrier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bit rate of 10 Mbps,
determine the maximum and minimum upper and lower side frequencies, draw the output
spectrum, determine the minimum Nyquist bandwidth, and calculate the baud
(Assume f= 5MHz) (nov/dec 2011)
3. Draw and explain the operations of Non-coherent and coherent FSK
modulators. (nov/dec 2009)
4.Draw QPSK modulator and explain. Describe its Bandwidth considerations. (nov/dec 2009)
5. What is carrier recovery? Discuss how carrier recovery is achieved by the

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squaring loop and Costas loop circuits. ((nov/dec 2011, nov/dec 2010, apr/may 2010)
6. Draw the block diagram of FSK receiver and explain the operation. Determine the : (i) peak

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frequency deviation (ii) minimum bandwidth (iii) baud for FSK signal with a mark frequency of
49 kHz, space frequency of 51 kHz, and input bit rate of 2 kbps. (april/may 2009).
7. Illustrate the concept of 8 QAM transmitter with the truth table (apr/may 2010).

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8. Explain BPSK transmitter and receiver with block diagram and derive an expression for its
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probability of error. (nov/dec 2012) (april/may 2011)
9. Describe the working of QPSK transmitter and receiver. Determine its bandwidth efficiency
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and compare it with other m-ary PSK schemes. (nov/dec 2012, apr/may 2012, nov/dec 2010)
10. Explain the generation and detection of PSK system? (may/june 2012, apr/may 2012)
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UNIT III
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PART – A (2 MARKS)
1. State sampling theorem. (NOV/DEC 2011, NOV/DEC 2012)
2. Define PAM. NOV/DEC 2009
3. Construct NRZ and RZ format for 011010.
4. Define adaptive equalization.
5. Define ISI. NOV/DEC 2011
6. Define Nyquist Criteria.
7. What is the interpretation obtained from eye pattern?
8. Define Nyquist sampling theorem.

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9. Draw PWM and PPM waveforms.

10. Draw the Eye pattern and indicate how ISI is measured from it.
11. What are the advantages of digital transmission?
12. Define companding. APRIL/MAY 2011.
13. Define dynamic range.
14. Determine the Nyquist sample rate for a maximum analog input frequency of (a) 4 KHz
(b) 10 KHz.
15. Distinguish between DM and ADM.

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16. What is meant by fading? (Nov/dec 2012)

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PART –B (16 MARKS)
1. State and prove Sampling theorem. Mention and explain types of sampling and
sampling circuit. V/DEC 2010,2011)

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2. What is eye pattern? What are the interpretations obtained from it? (May/june
2013)
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3. Describe in detail the PCM technique with focus on its sampling rate, and signal to
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quantization Noise ratio. (Apr/may 2011, nov/dec 2011)
4. What is ISI? Explain the applications of eye pattern to detect ISI. (nov/dec 2012,
apr/may 2010, may/june 2013, apr/may 2011)
5. With a block diagram, explain the adaptive Delta Modulation technique.
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(Apr/may2011,nov/dec 2011)
6. What is DPCM? Explain its principle with neat block diagram. (APRIL/MAY 2011).
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7. Explain the elements of PCM transmitter and receiver with a neat block diagram.
(May/june 2013) (nov/dec 2010, 2011, 2012)

8. What is companding? Explain analog and digital companding with neat diagram.
(nov/dec 2009, apr/may 2010, june 2011)(May/june 2011)
9. Find the signal amplitude for minimum quantization error in a delta modulation
system if step size is 1 volt having repetition period 1 ms. The information signal
operates at 100 Hz.

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10. Draw the block diagram and describe the operation of a delta modulator and
demodulator. What are its advantages and disadvantages compared to a PCM system?
(may/june 2010, 2012, Nov/dec 2010)
UNIT IV
PART – A (2 MARKS)
1.What do you meant by data communication codes?
2.What are the other names for data communications codes?
3.what is ASCII code? NOV/DEC 2011

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4.Name the classification of errors. NOV/DEC 2009
5. Define error correction

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7. Define error detection. NOV/DEC 2010
8. Error correction methods
9.Mention the advantage of of parallel interface
10.Define modem NOV/DEC 2011

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11.Give the disadvantage of synchronous modem
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12.Define modem equalizers. NOV/DEC 2009
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13.Name the modem standard.
14. List the standard organizations for data communications. NOV/DEC 2011
15. Mention any two error control codes? (Nov/dec 2012)
16. Draw the null modem circuit? (Nov/dec 2012)
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PART – B (16 MARKS)

1. Explain the various error detection techniques (NOV/DEC 2008, NOV/DEC 2010, 2011,
Sm

Apr/may 2011, may/june 2010),

2. Explain the various error correction techniques NOV/DEC 2006, NOV/DEC 2011
3. Explain the various Data Communication code. (may/june 2013, nov/dec 2011)
4. Explain the concept UART transceiver operation NOV/DEC 2010
5. What are parallel interface. Explain the centronics parallel interface. (nov/dec 2010,
APRIL/MAY 2011)
6. Draw the block diagram of modem and Explain the operation of modem (NOV/DEC
2011)
7. Explain the various error control techniques

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8. Explain the RS-232 interface. (nov/dec 2010, may/june 2010)

9. Explain the data communication hardware. (may/june 2013)
10. Explain the standard organizations for data communications. (Apr/may 2011)
11. Explain the serial interface. (nov/dec 2010, 2011)
12. Describe the processing steps to convert a k bit message word to n bit code word (n>k).
Introduce a error and demonstrate how a error can be corrected with an example.
(nov/Dec 2012)
13. Differentiate between synchronous and asynchronous modem used in data

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communication. (Apr/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2012)
14. Differentiate low speed, medium speed and high speed modem. (apr/may 2011, nov/dec

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2011)
15. Explain with block diagram how analog signal is transmitted through digital transmission
link using digital modulation technique. (Nov/Dec 2012)

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16. Explain source-coding theorem. Consider five messages s0 to s4 with probabilities 1/2,
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1/4, 1/8, 1/16 and 1/16. Use Shanon-Fano algorithm to develop an efficient code.
(May/June 2012)
tka

UNIT V
PART – A (2 MARKS)
1. Define pseudo noise sequence.
ar

2. Define spread spectrum technique

3. Differentiate Slow and fast FH SS technique.
4. Differentiate TDMA and FDMA. NOV/DEC 2011
Sm

5. Define processing gain for DS SS technique

6. What are the advantages of Spread Spectrum techniques?
7. Differentiate DS –SS and FH-SS.
8. Define processing gain for FH SS technique NOV/DEC 2011
9. What are the disadvantages of DS SS techniques?
10. What are the advantages of FH SS techniques?
11. What are the applications of spread spectrum modulation?
12. Design processing gain in spread spectrum modulation.
13. Define effective jamming power and processing.

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14. What is the principle of frequency hopping spread spectrum? NOV/DEC 2011
15. A spread spectrum communication system has the following parameters; information bit
duration Tb = 4.095 ms, PN chip duration Tc = 1 ms. Determine Processing Gain.
16. What is meant by slow frequency hopping and fast-frequency hopping?
17. What is frequency hopping?
18. What is meant by an orthogonal code?
19. Define Pseudonoise sequence? NOV/DEC 2006
20. What are the different types of multiple access techniques?

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21. What is the significance of PN sequence? Give an example to PN sequence?
(May/June 2012)

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22. What are the types of FH spread spectrum technique?
23. Mention the properties of PN sequence? (Nov/Dec 2012)
24. Define processing gain and jamming margin? (May/June 2012)

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PART –B (16 MARKS)
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1. Explain in detail the transmitter and receiver of DS SS technique with BPSK. (May/june
2010,2013, NOV/DEC 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012)
tka
2. Explain in detail the transmitter and receiver of FH SS technique (NOV/DEC
2009,2010,2011,2012, may/june 2012)
3. Explain in detail the characteristics, properties and generation of PN sequence (NOV/DEC
2010,2011, may/june 2010)
ar

4. Explain the two common multiple access technique for wireless communication. (NOV/DEC
2011)
Sm

5. Differentiate direct sequence and frequency hop spread spectrum technique NOV/DEC 2011
6. Explain the operation of TDMA and CDMA techniques. (May/june 2010,2011,2013.
Nov/dec 2010)
7. Give a detail account of the different types of multiple access techniques. (10) (NOV/DEC
2011)
8. Explain the source coding of speech for wireless communications. NOV/DEC 2011
NOV/DEC 2012)
9. Define slow frequency hopping and fast frequency hopping? Nov/Dec 2012.

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APPENDICES – C
UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

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