Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

CHAPTER SIX
SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight Distance :

Is the length of the continuous part and visible part of the road in front of the

driver. The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very

much on the visibility of the road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric

design of the road should be done such that any obstruction on the road length

could be visible to the driver from some distance ahead . This distance is said

to be the sight distance.

The computation of sight distance depends on:

1. Reaction time of the driver

Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is

visible to the driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total

reaction time may be split up into four components based on PIEV theory.

In practice, all these times are usually combined into a total perception -

reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as for easy measurement.

Many of the studies shows that drivers require about 1.5 to 2 secs under

normal conditions. However, taking into consideration the variability of

driver characteristics, a higher value is normally used in design.

For example, IRC suggests a reaction time of 2.5 secs.

1 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

2. Speed of the vehicle

The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the

speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that,

as the speed increases, sight distance also increases.

3. Efficiency of brakes

The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle

characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the

moment the brakes are applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve

100% brake efficiency. Therefore the sight distance required will be more

when the efficiency of brakes are less. Also for safe geometric design, we

assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake efficiency.

4. Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road

The frictional resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role to

bring the vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles

stop immediately. Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for

brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight distance. This is taken

into account along with the factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has specified

the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.

5. Gradient of the road.

Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a

gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required

is less. While descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action and more

time will be required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required will be more

2 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

in this case.

Constraints Assumed in Determining Sight Distance:

• Total Reaction Time – time between when hazard comes into view and

instant vehicle begins to slow – in road design use 2.5 seconds but may use

2.0 or 1.5 seconds in low speed environments

• Height of Driver – adopt 1.05m for passenger vehicles and 1.8 for

commercial and 2.4m for trucks

• Height of Stationary Object – 0.2m assumed for most, but may assume 0.0m

for line markings

• Height of Approaching Vehicle – adopt 1.05m

• Height of Vehicle Tail Stop Light – adopt 0.6m

• Height of Headlight – used for sag curves and adopt 0.75m

3 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

Types of sight distance :

There are mainly three types of sight distance :

1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD).
2. Passing Sight Distance ( PSD).
3. Intersection Sight Distance ( ISD).

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):

Is distance travelling at design speed needs to stop before reaching a

stationary object. It contains two elements:

a. Perception – Reaction Distance ( d1) :

The distance traveled after the obstruction comes view but before the

driver applies the brakes. During this, the vehicle travels at its initial

velocity.

d1 = 0.278 V*t
d1 : Perception – Reaction Distance ( m ).

V : speed in ( km/hr ).

t : perception-reaction time in sec.

b. Braking Distance ( d2 ) :

The distance needed by a vehicles to stop on a road , after the brakes

have been applied on be visualized as depending :

1. Initial speed of vehicle.

2. Friction developed between the wheels and the carriage way ( road)
surface. (Pavement coefficient of friction ).
3. Deceleration rates .
4. Roadway grade .

Or;
4 Civil Engineering - Third stage
 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

d2 : Braking Distance ( m ).

V : Initial speed (design speed ) ( Km / hr ).

a : Acceleration rate (Deceleration rates ) (m/sec2).

f : Friction between the wheels and the carriage way surface.

G : Percent grade divided by 100.

SSD = d1 + d2

5 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

Example :

A driver is traveling at an average speed of (40 kph) when a person is

crossing the road. Assuming that perception time of the driver is (2.0 sec.)

and the acceleration rate is (5m/sec2) calculate:

a) The safe S.S.D. on a level road (g = 0%).

b) The safe S.S.D. on a 3% uphill road.
c) The safe S.S.D. on a 2% downhill road.

Sol.

Passing Sight Distance ( PSD) :

It is the minimum distance required on two-way two-lane highway to give the

opportunity to pass slow moving vehicles and it must be provided at intervals

otherwise capacity decrease and accident may occur.

6 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

There are four components of the minimum distance required for the safe

overtaking on two lane roads :

initial maneuver distance ( d1) :

Distance traveled by vehicle while its driver make up his mind. Whether or

not is safe to pass the vehicle in front ( distance for

perception – reaction time ). This time equal to 3.5 seconds for comfortable

overtaking conditions .

d1 = initial maneuver distance, (m).

V = average speed of passing vehicle, (km/hr.).

t1 = time of initial maneuver, (sec.).

a = average acceleration rate, (km/hr./sec.).

m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, (km/hr.).

7 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

Distance while vehicle occupies left lane ( d2 ) :

Distance traveled by the overtaking vehicle in carrying out the actual passing

maneuver , this is begin the instant. The overtaking driver turns the wheel and

ends when the returns to his own lane .

d2 = 0.278 V t2

d2 = Distance while vehicle occupies left lane, (m),

V = average speed of passing vehicle, (km/hr.),

t2 = time passing vehicle occupies the left lane, (sec.).

Clearance (safety) length ( d3 ) :

Distance between the overtaking vehicle and the oncoming vehicle at the

instant the overtaking vehicles has returned to its own lane.

d3 = ( 30 – 75) m

Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle in the opposite lane ( d4 ) :

Distance traveled by the opposing vehicle at the design speed of the road

while the actual overtaking maneuver is taking place.

d4 = (2/3) x d2

Example :

A driver traveling at a speed of (56 km/hr.) is trying to overtake the vehicle in

front of him. The speed of the overtaken vehicle is (40 km/hr.). The

acceleration rate of the overtaking vehicle is (2.0 km/hr./sec.) and the vehicle

spent (3.6 sec.) to move to the opposing lane and (9.3 sec.) traveling on it.

8 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

The speed of the opposing vehicle is (45 kph). Assume a safety distance of 30

meters. Calculate the required passing sight distance.

Sol.

d2 = 0.278 x 56 x 9.3 = 144.78 m

d3 = 30 m

d4 = 2/3 x 144.78 = 96.52 m

PSD = 43.63 + 144.78 + 30 + 96.52 = 314.93 m.

Intersection Sight Distance ( ISD) :

Intersections should be carefully situated to avoid steep profile grades and to

ensure adequate approach sight distance. An intersection should not be

situated on a short-crest vertical curve, just beyond a short-crest vertical

curve, or on a sharp horizontal curve. When there is no practical alternate to

such a location, the approach sight distance on each leg should be checked

carefully. Where necessary, back slopes should be flattened and horizontal or

vertical curves lengthened to provide additional sight distance. Sight distance

is also provided at intersections to allow the drivers of stopped vehicles a

sufficient view of the intersecting highway to decide when to enter the

intersecting highway or to cross it.

ISD = 1.47 Vmajor tg

9 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

ISD = Intersection Sight Distance,

Vmajor = Design Speed (mph) – posted speed limit + 10 mph,

tg = time gap for major road,

tg = 7.5 passenger car (utilize for all cases except where substantial
volumes of heavy vehicles enter the major road)
= 9.5 Single-unit truck
= 11.5 Combination truck

Time gaps are for a stopped vehicle to turn left onto a two-lane highway

with no median and grades 3 percent or less.

Adjustments:

Multilane Highways: For left turns onto two-way highways with more than

two lanes, add 0.5 seconds for passenger cars or 0.7 seconds for trucks for

each additional lane, from the left, in excess of one, to be crossed by the

turning vehicle. Minor Road approach grades: If the approach grade is an

upgrade that exceeds 3 percent; add 0.2 seconds for each percent grade for

left turns.

11 Civil Engineering - Third stage

 Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi

Note:
The example and the important notes will be given in the class.

11 Civil Engineering - Third stage