Hydraulic brake

The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically

containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling unit, which is usually near the
operator of the vehicle, to the actual brake mechanism, which is usually at or near the wheel of
the vehicle.

History

In 1918 Malcolm Lougheed (who later changed the spelling of his name to Lockheed)
developed a hydraulic brake system.

Construction
The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles,
scooters, and mopeds, consists of the following:

 Brake pedal or lever

 A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)
 A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly (made up of either one or two
pistons, a return spring, a series of gaskets/ O-rings and a fluid reservoir)
 Reinforced hydraulic lines
 Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-
plated steel pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and
a rotor (also called a brake disc) or drum attached to an axle.

The system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake fluid (other fluids may also be used).

At one time,the passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four wheels. Later,
disc brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear. However, because disc brakes
have shown a better stopping performance and are therefore generally safer and more effective
than drum brakes, four-wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on
all but the most basic vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicles designs, however, continue to employ a
drum brake for the rear wheel.
For simplicity, the braking system described hereafter uses the terminology and configuration for
a simple disc brake.

System Operation
Within a hydraulic brake system, as the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the
piston(s) in the master cylinder causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure
chamber through a compensating port which results in an increase in the pressure of the entire
hydraulic system. This forces fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where
it acts upon one or two caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings which prevent the
escape of any fluid from around the piston.

The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads. This causes them to be pushed
against the spinning rotor, and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a
braking torque to be generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat generated from this friction is either
dissipated through vents and channels in the rotor or conducted through the pads themselves
which are made of specialized heat-tolerant materials such as kevlar or sintered glass.

Subsequent release of the brake pedal/ lever allows spring(s) to return the master piston(s) back
into position. This relieves the hydraulic pressure on the caliper allowing the brake piston in the
caliper assembly to slide back into its housing and the brake pads to release the rotor. Unless
there is a leak somewhere, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves the system.

An example of a hydraulic brake system

Hydraulic brakes transfer energy to stop an object, normally a rotating axle. In a very simple
brake system, with just two cylinders and a disc brake the cylinders could be connected via tubes,
with a piston inside the cylinders. The cylinders and tubes are filled with incompressible oil. The
two cylinders have the same volume, but different diameters, therefore a different surface areas.
The one with the smallest diameter is called the master cylinder. The spinning disc brake, will be
placed down at the piston with the larger surface area. Let us say that the diameter of the master
cylinder is half the diameter of the slave cylinder, so the master cylinder has a surface area which
is four times smaller. Now, if the piston in the master cylinder is pushed down 40 mm, with 10 N
of force, the slave piston will then move 10 mm, with a force of 40 N.

This force can be further multiplied by adding a lever connected between the master piston, a
pedal, and a pivot point. If the distance from the pedal to the pivot is three times the distance from
the pivot to the connected piston, then it multiplies the pedal force with a factor of 3, when
pushing down on the pedal. Now, if we push down on the pedal 120 mm with 10 N of force, 30 N
will then be applied to the master piston, and the slave piston will then push 10 mm against the
brake pad, with a total force of 120 N.

Component specifics
(For typical light duty automotive braking systems)
The brake pedal is a simple lever. One end is attached to the framework of the vehicle, a pushrod
extends from a point along its length, and the foot pad is at the other end of the lever. The rod
either extends to the master cylinder (manual brakes) or to the vacuum booster (power brakes).

In a four-wheel car, the master cylinder is divided internally into two sections, each of which
pressurizes a separate hydraulic circuit. Each section supplies pressure to one circuit. Passenger
vehicles typically have either a front/rear split brake system or a diagonal split brake system (the
master cylinder in a motorcycle or scooter may only pressurize a single unit, which will be the
front brake).

A front/rear split system uses one master cylinder section to pressurize the front caliper pistons
and the other section to pressurize the rear caliper pistons. A split circuit braking system is now
required by law in most countries for safety reasons; if one circuit fails, the other circuit can stop
the vehicle.

Diagonal split systems were used initially on American Motors automobiles in the 1967 production
year. The right front and left rear are served by one actuating piston while the left front and the
right rear are served, exclusively, by a second actuating piston (both pistons pressurize their
respective coupled lines from a single foot pedal). If either circuit fails, the other, with at least one
front wheel braking (the front brakes provide most of the speed reduction) remains intact to stop
the mechanically-damaged vehicle. Just before 1970, diagonally split systems had become
universal for automobiles sold in the United States.

The diameter and length of the master cylinder has a significant effect on the performance of the
brake system. A larger diameter master cylinder delivers more hydraulic fluid to the caliper
pistons, yet requires more brake pedal force and less brake pedal stroke to achieve a given
deceleration. A smaller diameter master cylinder has the opposite effect.

A master cylinder may also use differing diameters between the two sections to allow for
increased fluid volume to one set of caliper pistons or the other.
Power brakes

The vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern hydraulic brake systems which
contain four wheels. The vacuum booster is attached between the master cylinder and the brake
pedal and multiplies the braking force applied by the driver. These units consist of a hollow
housing with a movable rubber diaphragm across the center, creating two chambers. When
attached to the low-pressure portion of the throttle body or intake manifold of the engine, the
pressure in both chambers of the unit is lowered. The equilibrium created by the low pressure in
both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the brake pedal is depressed. A return
spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the brake pedal is applied. When the
brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an air valve which lets in atmospheric pressure air to
one chamber of the booster. Since the pressure becomes higher in one chamber, the diaphragm
moves toward the lower pressure chamber with a force created by the area of the diaphragm and
the differential pressure. This force, in addition to the driver's foot force, pushes on the master
cylinder piston. A relatively small diameter booster unit is required; for a very conservative 50%
manifold vacuum, an assisting force of about 1500 N (200n) is produced by a 20 cm diaphragm
with an area of 0.03 square meters. The diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both
sides of the chamber reach equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to
the pedal apply stopping) or if "run out" is reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in one
chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and no additional force can be generated by the now
stagnant differential pressure. After the run out point is reached, only the driver's foot force can be
used to further apply the master cylinder piston.

The fluid pressure from the master cylinder travels through a pair of steel brake tubes to
a pressure differential valve, sometimes referred to as a "brake failure valve", which performs two
functions: it equalizes pressure between the two systems, and it provides a warning if one system
loses pressure. The pressure differential valve has two chambers (to which the hydraulic lines
attach) with a piston between them. When the pressure in either line is balanced, the piston does
not move. If the pressure on one side is lost, the pressure from the other side moves the piston.
When the piston makes contact with a simple electrical probe in the center of the unit, a circuit is
completed, and the operator is warned of a failure in the brake system.

From the pressure differential valve, brake tubing carries the pressure to the brake units at the
wheels. Since the wheels do not maintain a fixed relation to the automobile, it is necessary to use
hydraulic brake hose from the end of the steel line at the vehicle frame to the caliper at the wheel.
Allowing steel brake tubing to flex invites metal fatigue and, ultimately, brake failure. A common
upgrade is to replace the standard rubber hoses with a set which are externally reinforced with
braided stainless-steel wires; these have negligible expansion under pressure and can give a
firmer feel to the brake pedal with less pedal travel for a given braking effort.

Special considerations
Air brake systems are bulky, and require air compressors and reservoir tanks. Hydraulic systems
are smaller and less expensive.

Hydraulic fluid must be non-compressible. Unlike air brakes, where a valve is opened and air
flows into the lines and brake chambers until the pressure rises sufficiently, hydraulic systems
rely on a single stroke of a piston to force fluid through the system. If any vapor is introduced into
the system it will compress, and the pressure may not rise sufficiently to actuate the brakes.

Hydraulic braking systems are sometimes subjected to high temperatures during operation, such
as when descending steep grades. For this reason, hydraulic fluid must resist vaporization at high
temperatures.

Water vaporizes easily with heat and can corrode the metal parts of the system. If it gets into the
brake lines, it can degrade brake performance dramatically. This is why light oils are often used
as hydraulic fluids. Oil displaces water, protects plastic parts against corrosion, and can tolerate
much higher temperatures before vaporizing.

"Brake fade" is a condition caused by overheating in which braking effectiveness reduces, and
may be lost. It may occur for many reasons. The pads which engage the rotating part may
become overheated and "glaze over", becoming so smooth and hard that they cannot grip
sufficiently to slow the vehicle. Also, vaporization of the hydraulic fluid under temperature
extremes or thermal distortion may cause the linings to change their shape and engage less
surface area of the rotating part. Thermal distortion may also cause permanent changes in the
shape of the metal components, resulting in a reduction in braking capability that requires
replacement of the affected parts.
Patents

 US 2746575 Disc brakes for road and other vehicles. Kinchin 1956-05-22

 US 2591793 Device for adjusting the return travel of fluid actuated means. Dubois 1952-
04-08
 US 2544849 Hydraulic brake automatic adjuster. Martin 1951-03-13
 US 2485032 Brake apparatus. Bryant 1949-10-08
 US 2466990 Single disk brake. Johnson Wade C, Trishman Harry A, Stratton Edgar H.
1949-04-12
 US 2416091 Fluid pressure control mechanism. Fitch 1947-02-12
 US 2405219 Disk brake. Lambert Homer T. 1946-08-06
 US 2375855 Multiple disk brake. Lambert Homer T. 1945-05-15
 US 2366093 Brake. Forbes Joseph A. 1944-12-26
 US 2140752 Brake. La Brie 1938-12-20
 US 2084216 V-type brake for motor vehicles. Poage Robert A. and Poage Marlin Z.
1937-06-15
 US 2028488 Brake. Avery William Leicester 1936-02-21
 US 1959049 Friction Brake. Buus Niels Peter Valdemar 1934-05-15
 US 1954534 Brake. Norton Raymond J 1934-04-10
 US 1721370 Brake for use on vehicles. Boughton Edward Bishop 1929-07-16
 DE 695921 Antriebsvorrichtung mit hydraulischem Gestaenge.... Borgwar Carl Friedrich
Wilhelm 1940-09-06
 GB 377478 Improvements in wheel cylinders for hydraulic brakes. Hall Frederick Harold
1932-07-28
 GB 365069 Improvements in control gear for hydraulically operated devices and
particularly brakes for vehicles. Rubury John Meredith 1932-01-06