ANALYSIS 1 EXAMPLES SHEET 1

Lent Term 2015 W. T. G.

1. Let (an ) and (bn ) be two real sequences. Suppose that (an ) is a subsequence of (bn ) and
(bn ) is a subsequence of (an ). Does it follow that they are the same sequence?

2. For each positive integer k let a2k = 1 and for every n that is not a power of 2, let
an = 0. Prove directly from the definition of convergence that the sequence (an ) does not
converge.

3. Let (an ) be a real sequence. We say that an → ∞ if for every K there exists N such
that for every n ≥ N we have an ≥ K.
(i) Write down a similar definition for an → −∞.
(ii) Show that an → −∞ if and only if −an → ∞.
(iii) Suppose that no an is 0. Prove that if an → ∞, then a1n → 0.
(iv) Again suppose that no an is 0. If a1n → 0, does it follow that an → ∞?

4. Let a1 > b1 > 0 and for every n ≥ 1 let an+1 = (an +bn )/2 and let bn+1 = 2an bn /(an +bn ).
Show that an > an+1 > bn+1 > bn . Deduce that the two sequences converge to a common
limit. What is that limit?

5. Let (a1 , b1 ) ⊃ (a2 , b2 ) ⊃ . . . be a nested sequence of non-empty open intervals. Must

T∞
n=1 (an , bn ) be non-empty? If not, then find a (non-trivial) additional condition that
guarantees that the intersection is non-empty.

6. (i) Let (an ) be a real sequence that is bounded but that does not converge. Prove that
it has two convergent subsequences with different limits.
(ii) Prove that every real sequence has a subsequence that converges or tends to ±∞.

7. Let a be a real number and let (an ) be a sequence such that every subsequence of (an )
has a further subsequence that converges to a. Prove that an → a.

8. Let (an ) be a Cauchy sequence. Prove that (an ) has a subsequence (ank ) such that
|anp − anq | < 2−p whenever p ≤ q.
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2 ANALYSIS 1 EXAMPLES SHEET 1

9. Let f : R → (0, ∞) be a decreasing function. (That is, if x < y then f (x) ≥ f (y).)
Define a sequence (an ) inductively by a1 = 1 and an+1 = an + f (an ) for every n ≥ 1. Prove
that an → ∞.
10. Investigate the convergence of the following series. For each expression that contains
the variable z, find all complex numbers z for which the series converges.

X sin n X n2 z n X (−1)n X z n (1 − z) X n2
√
n
n2 n
5n n
4 + n n
n n≥3
(log log n)log n

11. The two series 1 − 21 + 13 − 14 + 15 − . . . and 1 + 13 − 21 + 51 + 17 − 14 + . . . have the

same terms but in different orders. Let Sn and Tn be the partial sums to n terms. Let
Hn = 1 + 21 + 13 + · · · + n1 . Show that S2n = H2n − Hn and T3n = H4n − 12 H2n − 12 Hn . Show
that the sequence (Sn ) converges to a limit S and that Tn → 3S/2.
P
12. Prove that n n(log1 n)α converges if α > 1 and diverges otherwise. Does the series
P 1
n n log n log log n converge?
P
13. Let (an ) be a sequence of positive real numbers such that n an diverges. Prove that
P
there exists a sequence (bn ) of positive real numbers such that bn /an → 0, but n bn is
still divergent.
P
14. Let x be a real number and let n an be a series that converges but that does not
converge absolutely. Prove that the terms can be reordered so that the series converges to
P
x. That is, show that there is a bijection π : N → N such that n aπ(n) = x.
15. For every positive integer k write logk (x) for log log . . . log(x), where the logarithm
has been taken k times. (Thus, log1 (x) = log x, log2 (x) = log log x, and so on.) Define
a function f : N → R by taking f (n) to be n log n log2 n . . . logk(n) n, where k(n) is the
P 1
largest integer such that logk(n) n ≥ 1. Does the series n f (n) converge?
16. Can the open interval (0, 1) be written as a union of disjoint closed intervals of positive
length?

Any comments or queries can be sent to [email protected].

 ANALYSIS 1 EXAMPLES SHEET 2

Lent Term 2015 W. T. G.

1. Let (an ) and (bn ) be two real sequences. Suppose that (an ) is a subsequence of (bn ) and
(bn ) is a subsequence of (an ). Suppose also that (an ) converges. Does it follow that they
are the same sequence?

2. Let H : R → R be defined as follows: if x < 0 then H(x) = 0 and if x ≥ 0 then

H(x) = 1. Prove carefully that H is not continuous (i) by directly using the definition of
continuity and (ii) by using the sequence definition.

3. Suppose that f (x) → ` as x → a and g(y) → k as y → `. Does it follow that

g(f (x)) → k as x → a?

4. For each natural number n, let fn : [0, 1] → [0, 1] be a continuous function, and for each
n let hn be defined by hn (x) = max{f1 (x), . . . , fn (x)}. Show that for each n the function
hn is continuous on [0, 1]. Must the function h defined by h(x) = sup{fn (x) : n ∈ N} be
continuous?

5. Let g : [0, 1] → [0, 1] be a continuous function. Prove that there exists some c ∈ [0, 1]
such that g(c) = c. Such a c is called a fixed point of g.
Give an example of a bijection h : [0, 1] → [0, 1] with no fixed point.
Give an example of a continuous bijection p : (0, 1) → (0, 1) with no fixed point.

6. Prove that the function q(x) = 2x5 + 3x4 + 2x + 16 (defined on the reals) takes the value
0 exactly once, and that the number where it takes that value is somewhere in the interval
[−2, −1].

7. Prove rigorously that there are exactly nine solutions to the simultaneous equations
x = 1000(y 3 − y) and y = 1000(x3 − x). That is, prove that there are exactly nine ordered
pairs (x, y) such that the two equations are satisfied.

8. Let f : [0, 1] → R be continuous, with f (0) = f (1) = 0. Suppose that for every
x ∈ (0, 1) there exists δ > 0 such that both x + δ and x − δ belong to (0, 1) and f (x) =
1
2
(f (x − δ) + f (x + δ)). Prove that f (x) = 0 for every x ∈ [0, 1].
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2 ANALYSIS 1 EXAMPLES SHEET 2

9. Define a function f : R → R as follows. If x is irrational, then f (x) = 0, while if x

is rational, then f (x) = 1/q, where q is the denominator of x. (That is, x = p/q, with
p and q coprime integers and q > 0.) Prove that f is continuous at every irrational and
discontinuous at every rational.
10. Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Which of the
following statements are always true and which are sometimes false?
(i) If f is increasing, then f 0 (x) ≥ 0 for every x ∈ (a, b).
(ii) If f 0 (x) ≥ 0 for every x ∈ (a, b), then f is increasing.
(iii) If f is strictly increasing, then f 0 (x) > 0 for every x ∈ (a, b).
(iv) If f 0 (x) > 0 for every x ∈ (a, b), then f is strictly increasing.
11. (i) Let g : R → R be a differentiable function such that g(0) = g 0 (0) = 0 and g 00 (0)
exists and is positive. Prove that there exists x > 0 such that g(x) > 0.
(ii) Let f : R → R be a differentiable function such that f (0) = 0, and f 00 (0) exists and
is positive. Prove that there exists x > 0 such that f (2x) > 2f (x).
12. Let f : R → R be differentiable everywhere. Prove that if f 0 (x) → ` as x → ∞, then
f (x)/x → `. If f (x)/x → ` as x → ∞, does it follow that f 0 (x) → `?
13. Find a function f : R → R that takes every value in every interval. That is, for every
a < b and every t there should exist x ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) = t.
14. Let f : R → R be a function that has the intermediate value property: that is, if
f (a) < c < f (b) then there exists x ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) = c. Suppose also that for
every rational r the set Sr = {x : f (x) = r} is closed. (This means that if (xn ) is any
convergent sequence in Sr , then its limit also belongs to Sr .) Prove that f is continuous.
 ANALYSIS 1 EXAMPLES SHEET 3

Lent Term 2015 W. T. G.

1. Suppose that f : R → R satisfies the inequality |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ |x − y|2 for every
x, y ∈ R. Prove that f is constant.
2. (i) Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x2 sin(1/x) if x 6= 0 and f (0) = 0. Prove that
f is differentiable everywhere. For which x is f 0 continuous at x?
(ii) Give an example of a function g : R → R that is differentiable everywhere such that
g 0 is not bounded on the interval [−1, 1].
3. Let f : R → R be a differentiable function with the property that f (x) = o(xn ) for
every positive integer n. (In other words, for every n we have f (x)/xn → 0 as x → 0.)
Does it follow that f is infinitely differentiable at 0?
4. By applying the mean value theorem to log(1 + x) on the interval [0, a/n], prove
rigorously that (1 + a/n)n → ea as n → ∞.
5. Find lim n(a1/n − 1), when a > 0.
n→∞
6. Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = exp(−1/x2 ) when x 6= 0 and f (0) = 0. Prove
that f is infinitely differentiable and that f (n) (0) = 0 for every n ∈ N. What does Taylor’s
theorem tell us when we apply it to f at 0?
7. Find the radius of convergence of each of the following power series.
∞
X X∞ ∞
X ∞
X
2.4.6 . . . (2n + 2) z 3n nn z n √
zn n n n
z
n=0
1.4.7 . . . (3n + 1) n=1
n2n n=0
n! n=1
8. Find the derivative of tan x on the interval (−π/2, π/2). How do you know that there
is a differentiable inverse function arctan x from R to (−π/2, π/2)? What is its derivative?
By considering derivatives, prove that arctan x = x − x3 /3 + x5 /5 − . . . when |x| < 1.
9. Let f and g be two functions defined and differentiable on an open interval I con-
taining 0. Suppose that f (0) = g(0) = 0 and that f 0 (x)/g 0 (x) converges to a limit ` as
x → 0.
(i) Show that there is an open interval of the form (0, a) on which g 0 does not vanish.
Let 0 < x < a. By considering the function F (u) = f (x)g(u) − g(x)f (u), prove that there
0 (y)
exists y with 0 < y < x such that fg0 (y) = fg(x)
(x)
. Explain briefly why a similar statement
holds for negative x.
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2 ANALYSIS 1 EXAMPLES SHEET 3

(ii) Deduce l’Hôpital’s rule, which states that under the conditions above, f (x)/g(x) → `.
(iii) What is lim (1 − cos(sin x))/x2 ?
x→0
10. Let (an ) be a bounded real sequence. Prove that (an ) has a subsequence that tends to
lim sup an . What result from the course does this imply?
Q
11. The infinite product ∞ n=1 (1 + an ) is said to converge to a if the sequence of partial
products Pn = (1 + a1 ) . . . (1 + an ) converges to a. Suppose that an ≥ 0 for every n. Write
Q
Sn = a1 + · · · + an . Prove that Sn ≤ Pn ≤ eSn for every n, and deduce that ∞ n=1 (1 + an )
P∞ Q∞
converges if and only if n=1 an converges. Evaluate the product n=2 (1 + 1/(n2 − 1)).
12. Let f : R → R be differentiable, let a and b be real numbers with a < b, and suppose
that f 0 (a) < 0 < f 0 (b). Prove that there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0. Deduce
the more general result that if f 0 (a) 6= f 0 (b) and z lies between f 0 (a) and f 0 (b), then there
exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = z. (This result is called Darboux’s theorem.)
13. Say that an ordered field F has the intermediate value property if for every a < b and
every continuous function f : F → F, if f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0 then there exists c ∈ (a, b)
such that f (c) = 0. Prove that every ordered field with the intermediate value property
has the least upper bound property. (This implies that it is isomorphic to R.)
P
14. (i) Show that the series ∞ zn
n=1 n has radius of convergence 1, and that it converges
for every z such that |z| = 1, with the exception of z = 1.
P
(ii) Let z1 , . . . , zm be complex numbers of modulus 1. Find a power series ∞ n=0 an z
n

with radius of convergence 1 that converges for every z such that |z| = 1, except when
z ∈ {z1 , . . . , zm }, when it diverges.
15. (i) Let f and g be two n-times-differentiable functions from R to R. For k ≤ n and
x ∈ R, say that f and g agree to order k at x if f (j) (x) = g (j) (x) for j = 0, 1, . . . , k − 1.
Let x1 < x2 < · · · < xr be real numbers, let k1 , . . . , kr be non-negative integers such
that k1 + · · · + kr = n, and suppose that for each i ≤ r the functions f and g agree to
order ki at xi . If r ≥ 2, prove that there exists x in the open interval (x1 , xr ) such that
f (n−1) (x) = g (n−1) (x). [Note that if you can do this when g is the zero function then
you can do it in general. If you still find it too hard, then try it in the case r = n, so
k1 = · · · = kn = 1, and in the case k = 2, to get an idea what is going on.]
(ii) Let f be n-times differentiable, let x1 < · · · < xr be real numbers and let k1 , . . . , kr
be non-negative integers with k1 + · · · + kr = n. Prove that there is a polynomial p of
degree at most n − 1 such that for every i ≤ r and every j < ki we have p(j) (xi ) = f (j) (xi ).
[Hint: start by building a suitable basis of polynomials and then take linear combinations.]
(iii) Find an expression for the constant value of p(n−1) .
 ANALYSIS 1 EXAMPLES SHEET 4

Lent Term 2015 W. T. G.

Ra
1. Show directly from the definition of an integral that 0
x2 dx = a3 /3 for a > 0.
R∞
2. Give an example of a continuous function f : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) such that 0
f (x)dx
exists but f is unbounded.

3. Give an example of an integrable function f : [0, 1] → R such that f (x) ≥ 0 for every
R1
x, f (y) > 0 for some y, and 0 f (x)dx = 0.
Prove that this cannot happen if in addition f is continuous.

4. Let f : R → R be monotonic. Show that the set of x such that f is discontinuous at x

is countable.
Let (xn ) be a sequence of distinct points in (0, 1]. Let fn (x) = 0 if 0 ≤ x < xn and let
P
fn (x) = 1 if xn ≤ x ≤ 1. For each x, let f (x) = ∞ n=1 2
−n
fn (x). Prove that this series
converges for every x ∈ [0, 1].
Explain why f must be integrable.
Prove that f is discontinuous at every xn .

5. Define a function f : [0, 1] → R as follows. If x is irrational, then f (x) = 0. If x is

rational, then write it in its lowest terms as p/q and then f (x) = 1/q. Prove that f is
R1
integrable. What is 0 f (x)dx?

6. Let a < b and let f : [a, b] → R be a Riemann integrable function such that f (x) ≥ 0
Rb
for every x. Prove that if a f (x)dx = 0, then for every closed subinterval I ⊂ [a, b] of
positive length and every  > 0 there exists a closed subinterval J ⊂ I of positive length
such that f (x) ≤  for every x ∈ J.
Rb
Deduce that if f (x) > 0 for every x, then a f (x)dx > 0.

7. Do these improper integrals converge?

R∞
(i) 1 sin2 (1/x)dx.
R∞
(ii) 0 xp exp(−xq )dx (with p, q > 0).
R∞
(iii) 0 sin(x2 )dx.
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2 ANALYSIS 1 EXAMPLES SHEET 4

1 1 1
8. Prove that + + ··· + → log 2 as n → ∞, and find the limit of
n+1 n+2 2n
1 1 (−1)n−1
− + ··· + .
n+1 n+2 2n
Rb
9. Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous and suppose that a f (x)g(x)dx = 0 for every continu-
ous function g : [a, b] → R with g(a) = g(b) = 0. Must f vanish identically?
10. Let f : [0, 1] → R be continuous. Let G(x, t) = t(x − 1) when t ≤ x and x(t − 1) when
R1
t ≥ x. Let g(x) = 0 f (t)G(x, t)dt. Show that g 00 (x) exists for x ∈ (0, 1) and equals f (x).
Rx
11. For positive x, define L(x) to be 1 dtt . Prove directly from this definition that the
function L has the properties one normally expects of the logarithm function. In particular,
prove that L(ab) = L(a) + L(b) for all positive a and b. If you adopted this as your
fundamental definition of natural logarithms, then how would you define e?
R1
12. For each non-negative integer n let In (θ) = −1 (1 − x2 )n cos(θx)dx. Prove that θ2 In =
2n(2n − 1)In−1 − 4n(n − 1)In−2 for all n ≥ 2, and hence that θ2n+1 In (θ) = n!(Pn (θ) sin θ +
Qn (θ) cos θ) for some pair Pn and Qn of polynomials of degree at most 2n with integer
coefficients.
Deduce that π is irrational.
13. Let f : [−1, 1] be defined by f (x) = x sin(1/x) when x 6= 0 and f (0) = 0. Explain
why f is integrable. Prove that there do not exist increasing functions g and h, defined on
[−1, 1], such that f (x) = g(x) − h(x) for every x.
14. Prove that if f : [0, 1] → R is integrable, then f has infinitely many points of continuity.

15*. Let f : [0, 1] → R be a function that is differentiable everywhere (with right and left
derivatives at the end points) with a derivative f 0 that is bounded. Must f 0 be integrable?

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