Volume XIII No.

3 July-September 2008

Carp culture in Andhra Pradesh Nai Lagoon, Vietnam

Impacts of climate change Prawns in Bangladesh
Selection for feeding efficiency Mussels and water quality
 Back to Nature
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 Aquaculture Asia Volume XIII No. 3 ISSN 0859-600X
is an autonomous publication July-September 2008
that gives people in developing
countries a voice. The views and The Aquatic Commons
opinions expressed herein are
those of the contributors and As Editor of this magazine and the NACA website, I have long been a fan of
do not represent the policies or ‘open access’ publishing, that is to say, making publications available for free,
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Editorial Board traditional ‘print’ publishing, where you might produce a few thousand paper copies
Wing-Keong Ng of a publication at considerable expense, and once they have been distributed, they
M.C. Nandeesha are gone.

This (near) freedom of access to information made possible by the internet is

Editor turning traditional ‘user pays’ and subscription-based publishing models on their
Simon Wilkinson head, and is forcing publishing houses and media outlets to look at alternative
[email protected] business models. Initiatives such as Google Books and the Public Library of
Science (www.plos.org) are great examples of how information can be made
available to the general public for free, and yet remain financially viable. Happily,
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1
In this issue

Sustainable aquaculture
Comments on possible improvements to carp culture in Andhra Pradesh 3

Aquaculture and environmental issues in the region of Nai Lagoon, Ninh Hai district,
Ninh Thuan province, Viet Nam 8 Page 3.

Climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 13

New initiatives in fisheries extension 16

Genetics and biodiversity

Selection potential for feed efficiency in farmed salmonids 20

Freshwater prawn hatcheries in Bangladesh: Concern of broodstock 22 Page 22.

Research and farming techniques

Production of Cirrhinus molitorella and Labeo chrysophekadion for culture based fisheries
development in Lao PDR 2: Nursery culture and grow-out 27

Mussel farming: alternate water monitoring practice 32

Benefit-cost analysis for fingerling production of kutum Rutilus frisii kutum (Kamensky, 1901)
in 2005 in Iran 35

The effects of feeding frequency on FCR and SGR factors of the fry of rainbow trout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss 39 Page 27.

Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network Magazine

The use of poultry by-product meals in pelleted feed for humpback grouper 41

Production update – marine finfish aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific region 44

Crustacean parasites and their management in brackishwater finfish culture 47

Page 41.

NACA Newsletter 51

Page 52.

2 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

Comments on possible improvements

to carp culture in Andhra Pradesh
Introduction to carp hatcheries and nurseries in the
Kaikaluru area of Krishna district; and
In February I took up the kind invitation to fish farms and informal meetings with
of Dr Ravi RamaKrishna, Senior individual farmers towards Gudivada in Dr Edwards is a consultant and
Scientist at the Fisheries Research Krishna district where a second phase Emeritus Professor at the Asian Institute
Station in the West Godavari district of carp culture development has taken of Technology in Thailand where he
of Andhra Pradesh, to visit the ‘fish place. At the end of the tour I was only founded the aquaculture program.
bowl’ of India in the Kolleru Lake area too pleased when asked to comment He has over 30 years experience in
of the State. The local carp production to a group of about a dozen farmers aquaculture education, research and
system has become well known within belonging to the Delta Fish Farmers development in the Asian region.
India as well as abroad. See previous Association. And I repeat here what I Email: [email protected].
articles in this magazine: Nandeesha, said to the farmers at the start of our
M.C. (2001). Andhra Pradesh farmers final meeting, that four days was hardly
go in to revolutionary carp research. sufficient time to fully appreciate the most impressive but complex aquacul-
Aquaculture Asia 4(4):29-32; and ture system I had been shown but that
RamaKrishna, R. 2007. Kolleru carp at the very least my comments should
culture in India: an aquaplosion and an stimulate further debate about how to
explosion. Aquaculture Asia Magazine resolve some of the problems and how
12 (4): 12-18. the system might evolve in the future.

Our intensive four day study tour

involved visits to fish farms and formal Overview of the system
meetings with individual farmers in
Mallavaram village in West Godavari The technology of the current system
district and Bhujabalapatnam village in of Indian major carp culture in Andhra
Krishna district, cooperative fish farmers Farmer checking the amount of natural Pradesh has been mainly developed
in Prathikollanka village, in West food in fish pond water. by local farmers as described in
Godavari district, all by Kolleru Lake; the article by Dr. Nandeesha. It is
a simplified two-species system in
which rohu is dominant with 80-90%
of the fish biomass and with catla a
very profitable 10-20%. Production
may be described as semi-intensive
and indirectly integrated. It is a ‘green
water’ system with mainly local off-farm
inputs: chicken manure (and chemical
fertilizers); supplemented with farm-
mixed de-oiled rice bran and oil cake.

Feedlot chicken manure en route to the farm. A well fertilized ‘green water’ pond.

July-September 2008 3
Sustainable aquaculture

Delivery of de-oiled rice bran to the

farm.

Sustainable annual production is 3-4

tonnes/acre (7.5-10 tonnes/ha) although
5-6 tonnes/acre (12.5-15 tonnes/ha)
have been achieved but at increased
risk of fish mass mortality. Last year A farm worker suspending supplementary feed-filled sacs from a rope in the pond.
5,000-6,000 farmers produced a total of
450,000 tonnes of fish from 60,000ha of be improved by more efficient use of nitrogen and phosphorus contained in
ponds. fertilizers and supplementary feeds as the fertilizers. Inorganic fertilizers also
discussed below. require less labour and lead to less build
Farmers reported that they are experi- up of pond sediment which can also
encing problems, especially increasing 2. Fertilizers adversely affect water quality.
cost of production, mainly due to rising
cost of fertilizers and supplementary A major factor in profitable carp culture A farmer was concerned that use of
feed; and weather related fish mass is use of fertilizers to produce natural only chemical fertilizers may lead
mortality. The main problem is the fall food as is well appreciated by the to mineral deficiency but there are
in dissolved oxygen (DO) in the rainy farmers. However, pond fertilization adequate micronutrients in fertilized and
season in particular but also during supplementary-fed ponds.
cloudy weather in general and during
cool season fog. Water quality problems Another farmer reported that he
also occur during the hot season from preferred cattle manure to poultry
April to June when there is limited water manure as the former produces only
availability, especially with high density methane and not ammonia. Poultry
culture, which may cause disease. The manure is a much better fertilizer than
farmers also recognized the need for cattle manure as the former has a
change, especially to farm new species higher nutrient and lower organic matter
for domestic and possibly export content. Thus poultry manure would
markets. produce more phytoplankton and less
pond sediment than cattle manure on a
unit weight basis.
Comments on the Sacs perforated with small holes are
used to hold supplementary feed. Farmers asked about toxic levels of
system ammonia but there is no need for
research carried out elsewhere could concern in fertilized fish ponds as
The following account is based on a improve local practice. Both organic phytoplankton use ammonia as a
final oral presentation to the Delta Fish and chemical fertilizers can be used source of nitrogen; DO will become
Farmers Association and the written effectively to fertilize fish ponds. It is critical before ammonia. Reported total
comments subsequently sent to them. not true that both organic and chemical ammonia levels in local ponds of 2-3
fertilizers are required for phytoplankton mg/l are not excessively high; although
1. Water quality production as believed by some the toxic form of ammonia, un-ionized
farmers. To be most effective, fertilizers
The main cause of adverse water need to be used frequently, preferably
quality in the ponds is a decline weekly in small doses. The reason that
in night-time DO due to excessive some farmers believe that chemical
growth of phytoplankton. This can be fertilizers cannot be used alone is their
addressed in part by a lower intensity usual 1-2 monthly frequency of applica-
of culture, already recognized by tion is too long to sustain adequate
the farmers who now aim for a more phytoplankton growth.
sustainable maximum annual production
of 10 rather than 15 tonnes/ha; and/or It is also not true that organic is
use of pond aeration as practiced by cheaper than chemical fertilizer based Farm workers mixing de-oiled rice bran
some farmers. Water quality can also on the weight of the major nutrients of with oil cake as a supplementary feed.

4 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

ammonia, increases relative to ionized phosphorus and thus make fertilization

ammonia with rises in pH and water less effective so it should not be used
temperature during the day, ammonia other than in pond preparation. Lime is
levels fall to low levels in productive used to increase the pH of acidic soil
fish ponds as they tend to be removed as well as to disinfect the soil between
from the water by phytoplankton during crops of fish.
intensive photosynthesis.
4. Supplementary feed
Farmers believed that less fertilizer is
required in West Godavi than in Krishna The greatest impact on current practice
district as the former has richer soil would be made by improving supple-
than the latter. While this might have mentary feeding. The two main feeds
been true when fish culture began, it is are de-oiled rice bran (12% protein)
unlikely to be so today as the fertilizer and groundnut cake (40% protein),
effect of the two dimensional pond mixed together and placed in the pond
sediment is minor compared to that of in suspended sacks with holes through
the three dimensional water column which the fish feed. Cotton seed cake Supplementary feed may be readily
which requires a relatively high level of is also widely used and if both are used lost through the holes when the fish are
intentional fertilization for productive fish they are usually mixed at a ratio of 1:1. feeding on the feed mix as suggested
culture. However, the high average food conver- by lifting the sac.
sion ratio (FCR) of 3:1 (range 2.5-3.5:1)
3. Liming indicates a low supplementary food Only rice bran is fed until the fish reach
conversion efficiency. Observation 300-350 g after which oil cake is added
Farmers traditionally lime ponds to revealed considerable physical loss of to give a feed mix of 80-90% rice bran
reduce CO2 in the water which they feed through the sack holes to which and 10-20% oil cake with an approxi-
believe would otherwise be toxic to the may be added loss of feed nutrients due mate mash protein content of 18%.
fish. However, highly productive alkaline to leaching as well as handling losses. However, some farmers use oil cake
fish ponds have carbon in the form of This is confirmed by comparison of the from the start of the grow-out cycle.
bicarbonate rather than toxic CO2 in the FCRs for floating pellets of about 1.5
water. Furthermore, lime will precipitate and sinking pellets of about 2.0 in clear Eight to ten 25 kg sacks are used per
water systems, and 1.0 in experimental acre giving a feeding rate of 40-100
fertilized ponds with a commercial kg/acre/day as each sac is filled with
pellet used as supplementary feed (see 5-10 kg of mash according to one
section 6). farmer. Farmers never give feed by
estimating the fish biomass in the ponds
Trials should be carried out to compare as they believe that fish increase in size
the present bag feeding method with by the same weight increment each day
minced moist feed, broadcast or placed irrespective of fish size. Another farmer
on feeding platforms. Farmers said it reported that for the first month fish are
would not be possible to produce dry fed 20-30 kg/acre/day and then from
feed on-farm in the quantities required. the second month until harvest at month
However, ways to reduce feed wastage 12 are fed 50-60 kg/acre/day which
Farm workers with rohu. do need to be explored. corresponds to the rate reported by the
first farmer interviewed.

There was a need to explain to the

farmers that:

• Fish only grow quickly on phyto-

plankton alone when they are small.
As they increase in size they need
more food to maintain their growth
rate as the surface area of their gut
declines relative to their total body
volume as they increase in weight.
This means that current farmer
practice of only feeding rice bran
initially is probably wise.

• However, as the fish grow larger

they need increasing amounts of
supplementary feed so the current
practice of maintaining only two
feeding rates is inefficient. The
bigger a fish, the faster it grows;
Farm workers preparing quicklime for spreading on the pond surface. but to maintain growth as close as

July-September 2008 5
Sustainable aquaculture

content means that either the fish Cooperative who reported that use of
get insufficient protein or that they pellets at 1.5% fish body weight/day
need to eat much more feed with a was very profitable in a poultry manured
lower protein content, even if they pond. However, he stocked large 400
were able to do so, which would g fingerlings and rohu attained 1.3 kg
have a greater adverse impact on and catla 2.4 kg in only 4 months. It is
water quality through increased recommended that use of pellets be
Close up of rohu. production of faeces. investigated, at least for fattening fish in
the latter half of the grow-out phase.
Fish nutrition specialist colleagues
advised me that it is better to feed a 6. Chemical fertilizers and
fish twice than once/day in terms of commercial pellets as
fish feeding efficiency. However, as supplementary feed
the difference in growth rate may only
be small, it may not be economic to It may be possible to increase sustain-
feed fish more than once a day due to able production by use of commercial
Close up of catla. increased labour costs. pellets as supplementary feed in
chemically fertilized ponds. Experiments
Fish should be fed when the DO in the with monoculture of tilapia in Thailand
pond water has risen due to phyto- produced about 20 tonnes/ha with a
plankton photosynthesis. Thus, fish FCR of only 1.0 in the ‘green water’
should not be fed soon after dawn but ponds. Ponds were fertilized weekly.
commencing at 8-9 am at the earliest. Feeding at 50% feed satiation with
pellets of 30% protein content began
5. Pelleted feed as supplementary when fish reached 50-100 g and
A recently introduced species, silver feed continued daily until harvestable size of
striped catfish. 500-600 g. This experiment showed the
According to a farmer, the traditional effectiveness of proper supplementary
method of feeding costs R20-22/kg of feeding in a fertilized pond.
fish production compared to R28/kg
with commercial pelleted feed so he 7. New species
asked why spend more? With a farm
gate price of carp of R40/kg, the profit Farmers expressed interest in improved
with commercial pellets would be only and new species. Seed quality of
R12/kg compared to R18-20/kg with carps was reported to be low due to
traditional feed he explained. However, inbreeding but an improved strain of
Feral Mozambique tilapia. use of pellets would require less labour, rohu has been developed by a Norwe-
would improve the water quality as feed gian funded project. About 250-300
practical to its genetically maximum conversion would be more efficient, and local farmers were already using the
rate requires increasing amounts of fish growth and production would be improved rohu, available from Farm
feed. increased. While the capital invested Pallewda, Krishna district, a Multiplier
in fish culture would be higher and the Centre, which grows 30% faster and
• The fish also need to be fed a diet profit margin per kg of fish produced therefore shortens the culture period by
with more protein as they get larger. possibly lower with use of pelleted feed, 2 months.
One farmer reported that he used the profit per farm would be higher due
more oil cake, at a ratio of rice to increased fish production per unit An estimated 10-15% of local farmers
bran to oil cake of 2:1 i.e., 33% oil area of fish pond. Thus, it is not true stock silver striped catfish (Pangasian-
cake rather than the usual 10-20% that increased use of feed will lead to odon hypophthalmus) in either poly-
oil cake in the feed mash, and got loss of money if feeding efficiency, water culture or monoculture with production
improved production. Another farmer quality, fish growth and production are in monoculture of 20-25 tonnes/ha.
stated that carp do not require a all increased. This is supported by the Market accessibility and price are low
diet with a protein content beyond experience of a farmer in Prathikollanka at R35/kg compared to R45/kg for rohu
16-18% protein but giving larger and catla. It is unlikely that local farmers
fish a supplementary diet with this will be able to compete with Vietnam
relatively low protein content will in export of this catfish as it currently
slow down their growth. It is not produces over 1 million tonnes and has
the protein content of the feed that established markets but they should
is critical but the total amount of be able to compete with Bangladesh
protein in the diet – and as the fish and Burma where catfish production is
grow larger they require a corre- increasing and may already be being
spondingly larger amount of protein. exported to Kolkata.
Thus, the proportion of oil cake in
the diet should be increased with Although tilapia is considered as a
time as the fish grow, possibly up Considerable expense is involved “weed fish” at present, selling at only
to about 30% protein in the mash. through installation of nylon string to R5/kg, it has potential if a market can
Feeding a mash with a lower protein protect small fish from bird predation. be developed. As one farmer stated,

6 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

“tilapia is more delicious than rohu and fish growth at all times within the
catla” so it is highly likely that tilapia carrying capacities of well fertilized
will be increasingly accepted in Indian and fed ponds, as there would be
markets. Nile tilapia, in contrast to the better use of pond space and a
feral Mozambique tilapia present in the shorter time to produce marketable
area, has potential to become a major size fish,. This is supported by the
commodity for national Indian markets experience of a farmer who said that it
as well as for export from the country. is possible to grow rohu to marketable
size in 1 year with food of adequate
Local farmers need to develop Nile Dr. RamaKrishna introducing the amount and quality. Research on
tilapia culture if they are to compete on writer to the members of a fish farming growth rates of carps of different sizes
the Kolkata market as Bangladesh and commune. and ages, with bio-economic modeling
Burma have already imported quality is recommended. Farmers expressed
tilapia seed and hatchery technology 8. Pond size concern that reducing the length of the
from Thailand. Quality seed of various fish culture by providing more growing
Nile tilapia strains may be obtained According to the farmers, “bigger is space for smaller fish would lead to
from Nam Sai Farms, Thailand. I better” for pond size, with average more bird predation. Currently stunted
recommended that a delegation of local grow-out pond size of about 20 acres fish are protected from bird predation
farmers visit Nam Sai Farms, website (8 ha) and optimum size considered by nylon string mesh.
www.tilapiathai.com, and later confirmed to be at least 25-50 acres (10-20 ha).
that the farm is willing to host a small Some ponds exceeded 100 acres (40 10. Pond additives
delegation from Kolleru and to also take ha). While Indian major carps may grow
them to visit local farms and markets for best in large ponds, Chinese farmers Farmers commonly use commercial
tilapia and other species, including silver reported to me in the early 1980s that mineral supplements, especially when
striped catfish. ponds of 0.2-0.3 ha were best for fish are stressed; these are unlikely to
highly productive Chinese fertilized and be needed in fertilized ‘green water’
Other possible culturable species are supplementary fed polyculture, an order ponds with abundant natural food.
seabass, walking catfish and snake- of magnitude smaller than a similar
head, all traditionally fed on high-protein semi-intensive system. The need for bromine as a “water
trash fish diets. Snakehead has been sanitizer” to reduce bacteria is
bred in Thailand and successfully fed on Local farmers reported better unit area probably also unnecessary.
dry commercial feed. production, more water surface area per
farm and need for fewer watchman with 11. Pond effluents
larger than smaller ponds. However,
large ponds must be more difficult to Farmers reported no adverse impact
manage, especially with intensified of discharged pond effluents on
production. It is recommended that Kolleru Lake, a Ramsar site. Effluent
optimum size of ponds be reconsidered. quality could be improved by reduced
use of manures and improved
9. Stunted yearlings supplementary feeding practices.
Furthermore, discharge of sediment-
The system as developed by the rich effluent could be reduced by
farmers consists of two stages of 10-12 simple pond draining procedures and
months each: production of 100-250 g by being treated by sedimentation in
yearlings in which 2.5 cm fingerlings are on-farm drainage canals before being
stocked at 4-5/m2; and discharged to the lake.

Visiting a large cooperative fish pond grow-out in which yearlings are stocked 12. Farmer seminar
with the farmers. The writer (centre left), at about 0.4/m2 until rohu reaches
Dr. RamaKrishna (centre right). marketable size of 1.5 kg and catla 2.3 I also recommended that current
kg. A partial harvest may take place farmer experience be documented
after 8 months. through questionnaires and
subsequently discussed at a seminar.
Most farmers believe that, irrespective Several farmers are continuing to
of stocking density and feeding, carps experiment so it would be invaluable
grow slowly in their first year and only to benefit from their experience over
grow quickly in their second year. The the past three decades. It appears
two-year cycle with the area of grow-out that several of my suggestions for
to nursery ponds of about 4-5:1 on most possible improvement of the system
farms has evolved based on a belief for have already been tested by small
the need to stunt carps in their first year. numbers of farmers. Dissemination of
improved farmer practice could lead
While compensatory growth of stunted to major benefits for other farmers
Dr. RamaKrishna introducing the writer fish has been reported in the scientific who continue to farm fish in the local
to a final meeting at the Delta Fish literature, it may be more profitable to traditional way.
Farmers Association. redesign the system around optimizing

July-September 2008 7
Sustainable aquaculture

Aquaculture and environmental issues in the region of Nai

Lagoon, Ninh Hai district, Ninh Thuan province, Viet Nam
Nguyen Van Quynh Boi
Aquaculture Faculty – Nha Trang University, Viet Nam, e-mail: [email protected]

During recent years, aquaculture in Viet

Nam has grown rapidly in terms of area,
type of culture, productivity, yield as well
as economic results. For diversifica-
tion purposes, many species have
cultured at different localities. However,
spontaneous development without
adequate planning, management
controls or awareness of environment
conservation have led to problems such
as conflicts among users, environmental
degradation and outbreaks of disease,
resulting in difficulties for aquaculture
development in general.

Nai Lagoon located in the northeast

of Phan Rang city, belongs to the
administrative area of Ninh Hai district,
Ninh Thuan Province. Nai Lagoon
supplies aquatic resources that form
the basis of the livelihoods of most
of the people living around it. Like
other coastal lagoons, due to the
heavy pressure of livelihood activities,
particularly aquaculture, Nai Lagoon has
been at risk of gradual degradation of Interview with a farmer.
its environmental quality and resources,
thereby compromising the livelihoods of species, type, area and economic Results and discussion
local communities. performance), environmental issues
emerging during recent years and Overview of natural conditions of
Under these circumstances, sustainable orientation for sustainable aquaculture. Nai Lagoon
aquaculture development together with The number of aquaculture households
coastal ecosystem and environment randomly interviewed was selected Nai Lagoon is a coastal bay about 700
conservation, based on the involvement based on the relative ratio of house- ha in area. The maximum depth of the
of local communities, as adopted by holds growing different species. The lagoon is about 2.5 m depending on
many countries and local governments number of interviewed households is tide. Tidal amplitude fluctuates from 0.7
throughout the world, appears vital. shown in Table 1. to 2.5 m. Rainfall is rather low, usually
around 700 – 800 mm with the wet
In order to develop community-based The study attempted to assess the season from August to November, often
environment conservation at Nai current situation of aquaculture in flooding at this time causing losses
Lagoon, it is necessary to understand the region of Nai Lagoon in terms for shrimp farmers. The lagoon often
the status of aquaculture and relevant of cultured species and economic features a strong current throughout
problems. This paper focuses on aqua- performance. Social assessments were the wet season and salinity may fall.
culture development and environmental undertaken in order to understand The volume of fresh water annually
issues at Nai Lagoon in recent times. awareness, attitudes and opinions of supplied to Nai Lagoon ranges from
aquaculture households about fisheries 350 to 400 million m3. However, seventy
extension activities and environmental percent of the volume often reached
Methodology issues. Data was analysed for each item for three months of rainy season. For
using MS Excel software. that reason, fresh water supplied for
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) methods agriculture and shrimp culture was
and questionnaire surveys were used to In addition, secondary data was limited in dry season leading to many
collect data from targeted households summarised in order to understand difficulties for these activities.
of five communities around the lagoon. natural conditions, social-economic
RRA method was applied to obtain situation, environmental issues, The lagoon is connected with the sea by
general information on the study area mechanisms for aquaculture manage- a narrow canal (Ta Khac Thuong et al,
and to direct the questionnaire survey. ment and orientation of aquaculture in 2001) of 2 km in length, 3-5 m in depth
Information in the questionnaire survey the region of Nai Lagoon. and 100-400 m in width. However, the
focused on culture status (cultured canal has filled up somewhat leading

8 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

Table 1. Number of aquaculture households interviewed. resource exploitation, and salt produc-
Cultured species Number of households Ratio (%) tion. Nai Lagoon is the largest area for
aquaculture in Ninh Thuan province with
Black tiger shrimp 30 43 around 900 ha of pond area.
Seaweed 15 22
Crab 10 14
Molluscs 8 11
Recent situation of aquaculture
Marine fish 7 10 in the region surrounding Nai
Total 70 100 Lagoon

Aquaculture at Nai Lagoon started in

Table 2. Area and yield of shrimp culture at Nai Lagoon. 1980 mainly with extensive systems.
Year Area (ha) Yield (Tonnes) Productivity (tonnes/ha) The main products were marine fish
and sand-shrimp (Metapenaeus sp.).
1992 469 620 1.32 The area of aquaculture increased to
1995 552 523 0.94 80 ha with the introduction of black tiger
1998 548 947 0.57 shrimp culture in 1987 using improved
1999 607 1,183 1.95 extensive systems. In 1993, the Peoples
2000 673 1,412 2.1
Committee of Ninh Thuan Province
2002 898 1,162 1.29
2003 898 1,143 1.27
issued a policy to develop infrastructure
2004 773 2,221 2.87 for 500 ha of aquaculture in the region
and aquaculture activities changed from
(Source: Reports of 2004 and 2005, Provincial Fisheries Department of Ninh Thuan province). this time. After 1995, culture techniques
changed to semi-intensive type with
large investments of seed, shrimp
Table 3. Some species cultured at communes around Nai Lagoon. feed, equipment and application of
Cultured species technological advances. The year 2000
was the peak of shrimp culture activities
Black Snail of Ninh Thuan Province in general and
Commune Swimming Blood
tiger (Babylonia Seaweed Fish Nai Lagoon in particular in terms of
crab cockle productivity and economic performance.
shrimp areolata)
Aquaculture has stabilized at around
900 ha of pond area at present.
Khanh Hai + +
Tri Hai + + + +
Ho Hai + + + + However, due to failure of black tiger
+ shrimp culture in recent years, other
Tan Hai + +
Phuong Hai + + + + species have been farmed instead. Up
to July 2005, there were 120.5 ha used
for culturing other species with 267
Table 4. Economic results of each species culture activities. participating households. Of these, the
Cultured species Culture period (months) Profit (VND/ha/month) area used for seaweed culture (Kappa-
phicus alvarezii) was largest (133.8 ha).
Babylon snail 4 74,116,750
In fact, most of households were at the
Black tiger shrimp 4 41,562,500
Fin fish 8 16,250,000 – 17,500,000 stage of looking for suitable alternative
Seaweed 5 2,111,000 culture species. Species cultured in the
Swimming crab 12 1,300,000 – 1,500,000 area are summarized in table 3.

Basing on surveyed data, economic

to a decrease in water exchange and density (215 people/km2) (Provincial performance calculated for one ha
increased sedimentation within the Fishery Department of Ninh Thuan showed that high profit were associated
lagoon. province, 2004). The population is with the farming of black tiger shrimp,
biased towards young people with more babylon snail, finfish and seaweed.
Overview of social – economic than 50% under 18 year old, a high birth
situation of communities around rate (crude birth rate was about 3%) The results of culture (table 4) have
the lagoon area and number of people per household shown that culture of snails, shrimp
(average of 6-7). Moreover, the local and fish can give high profit. In fact,
According to the administrative division, unemployment rate is high at more than shrimp farming was high-risk activity
five communes of Tan Hai, Ho Hai, 30%. In recent years, literacy standards so snail and finfish have been the
Phuong Hai, Tri Hai and Khanh Hai have improved but are still at low levels new trade-off for culture activity at the
belonging to Ninh Hai district are in comparison to urban areas. Resolving lagoon. However, the main difficulty has
located around Nai Lagoon. The total the unemployment problems, increasing been the lack of culture technique for
population of these five communes was living standards and improving the these species for farmers, especially for
around 64,300 people accounting for lagoon environment are challenges for babylon snail. Therefore, the Fishery
54% of the district population. Up to the local government. In recent times, Extension Center of Ninh Thuan
December 2004, the population density livelihood activities of most local people province should in future seek to assist
was at 423 people/km2, which is rather were mainly based on resources of Nai farmers in this regard, together with
high in comparison to district population Lagoon such as shrimp culture, aquatic capital provision policy.

July-September 2008 9
Sustainable aquaculture

Black tiger shrimp culture Table 5. Assessing extension activity in the region of Nai Lagoon (n=70).
(Penaeus monodon) Item Opinion Ratio (%)
Together with high profit, the area used Aquaculture workshops
for shrimp culture has increased. Over Participating 40 57
the period from 1989 to 1999, shrimp Not participating 30 43
culture area increased by 105.74%
(an average of 10.57% annually). Results
However, in the period from 2000 to Good 28 40
2005, the area used for shrimp culture Fair 7 10
has decreased. The ponds remain, Bad 5 7
however the area actually used has No opinion 30 43
fallen from 898 ha (2003) to 773.2 ha
(2004), to only 325 ha in 2005 (Fishery
Department of Ninh Thuan province, Table 6. Decreasing environmental quality – causes and solutions (n=70).
2005). While area under culture was still Item Opinion Ratio (%)
increasing in 2002 the productivity and
yield had begun to fall, with yield down Environmental quality
250 tons and productivity falling by a. Good 1 1.4
800 kg/ha, reaching a low of just 1,270 b. Acceptable 6 8.6
kg/ha in 2003. This was one reason for c. Bad 63 90
the rapid subsequent decline in culture
area and switch into other species by Cause of pollution
many farmers; another reason was a. Freely discharging waste 43 61
that farmers lacked capital to continue b. Lack of treatment systems 2 5.7
shrimp farming. c. Low awareness of culturists 13 19
d. Other 10 14.3
Seaweed culture
(Kappaphicus alvarezii) Way of improvement
a. Seed testing before stocking 2 3
In 2003, with assistance from the b. Improving pond environment 2 3
Provincial Fishery Department of c. Enhancing community awareness 52 74
Ninh Thuan, the Peoples Committee d. Other 14 20
completed preparation of a project to
provide opportunities for employment
and “hunger eradication - poverty Swimming crab culture individuals/kg. Productivity of swimming
alleviation” for shrimp farmers around (Portunus spp.) crab culture at Nai Lagoon was about
Nai Lagoon. The area planned for 1.16 tons/ha/year.
seaweed culture was 20% total area Swimming crab culture has not been
of Nal lagoon (from 160 to 200 ha) widely developed due to lack of seed. Mollusc culture
(People Committee of Ninh Hai district, However, difficulties in shrimp culture
2004). Seaweed culture was piloted in have led some households to use their Due to problems encountered with
a 4.8 ha area at Khanh Hai Commune, shrimp ponds for swimming crab culture. shrimp culture, the Fisheries Depart-
increasing to 37.8 ha in 2004 and 133.8 Most of these households were poor. ment proposed diversifying culture
ha in 2005. In addition to swimming crab culture, species in order to improve the culture
their livelihood activity was fishing in the area environment and develop sustain-
Seaweed was farmed using the lagoon so they could catch natural seed able aquaculture. As new species, snail
method of a single line stretched over to supplement during culture cycles. and blood cockle were reared.
the lagoon bottom. This method was Other households could buy seed
popularly applied and evaluated as from fishers. For that reason, most of Babylon snail farming (Babylonia
having advantages over other methods. interviewees (90%) revealed that seed areolata): Babylon snail was a cultured
Seaweed was often cultured from quality was not good and rather scarce. species of economic value, especially
May to September and from October In general, swimming crab culture at the for export purpose. In 2003, the Fishery
to March of following year in areas of Nai Lagoon was mainly “harvesting and Extension Center of Ninh Thuan
water exchange with salinity of 28 – 30 stocking in rotation”. Province carried out snail culture
ppt, less waves and no direct influence successfully in earthen ponds. From this
by fresh water. However, in the sub-crop Most cases of swimming crab culture time, it started to be reared by farmers.
season, weather was often unstable and were carried out at Hon Thien – Ho Hai Crops started from February to June
floods, storms and high temperatures commune. Culture area in 2004 was and from September to December. The
had some negative impacts the devel- only 6.3 ha with 16 households and price of seed was rather high and all
opment of seaweed culture. average culture area was 0.35 ha/ households revealed this to be the main
household. Culture density was rather difficulty. At the present, six households
low at the average of 1.32 inds/m2 conduct snail farming in ponds at Tan
with average seed size of 20 – 30 An village - Tri Hai commune with
total area of 2.8 ha. Furthermore,
nine households culture snail in the

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 Sustainable aquaculture

lagoon area (cage culture) at Khanh Environmental problems caused

Hai commune. However, all of these by aquaculture activities at Nai
households have suffered high mortality Lagoon
rates without identified reasons. The
potential problem of snail rearing was In recent time, problems of environ-
fresh feed. This could easily pollute mental pollution and degradation at
the lagoon environment if snail culture Nai Lagoon were at alarm levels. Of
further develops. these, waste from culture activities
was the most important problem that
Blood cockle culture (Arca ranosa): needed to be solved. Negative factors
Since 1997 some farmers started blood for the environment of Nai Lagoon from
cockle culture in the littoral area of aquaculture activities included:
the lagoon but results were not good. Above, below: Shrimp ponds in the Nai
Up to June, 2005 there were only two Chemicals Lagoon area.
households conducting blood cockle
rearing at Hon Thien, Ho Hai commune For aquaculture production, all house-
with 2 ha pond area and 0.5 ha littoral holds used chemicals for a variety of
area (fence culture). The culture period purposes including cleaning the pond
lasts for seven months (from August to bottom, water quality management
April of the following year). However, and sterilization, probiotics and tonics.
due to high mortality rate without These chemicals affected not only the
known reasons, yield only reached ecosystem in culture pond but also
0.4 tons/ha. In recent times, there has natural ecosystem when they were
been no hatchery seed so wild seed of released into outside environment.
blood cockle caught from the lagoon
was used. Due to overexploitation, Organic wastes
natural seed of blood cockle became
gradually scarce, negatively affecting Large amounts of dissolved and solid
natural resources of blood cockle in Nai wastes generated from aquaculture
Lagoon. Together with the development activities have been mentioned in
of seaweed culture, waters area used a number of documents. So far, in However, survey results showed that
for exploiting blood cockle seed was general, aquaculture systems in the only 57% of aquaculture households did
narrowed leading to conflict between the region have developed spontaneously attend. Forty percent of interviewees
two activities. According to the policy of without planning. Hence, there was lack evaluated the workshops as helpful.
Provincial Fishery Department, the area of dedicated systems for water supply- By this way, they learned culture
of blood cockle culture should not be discharge. Therefore, water discharge techniques such as feeding methods
increased due to low economic perform- was loaded into the lagoon without and disease prevention. However, 7%
ance and environmental impact of the any treatment, leading to pollution of of interviewees thought that fishery
waste from blood cockle farming. the lagoon. Some parameters were extension activities did not have any
higher than regulated criteria for effect.
Fish farming aquaculture such as dissolved oxygen,
NH3, biological oxygen demand and Assessing environmental quality, 90%
Fish farming was one option to diversify total bacterial counts. For that reason, interviewed opinions showed that it was
culture species in order to reduce there should be necessary measures to bad but 1.4% thought that it was good.
the dependence on shrimp culture control these wastes. In recent time, in According to aquaculturists, causes of
activity with negatively environmental order to avoid environmental pollution pollution were freely discharging waste
impacts. Fish farming at Nai Lagoon caused from low quality feed, the (61%), low awareness of local people
started from 2004. Cultured species Fishery Extension Center and Fishery (19%), lack of waste treatment systems
included sea-bass (Lates calcarifer), Department has often tested feed (5.7%) and other causes such as
snapper (Lutjanus spp.) and tilapia samples from shrimp feed services. In unplanned development and unsuit-
(Oreochromis spp.). The culture season addition, fisheries extension programs able time culture. In order to improve
of fish depended on seed availability. were undertaken to educate farmers environmental quality, they suggested
Moreover, the Fishery Extension Center about feeding rates and regimes. The to enhance community awareness.
of Ninh Thuan Province has piloted seaweed culture program was also one Seventy four percent interviewed
model of co-culture of black tiger of solutions for this problem. opinions thought that responsible
shrimp and milkfish in order to improve culturists should not discharge waste
environmental conditions and enhance Fisheries extension activities and freely, particularly in case of infected
economic performance. Fish farming awareness of local people about shrimp ponds by disease.
helped to provide more jobs, increased environmental issues
income for farmers, and improve pond At present there are some communes
environment. According to farmers, the Yearly, under guideline of the Provincial (Luong Cach, Tri Thuy) that have
economic performance of fish farming Fishery Department, the Fishery Exten- introduced fees for environmental
was positive. However, data was limited sion Center collaborating with District cleaning. However, the fee for aquacul-
for detailed analysis. People Committee, Commune People ture activity was not applied due to lack
Committees, and shrimp feed agents of policy. Environmental fees might be
organised aquaculture workshops. new for local managers and farmers.

July-September 2008 11
Sustainable aquaculture

However, it could be a useful tool to Among farmers conducting shrimp as the main culture species (due
regulate local economic development if aquaculture to competition of milkfish with shrimp
it were used in the right way. According about feed). Babylon snail, tilapia,
to our survey, 63% of interviewees Before 2004, all localities around the snapper, grouper may provide alterna-
agreed that it is necessary to apply an lagoon established aquaculture self- tives to black tiger shrimp. It is clear
environmental fee. The basic issue was management groups in order to control that the culture model of these species
to identify appropriate sum of money environmental cleaning and disease should be further researched to develop
and use the fee for right purpose. For warnings. On a voluntary basis, each sustainable aquaculture. Depending on
aquaculture, environmental fee policy group had 10 - 15 members including location and condition of each locality,
aims at ensuring the fairness between the head. Each group organized farmers should be encouraged to
resource users and others. This fee monthly meetings to inform members culture suitable species.
could be calculated based on profit about the aquaculture situation and
from aquaculture activity. This fee also so that they could help each other In order to realize the above mentioned
forbids resource users to be responsible with capital and techniques. However, orientations, it is necessary to develop
for their activities. In case of disease by 2005 only two communes had infrastructure and integrated manage-
breaking out, this fee would be the fund maintained this activity, Ho Hai and ment policy among production branches
to help farmers to resolve the problem. Phuong Hai, due to lack of activity as well as levels. Additionally, the
expenditure, manpower, mechanism support and participation of local people
Mechanisms for management of and experiences. In fact, management should be encouraged.
aquaculture activity mechanisms were only applied for
shrimp and seaweed culture but most
Among authorities/offices at any farmers did not believe in this type of Conclusion and
level management due to ineffective activity
of the self-management groups. When recommendations
Aquaculture activity was under direct farmers had problems such as disease
management of the Provincial Fishery they tried to solve themselves. For that Based on survey results, the following
Department, the Fishery Extension reason, authorities should improve conclusions can be made:
Center and Aquatic Resources Pres- activity of self-management groups.
ervation Office (responsible for culture • In recent times, the main cultured
techniques, environmental conditions Orientation of aquaculture at Nai species in region of Nai Lagoon was
and disease warnings), the Provincial Lagoon in future black tiger shrimp.
Peoples Committee (generally promul-
gating policy, planning development and According to the aquaculture planning • Aquaculture is the main livelihood
regulating management) and the District project of Ninh Thuan Province, the activity of many local households.
and Commune Peoples Committees aquaculture area around Nai Lagoon However, most of them have low
(implementing guidelines). will be decreased by 200 ha. Khanh technical qualification so culture
Hai and Tri Thuy communes will not activity is based on their experience.
In principle, aquaculture ecosystems continue aquaculture but will develop
are the un-detachable part of aquatic eco-tourism instead. Aquaculture area • In general, aquaculture activities
ecosystem that are not only directly for the whole region of Nai Lagoon will have not been planned and wastes
related to but also affected by terrestrial be 750 ha including 650 ha (500 ha have not been adequately
ecosystems. Thus aquaculture is water surface equivalently) of Phuong controlled. Together with low
affected by other economic activities, Hai, Ho Hai and Tan Hai communes awareness of farmers, these have
especially agriculture. However, the conducting semi-intensive culture resulted in degradation of the natural
connection among economic branches and 100 ha of Khanh Hai commune environment, leading to losses for
was still loose and not decentralized conducting eco-tourism aquaculture. farmers.
completely. The Provincial Fishery
Department was responsible for One crop per year of black tiger • Management activities have gener-
aquaculture but canal and irrigation shrimp will be conducted and the ally been ineffective. Aquaculture
systems are under management of the remaining crop will be other species. training has not been considered as
Provincial Department of Agriculture In recent times, there have been two good by all farmers. Management
and Rural Development. Under this types of rotation culture: shrimp – fish mechanisms at different levels have
circumstance, the Fishery Department (often tilapia) and shrimp – seaweed. been limited. The activity of self-
was only in charge of professional However, the rotation culture of shrimp management groups has not been
techniques so it could not manage – seaweed has been ineffective in the effective.
wastes from agricultural activity (mainly lagoon region due to poor development
fertilizers and pesticides). Moreover, of seaweed in ponds. It may be useful In order to sustain aquaculture in the
at district and commune levels, there for the Fishery Extension Center to region of Nai Lagoon, some recom-
was not any office responsible for carry out more research to improve this mendations are proposed:
aquaculture so management activities model. In addition, shrimp and milkfish
were ineffective. Trying to resolve these co-culture models have been experi- • Applying waste water treatment
issues, the Fishery Department of Ninh mented with. The success of this model systems for aquaculture and
Thuan Province established Ninh Hai would enhance income and improve restoring mangrove forest in the
Station of Aquaculture Management pond environments. However, methods vicinity of the lagoon to assist with
in order to better manage aquaculture and ratio of co-cultured species should assimilation of nutrients.
activity at the district level. be researched in order not to affect

12 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

• Planning of culture area, conducting

rotation aquaculture and co-culture, Climate change impacts on fisheries
and carrying out culture activities
in suitable season-crops could and aquaculture
facilitate sustainable production.
Sena De Silva, NACA Director General
• Further research on culture species
to find suitable species for this Climate change is perhaps one of the on fisheries and aquaculture, and
locality. most important issues confronting recommendations regarding adaptive
the global community and associated measures.
• Organisation of frequent aquaculture debates have intensified over the
workshops in order to improve last decade, most recently with the The “policy paper” on climate change
technical skills and environmental submission of the final findings of the on fisheries and aquaculture developed
awareness of farmers. Inter Governmental Panel on Climate at the consultation is reproduced
Change (IPCC, 2007). The time has below. More information from the FAO
• Application of environmental come for development and food produc- High Level Conference on Climate
tax/fees on aquaculture activity to tion sectors to take note of the above Change and Fisheries and Aquaculture
assist with prevention, remediation findings, based on a thorough scrutiny is available from the FAO website at:
and fund response to emergencies and synthesis of the scientific evidence http://www.fao.org/foodclimate/expert/
such as disease outbreaks. on climate change, and to initiate em7.html.
adaptive and/or mitigating measures.
References
FAO has initiated many expert consulta- Workshop on Climate
Ngo, T. A. 2005. Impact assessment of commercial tions on the impacts of climate change
shrimp culture on Nai Lagoon environment. on different food production sectors, Change and Fisheries
Master Thesis. Aquaculture Faculty, University one of which was held on fisheries
of Fisheries – Nha Trang. and aquaculture. Needless to say that and Aquaculture:
Fishery Department of Ninh Thuan province, 2004. the urgency of the problem has been
Situation of aquaculture development and further exacerbated by the emerging “Options for decision
results of fishery extension activities in the “food crisis” as well as by the potential
period of 2000 – 2005. channeling of food to produce biofuel. makers”
Fishery Department of Ninh Thuan province,
2005. Assessment of implementing yearly plan The Expert Consultation on Climate FAO Headquarters, Rome, 7-9
of 2004, line and duty of 2005 yearly plan. Change Impacts on Fisheries and April 2008
Summary report. Aquaculture was held in Rome, 7-9
Nguyen, T. N. and Nguyen, T.K.V. 1999. Socio- April, 2008. The consultation was based Introduction
economic survey of situation and potential of on three reviews that formed the
shrimp culture development at Nai Lagoon background for the discussions and From local to global levels, fisheries
– Ninh Thuan province. In: Proceeding of the preparation of an all encompassing and aquaculture have very important
scientific research. Volume IV. University of document to be submitted to the Heads roles for food supply, food security and
Fisheries, Nha Trang. of Government Meetings on Climate income generation. Some 42 million
Statistical Office of Ninh Thuan province, 2004. change in Rome, July 2008. The three people work directly in the sector,
Statistical yearbook - Ninh Thuan province. reviews that were provided the back- with the great majority in developing
Statistical Office of Ninh Hai District, 2004. ground for the consultation were: countries. Adding those who work in
Statistical yearbook - Ninh Hai district. associated processing, marketing,
Ta, K.T. et al., 2001. Solution for overcoming envi- • Physical and ecological impacts of distribution and supply industries, and
ronmental and aquatic resources degradation climate change relevant to marine the sector supports several hundred
in Nai Lagoon, Ninh Thuan province – Project and inland capture fisheries and million livelihoods. Aquatic foods have
report. University of Fisheries, Nha Trang. aquaculture (by Manuel Barange high nutritional quality, contributing 20
and Ian Perry). percent or more of average per capita
animal protein intake for more than 2.8
• Climate change and capture billion people, mostly from developing
fisheries – impacts, adaptation, countries. They are also the most widely
mitigation, and the way forward (by traded foodstuffs and are essential
Tim Daw, Neil Adger, Katrina Brown components of export earnings for
and Marie-Caroline Badjeck). many poorer countries. The sector has
particular significance for small island
• Climate change and aquaculture (by states. Climate change is projected
Sena S De Silva and Doris Soto). to impact broadly across ecosystems,
societies and economies, increasing
These reviews will be published as a pressure on all livelihoods and food
FAO Fisheries Technical Paper in due supplies, including those in the fisheries
course and are expected to provide a and aquaculture sector. Food quality
useful documentation regarding the will have a more pivotal role as food
potential impact of climate change resources come under greater pressure,

July-September 2008 13
Sustainable aquaculture

and the availability and access to fish responsive adaptation systems, even Policy, legal and implementation
supplies will become an increasingly though they will have to be placed in frameworks at national, regional
critical development issue. context of greater uncertainty. and international levels

The fisheries sector differs from While current knowledge is adequate Addressing the potential complexities
mainstream agriculture and has distinct in many instances to take appropriate of climate change interactions and
interactions and needs with respect to action, better communication, applica- their possible scale of impact requires
climate change. Capture fisheries have tion and feedback will be essential mainstreaming of cross-sectoral
unique features of natural resource in knowledge-building. Action in the responses into governance frameworks.
harvesting linked with global ecosystem following areas will be needed to support Responses are likely to be more timely,
processes. Aquaculture complements mitigation and adaptation policies and relevant and effective if they are brought
and increasingly adds to supply and, programmes in fisheries and aquacul- into the normal processes of develop-
though more similar to agriculture in its ture: ment and engage people and agencies
interactions, has important links with at all levels. This requires not only the
capture fisheries. Estimate production levels. Projections recognition of climate-related vectors
of future fisheries production levels and processes, and their interaction with
The demands of growing populations at the global and regional scales will others, but also availability of sufficient
will require substantial increases in be driven by medium- and long-term information for effective decision-making
aquatic food supply in the next 20 to probabilistic climate change predictions and approaches that engage public and
30 years, during which climate change in the context of substantial ecological private sectors. All of these elements will
impacts are expected to widen and and management uncertainties. be vital in providing the best possible
increase. In the face of these impacts conditions in which the aims of food
and the existing development and Forecast impact levels. Detailed impact security – quantity and timing of food
management constraints, the primary predictions on specific fisheries and supply, access and utilization – can be
challenge for the sector will be to deliver aquaculture systems will be required met.
food supply, strengthen economic to determine additional net positive or
output and maintain and enhance food negative consequences for vulnerable National
security while ensuring ecosystem resources and regions. This is particu-
resilience. This will require concerted, larly important for semi-arid countries Action plans at the national level
collaborative and determined action with significant coastal or inland can have as their bases the Code of
across all stakeholders, linking private fisheries, as they are among the most Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and
sector, community and public sector vulnerable to climate change. related International Plans of Action
agents. (IPOAs), as well as appropriately
Develop tools for decision-making linked policy and legal frameworks and
Developing the knowledge base under uncertainty. Adaptive tools for management plans. Responses will
the fisheries and aquaculture sectors need to employ integrated ecosystem-
The existing pressures of demand, will need to be refined, developed based approaches to fisheries and
and anticipated challenges, will require and implemented to guide decision aquaculture (EAFs and EAAs) for the
better multi-scale understanding of the making under uncertainty and address national fisheries and aquaculture
impacts of climate change and of the important cross linkages among the sector throughout the entire resource
interacting contribution of fisheries and relevant sectors. The uncertainties extraction, supply and value chain. The
aquaculture to food and livelihoods decision-makers will face include i) the future implications of climate change
security. Climate change will increase responses and adaptations of marine will intensify the justification for finding
uncertainties in the supply of fish from and freshwater production systems to policy consensus to reform capture
capture and culture. Such uncertainty gradual climate change, including critical fisheries while respecting national sector
will impose new challenges for risk thresholds and points of no return, ii) characteristics.
assessment, which is commonly based the synergistic interactions between
on knowledge of probabilities from past climate change and other stressors such Requirements include:
events. Data for determining effects of as water use, eutrophication, fishing,
past climate change at best cover no agriculture, alternative energy, and • Actions will be needed that focus
more than a few decades, and may no iii) the ability and resilience of aquatic on key issues such as adjusting
longer be an adequate guide to future production systems and related human fleet and infrastructure capacity and
expectations. communities to adapt and cope to flexibility, identifying management
multiple stresses. systems that offer negotiated
This means that in the future, planning balances between efficiency and
for uncertainty will need to take into Expand societal knowledge. Better access, and creating alternative
account the greater possibility of unfore- knowledge will be required of who is or employment and livelihood opportu-
seen events, such as the increasing will be vulnerable with respect to climate nities.
frequency of extreme weather events change and food security impacts, how
and “surprises”. However, examples this arises and how it can addressed. In • Policy and legal regulatory frame-
of past management practices in this regard, gender and equity issues will works will be required for aquacul-
response to existing climate variability need to be carefully considered. ture to expand along sustainable
and extreme events relating to different and equitable development paths.
regions and resources can provide
useful lessons to design robust and

14 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

• Links will need to be improved International also be identified to receive targeted

among fisheries, aquaculture and information and capacity building.
other sectors that share or compete As sectoral trade and competition Partnerships would also need to be built
for resources, production proc- issues link with climate change mitiga- and strengthened among public, private,
esses or market position, in order tion and adaptation activities, they are civil society and NGO sectors.
to manage conflicts and ensure likely to become more important, with
that food security aims can be the potential to define many areas of Requirements include:
maintained. economic potential and constraint. As a
small and often politically weak sector, • Nationally, information gaps and
• Links will be required among fisheries and aquaculture may be capacity-building requirements
national climate change adaptation particularly vulnerable in such competi- need to be identified and addressed
policies and programmes as well tion and conflicts. This increases the through networks of research,
as national cross-sectoral policy importance of having fishery sector training and academic agencies.
frameworks such as those for food representation in policy and legal devel-
security, poverty reduction, emer- opment processes related to climate • Internationally, networks should
gency preparedness and response, change mitigation and adaptation. be created or developed that
insurance and social safety encourage and enable regional or
schemes, agricultural and rural Requirements include: global exchanges of information
development, and trade policies. and experiences, linking fishery
• Fisheries and aquaculture need to issues with other those of other
Regional be adequately addressed in climate sectors such as water management,
change policies and programmes community development, trade and
The potential for spatial displacement dealing with global commons, food food security.
of aquatic resources and people as a security and trade.
result of climate change impacts, and • Existing management plans for the
the greater variability characteristics of • Common platforms are needed for fisheries and aquaculture sectors,
transboundary resources will require international data and research coastal zones and watersheds
existing regional structures and approaches, sharing best practices need to be reviewed and, if needed,
processes to be strengthened or in identifying and responding to further developed to ensure they
given more specific focus. Policy and climate change-related impacts and cover potential climate change
legal mechanisms that address these developing response mechanisms. impacts, mitigations and adaptation
issues will need to be developed or responses. Connections to wider
enhanced. Regional market and trading • Fishery sector responses should planning and strategic processes
mechanisms are also likely to be more be incorporated into processes and also need to be identified and
important in linking and buffering supply decisions related to climate change adjusted.
variability and maintaining sectoral in the other major sectors (e.g.
value and investment. water) to which fishery issues are • Communication and information
linked. processes that reach all stake-
Requirements include: holders will be essential elements in
• International fishery agreements sectoral response. This will require
• Regional fisheries organizations and conventions should be more focused application by communica-
and other regional bodies should vigorously applied, and strength- tion specialists to ensure that the
be strengthened. They should place ened if necessary, to accommodate information is accessible and usable
climate change awareness and and support climate change-related –presenting diverse and complex
response preparedness clearly on activities. issues in a form that is targeted and
their agendas and link more closely understandable for each audience.
with related regional bodies. • Cooperation and partnerships
should be enhanced for dealing with Enabling financial mechanisms:
• Fisheries and aquaculture will need NGOs, civil society organizations, embodying food security
to be addressed adequately in intergovernmental organizations, concerns in existing and new
cross-sectoral and transboundary including the 1-UN approach, and financial mechanisms
resource use planning and in intra- donor co-ordinated initiatives.
regional markets and trade. In this The full potential of existing financial
vein, the potential effects of climate Capacity building: technical and mechanisms will be needed to tackle
change stressors on regional issues organizational structures the issue of climate change. Innovative
will have to be considered as part of approaches may also be needed to
any provisions for action. Policy-making and action planning in target financial instruments and create
response to climate change involves effective incentives and disincentives.
• Common platforms are needed not only the technically concerned The public sector will have an important
for research and data gathering line agencies such as departments role in leveraging and integrating private
approaches, sharing of best prac- responsible for fisheries, interior affairs, sector investment, interacting through
tices in identifying and responding to science and education, but also those market mechanisms to meet sectoral
climate change-related impacts and for national development planning and aims for climate change response
developing response mechanisms. finance. These institutions, as well as and food security. Many of these
community or political representatives at approaches are new and will need to be
subnational and national levels, should tested in the sector.

July-September 2008 15
Sustainable aquaculture

At the national level: ment through which the insured At the international level:
accept responsibilities in exchange
• Producers, distributors and proces- for protection. • Funding agencies can “climate
sors should be able to increase proof” their approaches and, at
self protection through financial • Financial instruments that can the same time, take advantage of
mechanisms. This is particularly promote risk reduction and preven- new opportunities in the fisheries
relevant for aquaculture (e.g. cluster tion practices include initiatives such and aquaculture sector by jointly
insurance) but financial services as relocation allowances from low promoting food security, reducing
could also be used to promote lying areas and disincentives for negative impacts of climate vari-
emergency funds more widely misuse of water in aquaculture. ability and change, and improving
through the sector. resource management.
• Existing and new initiatives for
• Investment in the sector, especially improving equity and economic • Donors should be made more aware
in infrastructure, will need to access, such as microcredit, should of the importance of the fisheries
consider climate change which will be linked to climate change adapta- and aquaculture sector in terms of
require developing better information tion responses such as livelihood food security and its sensitivity to
on the costs and benefits of protec- diversification. climate change, and of effective
tion. ways in which the sector could
• Mitigation options can include fiscal become part of cross-sectoral
• Transfer or spread of sector-related incentives for reducing the sector’s investment strategies.
risk – from individuals and communi- carbon footprint, developing more
ties to the state through contingency efficient processes and sector • Private sector investors should be
plans – will be based on specific agreements, and providing payment encouraged to incorporate “climate
fiscal provisions but also may be tied for environmental services, particu- proof” approaches into international
to innovations in resource manage- larly offering additional livelihood sourcing, trade and market develop-
options to poorer communities. ment, and into broader corporate
responsibility areas, including
delivery of local benefits and
inclusion of smaller scale producers.

New initiatives in fisheries extension

H.K. De1, G.S. Saha1, R. Srichandan1 and V.P. Vipinkumar2

1. Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, Orissa 751 002;

2. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin, Kerala, India.

Improved communication and informa- development. The article focuses on to their location-specific problems and
tion access is directly related to social innovations in technology dissemination to make available all the technological
and economic development. However, with particular focus on aquaculture. information along with technology inputs
the rural population still have difficulty in and products for testing and use by
accessing crucial information in forms them. Such information is useful for:
they can understand in order to make Public sector initiatives
timely decisions. There is a concern that • Farmers;
the gap between the information rich Single window delivery system
and information poor is getting wider. • Farmer-entrepreneurs;
New information and communication In an information age, the role of
technologies are generating possibilities appropriate information package and its • Extension workers and development
to solve problems of rural poverty, dissemination is of crucial significance. agencies;
inequality and giving an opportunity to It is not enough to generate information
bridge the gap between information-rich but it is also essential to ensure that • NGOs; and
and information-poor and to support the required information is delivered
sustainable development in rural and to the end-users at the earliest and • Private sector organisations.
agricultural communities. However with the least dissemination loss. The
remote rural communities still lack basic establishment of agricultural technology ATICs facilitate direct access to the
communication infrastructure. The chal- information centers (ATIC) can forge a farmers to the institutional resources
lenge is not only to improve the acces- better interaction between researcher that are available in terms of technology,
sibility of communication technology to and technology users. This serves advice and products, thereby reducing
the rural population but also to improve as a single window system with an technology dissemination losses. Under
the relevance of information to local objective to help the farmers and other the National Agricultural Technology
stakeholders both to provide solution Project (NATP) the Indian Council

16 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

for Agricultural Research (ICAR) has in replies within a weeks time. From therapeutics etc. In Andhra Pradesh
established 44 ATICs in State Agricul- among the right entries a draw is several such service centres can be
tural Universities and in ICAR Institutes. conducted and the selected ones are found in Kolleru lake area of West
Three such ATICs are operating in awarded. All India Radio, Cuttack Godavari district, although they may
specialised fisheries research institutes recently broadcasted 11 lessons related be known by different names such as
viz., the Central Institute of Freshwater to aquaculture. farmer facility centres, aqua service
Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, Orissa ; centres etc. Farmers need to pay for
the Central Marine Fisheries Research availing the services of these centres.
Institute, Cochin, Kerala and the Central Private sector initiatives
Institute of Fisheries Technology, One stop aqua shop
Cochin, Kerala. The corner stone of India’s blue revolu-
tion is availability of quality fish seed One of the major recommendations
Kisan call centre and improved management practices of DFID funded project “Investigating
for increased productivity, sustainability improved policy on aquaculture service
The Department of Agriculture & and stability. This has triggered the provision to poor people” was to
Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of search by the farmers for availability of establish one stop aqua shop (OAS).
Agriculture, Govt. of India launched quality fish seed, fish feed and other It is intended that OAS would provide
Kisan Call Centers across the country inputs, easy accessibility to diagnostic better access to farmers regarding
to deliver extension services to the services for soil and water, fish health appropriate aquaculture technology
farming community. A Kisan Call Center management, availability of appropriate as well as information on government
consists of a complex of telecommuni- information packages through printed, schemes and rural banking and micro
cation infrastructure, computer support audio, video and electronic media. It has finance. It was also envisaged that OAS
and human resources organized to also prompted multiple players to offer would sell fish seed and other inputs. In
respond to queries raised by farmers consultancy services in aquaculture. Purulia one OAS (Matsya Seva Kendra)
in their local language. Subject Matter started by Kuddus Ansari last year.
Specialists (SMSs) using telephone and Private commercial organisations The shop is a single outlet for all inputs
computers, interact with farmers directly that a fish farmer may require in the
to understand the problem and answer Shrinking public investment, growing cultivation of fish. The inputs include fish
the queries at the call centre. Formally willingness of farmers to pay for seed, fish feed, fertilizer, chemicals etc.
launched on 21 Jan 2004 by the Prime services, shifting priorities of aquac- (The Telegraph, Kolkata, June 8, 2004).
Minister of India, the call centres are ulture production towards high value Besides, the OAS is helping farmers in
getting more than 2,000 calls per day. products - prawn, crab, ornamental providing information on fish farming
There are call centers for every state fishes, value added products etc. have through posters and though information
which are expected to handle traffic led to the emergence of privatized brochures supplied by state depart-
from any part of the country. extension services. Besides partial ments and research institutes. This
recovery of cost, privatization renders is becoming quite popular. One OAS
Helpline the extension system more account- has also been established in Ranchi,
able to information seekers. Many Jharkhand and four more are coming
Leveraging on the IT revolution in private players are engaged in quality up at Balangir and Nuapada of Orissa
India and the increasing penetration seed production, intensive and super (Tripathi et al 2004).
of telephones in villages, many State intensive culture, processing, value
Agricultural Universities and ICAR addition, ornamental fish breeding and
institutes have started helpline services. culture etc. Firms engaged in fisheries Initiatives in ICT
The helplines address queries related namely Hindustan Lever, Lipton, Water
to farming during fixed days of the week base, CPAqua, Avanti, Higashimaru etc applications
at specified hours. The helpline number have their own well knit network of R&D,
is advertised through mass media viz., extension and marketing. They have a Information and communication tech-
radio and press. The Central Institute cadre of technicians to offer consultancy nology (ICT) is defined as capturing,
of Freshwater Aquaculture has initiated to farmers who buy products from them. processing, storing, and communicating
this service on every Tuesday and IFFCO and KRIBHCO have prominently information electronically within a
Friday during 3.30-5.00 p.m. and the no. entered the extension arena by passing digital medium. It enables an effective
is 0674-2111849. on full crop production messages and cost-effective flow of information
through field demonstration and training products, people and capital across
Farm school on the air programmes (Mathur, 2004). national and regional boundaries.
The lack of communication facilities
Radio has been used extensively as an Aqua service centres in communities therefore, inhibits the
educational medium in developing coun- social, political and economic empower-
tries. Radio has supported educational Unemployed educated youths have ment of the majority of the population.
programmes in a wide range of subject started operating aqua service centres The Secretary-General of the United
areas in many different countries. The in the line of agri-clinics. These centres Nations states: “The new information
latest technologies are taught to farmers are offering services like soil and water and communications technologies
by offering series of lessons broadcast testing, feed analysis, seed quality are among the driving forces of
over a period of time (three months testing (PCR test), disease diagnosis globalization. They are bringing people
usually). Each broadcast ends with few and market intelligence. These centres together and bringing decision makers
questions to encourage participation are in the business of selling inputs unprecedented new tools for develop-
and the audience are asked to send such as feed, fertilizer, pesticides, other ment. At the same time, however, the
gap between information ‘haves’ and

July-September 2008 17
Sustainable aquaculture

Table 1. Necessary paradigm shifts in extension (Vijayraghavan, 2004).

Components Traditional extension Extension for 21st century
1. Goal Transfer of technology Enhancing the over all capacity of farmers
2. Need assessment and programme planning Top-down approach, and rigid Bottom up approach involving farmers and flexible

Multiple sources government private and farmers’ knowledge

3. Source of technology Mainly government research Institutions
system

1. Input intensive, crop based and general 1. Knowledge intensive, broad based, farming system perspective
4. Nature of technology recommendations and location specific
2. Fixed package of information 2. provision for choices

i. Individual approach with lack of a. Group approach with increased participation of farmers and their
5. Dissemination of technology participation of farmers organization
ii. NGOs not involved b. Greater involvement of NGOs

Efforts to reach both male and female farmers, rural youth and
6. Clients Mostly male farmers
farm labourers

7. Farmers’ activity Routine application of technology/inputs Encouraging farmers experimentation and learning
8. Role of extension agents Information transfer Facilitation of learning and building overall capacity of farmers
9. Rewards and incentives for extension personnel Rewards not linked to performance Rewards linked to performance
10. Financial sustainability Very low High

‘have-nots’ is widening and there is a services required in soya farming. It Cyber extension
real danger that the world’s poor will be facilitates supply of high quality farm
excluded from the emerging knowledge- inputs and purchase of soya at the Modern communication technologies
based global economy”. doorstep of farmers. The project has when applied to conditions in rural
started 23 telecentres in Hosangabad areas can help improve communication,
Indicated below are some of the ICT and has around 600 kiosks in central increase participation, disseminate
initiatives in India: India. information and share knowledge
and skills. It is being said that “Cyber
Aqua choupal Rural Knowledge Centre Extension” will be the major form of
technology dissemination in the near
Aqua choupal, the unique web based Rural Knowledge Centre is a part of future. The Internet is emerging as a
initiative of ITC Ltd. offers the farmers a nationwide plan and has been set tool with potential to contribute to rural
of the state of Andhra Pradesh all the in motion in July 2004 by the Centre development. Internet access enables
information, products and services they in collaboration with the States, rural communities to receive information
need to enhance productivity, improve NASSCOM, UNDP and a host of NGOs. and assistance from other development
farm gate price realization and cut Its primary aim is to set up multipurpose organizations; offers opportunities for
transaction costs. Farmers can access resource centres at all the six lakh two-way and horizontal communication
the latest local and global information on villages of the country by 2007, for and for opening up communication
weather, scientific farming practices and which an initial sum of Rs. 100 crores channels for rural communities and
market prices at village itself through a has already been allocated by the development organizations. It can
web portal all in Telegu. Aqua choupals Centre. This public - private partnership also support bottom-up articulation of
also facilitate the supply of high quality is expected to help eradicate poverty development needs and perceptions,
farm inputs as well as purchase of and improve the lives of poor people and thus help in reducing the isolation
shrimps at their doorstep. through application of information of rural communities. It can facilitate
and communication technology (ICT). dialogue among communities and with
The M.S. Swaminathan Research Each knowledge centre will be run government planners, development
Foundation developed ‘infovillages’ to by local self help groups, and will agencies, researchers, and technical
help ensure food security. The project cater to knowledge based livelihoods experts; encourage community partici-
includes local language content and and create income avenues for rural pation in decision making; coordinating
wireless internet access. The initia- people, farming communities and local, regional and national development
tive started in 1998 in 10 villages in disadvantaged people. It is an innova- efforts for increased effectiveness; and
Pondicherry. It also provides relevant tive attempt to explore the in depth help agricultural researchers, techni-
information regarding fish density in the interdependence between ICT and cians, farmers and others in sharing
ocean to the fishing communities. human development and demonstrate information. Internet can give access to
empirical links between the two using a vast global information resource. One
e-choupal millenium goals as the benchmark. It will important thing has to be ensured that
lead to rural knowledge revolution and information availability is demand driven
A unique web based initiative of ITCs aid in capacity building. Establishment rather than supply driven.
International Business Division in of rural knowledge centres will go a long
Central India caters to soya growers way in revitalizing traditional knowledge
regarding all information, products and and lessen digital divide.

18 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Sustainable aquaculture

Needed changes 2003). Farmers now need quality

information about technological options
The increasing market orientation of in farming to produce and participate Hundreds of
aquaculture in liberalization of trade, better in markets. They need to know
the emergence of global markets and not only market prices but also trends free aquaculture
competition and increasing concern
about food and the environment place
about market prices to plan cultivation.
publications
the aquaculture sector of developing In order to address successfully the
countries under tremendous pressure. challenges of WTO, greater attention
Diversification and intensification are will have to be paid to information-based
some of the key factors for sustain- technologies. Strengthened means of
able aquaculture development and dissemination will be needed to transmit
therefore the regular information this information to farmers. To make
flow among farming communities, information transfer more effective,
technical and marketing resources greater use will need to be made of
and other supplying institutions is a modern information technology and
must for steady growth in the farm communication among researchers,
economy. Small holder farm families extensionists and farmers. In the
who comprise the majority of farming era of information technology, where
families are facing increased pressure information play a vital and decisive role
to respond to rapidly changing market in strategic decision making, extension
demands and to adopt latest of techno- personnel will have to acquire latest
logical innovations. knowledge as well as skills in use of
various electronic devices including
The agricultural decisions and transac- computers, multimedia and the internet.
tions in the developed world are now The day is not far off when tele/video
manipulated through digital networks. conferencing will be common means to
The Internet and mobile telephones in interact with larger number of farmers
particular, are used by governments to to extend extension messages or
provide services to citizens (e-govern- sharing market information by extension
ment) and provide a platform for citizens personnel. In coming years, the area Download them
to interact with fellow citizens as well as of management and communication
experts. Access to information is clearly skills must be the largest segment for now...
a key determinant for maintaining a competency building among agricultural
successful farming business (Farrell, extension personnel for supporting
2003). farming community.

Public extension systems require References

a paradigm shift from top-down,
blanket dissemination of technological De, H. K. and Saha, G.S. 2005. Aquaculture
packages, towards providing producers Extension in India - few emerging issues. In:
with the knowledge and understanding Development initiatives for farming community
with which they solve their own location (Eds. Baldeo Singh and R. N. Padaria) Indian
- specific problems. Society of Extension Education, New Delhi pp
418-423.
Farrell, C.O. 2003. Theme paper presented for
Conclusion seminar on ICT for improving agricultural
productivity and competitiveness. 8-12 Sept.
Fisheries extension has significantly Indonesia.
contributed towards enhancement Mathur, P.N. 2004. Extension systems in transition:
of fisheries production in India. From some policy issues. Asian J. Ext. Edu. 23(1):
50 kg/ha/year in 1950-51 average 73-88.
fish production has increased to Rasheed, S.V. 2003. Innovations in agricultural
2,200 kg/ha/year in 2002-03. The extension in India. SD Dimensions, FAO June
socio-political environment within 2003.
which extension system operates Tripathi. S.D.; Haylor, G. and Savage, W. 2004.
has also undergone a lot of changes. People and policy change in Indian Fisheries.
The information needs of clients have Paper presented in the 7th Asian Fisheries
multiplied. Extension today has to Forum held at Penang, Malaysia during 29 Nov.
assume multiple roles of providing to 04 Dec.
information about technologies, prices Vijayraghavan, K. 2004. Reforming Agricultural
and market, policies; organising farmers Extension: needed shift and reforms. Asian J.
for exchange of information, facilitating Ext. Edu. 23(1): 89-103.
learning from experiences; provide www.enaca.org
problem solving consultancy in order to
serve the farming community (Sulaiman,

July-September 2008 19
Genetics & biodiversity

Selection potential for feed efficiency in farmed salmonids

Antti Kause1, Cheryl Quinton2, Kari Ruohonen3 and Juha Koskela4

1. Principal Research Scientist, MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Biotechnology and Food Research, Biometrical Genetics,
31600 Jokioinen, Finland, email [email protected]; 2. Research Scientist, MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Biotechnology
and Food Research, Biometrical Genetics, 31600 Jokioinen, Finland; 3. Research Professor, Finnish Game and Fisheries
Research Institute, Turku Game and Fisheries Research, Itäinen Pitkäkatu; 3. 20520 Turku, Finland; 4. Principal Research
Scientist, Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute Jyväskylä, Survontie 9, 40500 Jyväskylä, Finland.

Feed is the major cost in farmed fish Recording feed intake To measure feed intake of individual
production. Improving feed efficiency, a fish using the X-ray method, all fish
ratio of wet weight gain to feed intake, To be able to select directly for feed held in a tank are first fed with feed
would have the effect of reducing feed efficiency, feed intake of individual containing small radio-opaque glass
costs and minimising nutrient effluent fish should be recorded. Until recently, beads. Thereafter, the fish are X-rayed.
to the environment. Selective breeding difficulties in measuring individual feed The number of glass beads consumed
is a potential tool for improving feed intake on a large scale have prevented can be counted from the X-ray films.
efficiency, and improved feed efficiency accurate genetic evaluation of feed Because the glass bead content of the
is one of the major goals in aquaculture utilization traits in farmed fish. To solve feed is known, it is possible to calculate
breeding programmes. Selective the recording challenges, we have the quantity of feed that each fish
breeding programmes exist for many applied the X-ray method to measure consumed on a specific meal1.
major aquaculture species, including feed intake and feed efficiency of
several salmonid species. thousands of individuals in pedigreed
populations of farmed rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss)1,2 and European
whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus)3,4.

Figure 1. Small radio-opaque glass beads added into a feed can be used to record feed intake.

20 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Genetics & biodiversity

Genetic variation in Figure 2. Rainbow trout.

feed efficiency
The studies on rainbow trout2 and
European whitefish3 show that direct
selection for feed efficiency is possible
in farmed fish. Yet, genetic improvement
of feed efficiency is expected to be
about three (rainbow trout) to eight-fold
(European Whitefish) slower compared
to the improvement of growth rate. This
results because feed efficiency seems
to display modest amount of genetic
variation for selection. For instance, in
European whitefish, only 6 percent of
the phenotypic variation in feed effi-
ciency was explained by genetic effects.
Simultaneously, feed intake and weight
gain, the two component traits of feed
efficiency, exhibited moderate genetic
variation (23-26% of variation explained
by genetics).

Our studies have been conducted

during three week to three month long
trial periods at an exponential growth
phase of the fish. During this time, most
feed consumed is directed to growth,
and there is only little variation in
nutrient diversion to other body func-
tions. It is possible that if feed efficiency
could be recorded during longer time
periods (e.g. across the whole fish
life), more genetic variation for feed
efficiency would be revealed. control lipid deposition by selection to References
maintain high product quality. This has
an additional benefit of maintaining high 1. Kause A, Tobin D, Dobly A, Houlihan DF, Martin
Indirect selection for feed efficiency. SAM, Mäntysaari EA, Ritola O & Ruohonen
K 2006. Recording strategies and selection
feed efficiency potential of feed intake measured using the X-
Implications for ray method in rainbow trout. Genetics Selection
Recording of individual feed intake from Evolution 38: 389-410.
thousands of fish is challenging. Thus, selective breeding 2. Kause A, Tobin D, Houlihan DF, Martin SAM,
it is of interest to assess whether more Mäntysaari EA, Ritola O & Ruohonen K.
easily recorded traits that are genetically Feed efficiency is economically a 2006. Feed efficiency of rainbow trout can be
related to feed efficiency could be used fundamental trait, and thus even improved through selection: Different genetic
to indirectly select for feed efficiency. small improvements are economically potential on alternative diets. Journal of Animal
important. As breeding proceeds, Science 84: 807-817.
Our study showed that feed efficiency the small genetic changes in feed 3. Quinton C, Kause A & Koskela J. 2007.
can be indirectly improved by selecting efficiency accumulate from generation Breeding salmonids for feed efficiency in
on growth rate2,3. Rapid growth is to generation. This leads to moderate current fishmeal and future plant-based diet
genetically related to improved feed feed efficiency changes in a longer environments. Genetics Selection Evolution 39:
efficiency. This is good news because term. For instance, during the last 431-446.
all fish breeding programmes select for four generations of selection in the 4. Quinton C, Kause A, Ruohonen K & Koskela J.
rapid growth anyway. Finnish national rainbow trout breeding 2007. Genetic relationships of body composition
programme, growth rate has increased and feed utilization traits in European whitefish
Moreover, selection against body lipid by ~28%5. Feed efficiency is expected (Coregonus lavaretus L.) and implications for
percentage can be used to indirectly to have increased simultaneously by selective breeding in fishmeal- and soybean
select for lower feed intake, and thus 8% as a correlated genetic response. meal-based diet environments. Journal of
to improve feed efficiency4. This is When majority of fish farmers use the Animal Science 85: 3198-3208.
logical because extensive feed intake is improved fish material, the practical 5. Kause A, Ritola O, Paananen T, Wahlroos H &
related to excess lipid deposition, and impact of the selection work is exten- Mäntysaari EA. 2005. Genetic trends in growth,
lipid deposition is energetically more sive. Accordingly, all efforts to increase sexual maturity and skeletal deformations, and
expensive than deposition of muscle4. feed efficiency will be of fundamental rate of inbreeding in a breeding programme for
Fish breeding programmes often importance. rainbow trout. Aquaculture 247: 177-187.

July-September 2008 21
Genetics & biodiversity

Freshwater prawn
hatcheries in
Bangladesh:
Concern of
broodstock
Nesar Ahmed

Department of Fisheries Management,

Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh; E-mail:
[email protected]

In Bangladesh, freshwater prawn

(Macrobrachium rosenbergii) farming
is currently one of the most important
sectors of the national economy,
and during the last two decades its Dead broodstock are sold in prawn market.
development has attracted considerable
attention for export potential. Within biodiversity impacts on the coastal Methodology
the overall agro-based economy of the ecosystem has provoked imposition of
Bangladesh, the contribution of prawn restrictions on wild PL collection (Ahmed The study was undertaken in Khulna,
(locally known as golda) production is 2003). In September 2000, Department Bagerhat and Satkhira districts in
important to its people for livelihoods, of Fisheries imposed a ban on wild PL southwest Bangladesh, situated in the
income and food supply. In 2006, collection. The rationale for the ban was coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal.
Bangladesh exported 49,317 tons of to protect biodiversity from the harmful Geographically these districts have
prawn and shrimp valued at US$415 effects of intensive PL fishing in the been identified as the most important
million, of which around 25% was coastal zone (DOF, 2002). However, and promising areas for freshwater
contributed by prawn (DOF, 2007). the lack of alternative livelihoods for prawn farming, because of the avail-
This figure is expected to rise with the poor people engaged in PL fishing ability of prawn hatcheries and sources
increasing expansion of freshwater is one of the principal constraints on of wild PL. These districts were there-
prawn cultivation into new areas of implementing such a ban. fore selected for the study. In addition,
Noakhali, Patuakhali, Pabna and data were collected from hatcheries in
Mymensingh districts. Prawn farming Due to the scarcity of wild PL supply, other parts of Bangladesh.
is mostly concentrated in southwest a prawn hatchery sector has emerged
Bangladesh, mainly Khulna, Bagerhat over the last few years. However, Primary data were gathered by field
and Satkhira districts. the quality of hatchery PL remains survey. This survey involved the
a concern for prawn farmers. It is inspection of the study areas in terms
The expansion of M. rosenbergii farming assumed that source of broodstock (i.e. of hatchery operation with broodstock,
depends on availability of prawn fry, mother prawns or berried females) is an sources of broodsstock to hatcheries,
the supply of which is currently the important issue for producing quality fry broodstock collection methods, their
main bottleneck for further expansion in hatcheries. Hatcheries are currently marketing and transportation systems.
of prawn culture. The prawn culture unregulated with no quality assurance Data were collected for six months
sector in Bangladesh still relies on wild of broodstock. One of the problems in from March to August 2007. A total of
postlarvae (PL). Farmers prefer to stock regulating and managing the supply of 24 hatchery operators, 20 broodstock
wild PL rather than hatchery produced brood to prawn hatcheries is the lack of suppliers and 32 wild broodstock
fry as production of the hatchery PL is information. At the same time, there is collectors participated in questionnaire
limited and farmers consider them to be no information on the projected demand interviews. Hatcheries were selected
of lower quality. In addition, the survival of broodstock by hatcheries. The aim through simple random sampling. For
of wild PL is much higher than that of of this study was therefore to identify this sampling method, a database of
hatchery produced PL (Ahmed, 2001). potential sources of broodstock and prawn hatcheries was collected from
However, there is a growing acceptance appropriate harvesting, marketing and Winrock International. The site for wild
of hatchery fry by producers. transportation systems. Addressing broodstock collection was selected
these issues should lead to higher in the coastal area of Mongla under
Since the late 1980s, there has been production of quality PL that will help Bagerhat district. A boat was hired for
concern over the effects of intensive to expand freshwater prawn farming data collection and observation of wild
fishing of prawn PL (Ahmed, 2000). into new areas of Bangladesh through brood fishing on the Pasur River. Brood-
Indiscriminate fishing of wild PL with developing and sustaining prawn stock fishers were interviewed on the
high levels of by-catch (i.e. non-target hatcheries. river and/or river bank. Visits were also
species caught incidentally) and made to Fakirhat and Mollahat areas of

22 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Genetics & biodiversity

Bagerhat district where broodstock were researchers, policymakers, prawn

harvested from prawn farms, locally farmers, NGO workers (i.e., BRAC,
known as ghers. Broodstock transporta- PROSHIKA, etc), and staff of Winrock
tion and marketing systems were also International and WorldFish Centre.
observed. Data from questionnaire Where information was found to be
interviews were coded and entered contradictory, further assessment was
into a database system using Microsoft carried out. A total of 22 key informants
Excel software for producing descriptive were interviewed.
statistics.

Cross-check interviews were conducted Hatchery development

with key informants such as District
and Sub-district Fisheries Officers, Although the freshwater prawn culture
industry in Bangladesh still depends
on wild fry, expanding production and
the trend towards intensification require
the development of prawn hatcheries.
In recent years, increasing shortages
of wild fry and their high prices,
together with the ban on catching wild A fisher with char net that is commonly
PL have stimulated the expansion of used for broodstock fishing.
the hatchery industry. Prawn hatchery
technology in the private sector has (i.e. 2.63 million/hatchery x 42 hatch-
been developed rapidly. The growing eries). Hatchery output is insufficient to
acceptance of hatchery fry along meet demands in terms of both quality
Broodstock ready to use in the hatchery. with government incentives to boost and quantity. Currently hatcheries
hatchery production has resulted in a can only meet 22% of the total annual
sharp increase in the number of prawn demand in Bangladesh of around 500
hatcheries in Bangladesh. There are 81 million PL (Dr Abul Hossain, Winrock
freshwater prawn hatcheries in Bangla- International, personal communication).
desh of which 42 (52%) are operational
(Winrock International, 2007). A lack of
technical knowledge and inadequate Hatchery operation
skilled manpower are important reasons
for the poor results of many hatcheries. Berried females are an essential
component for continuous operation in
In Bangladesh, an M. rosenbergii hatcheries. Female prawns generally
hatchery first started in Cox’s Bazaar become reproductively mature within
Harvested wild broodstock. in 1986 (Angell, 1994; Winrock Inter- six months of age. Mating can occur
national, 2007), after which it spread only between hard shelled males and
throughout other parts of Bangladesh. soft-shelled females, i.e., females that
According to the survey, 5% of prawn have just completed a pre-mating or
hatcheries started in or before 1990, prenuptial molt (D’Abramo et al., 1995).
8% between 1991 and 1995, 13% Fecundity can be as high as 80,000 to
between 1996 and 2000, and 74% 100,000 eggs in mature females while
after 2000. Almost all hatchery owners first broodstock may be around 5,000
stated that the primary reason for to 20,000 (Brown, 1991). The eggs
starting this business was profitability. are carried on the female abdomen
However, 12% of owners were attracted attached to the pleopods before
to hatchery operation because of own hatching. In the nature, female M.
interest. In spite of various constraints, rosenbergii migrate downstream from
Plastic container is commonly used for most of the hatchery owners (95%) their normal habitat in freshwater to
broodstock transportation. would like to continue PL production brackishwater areas.
in the future, because of high profit.
Those are undecided about continuing According to the hatchery operators,
to hatchery operation are concerned female prawns first mature after
about inadequate knowledge, lack of reaching a size of 20 to 30 g. Eggs
experience, high mortality of PL and obtained from these females are of
limited supply of broodstock. good quality and their larvae show
high percent survival after hatching.
According to the survey, the average However, females of farmed origin often
annual production capacity of a mature while 30 to 40 g. Use of such
hatchery was estimated at 2.63 million precociously mature females results
PL in 2007. From this figure it seems in eggs and larvae of poor quality.
Harvested broodstock stored in a that total annual production of PL is Offspring of these females may mature
bamboo basket. around 110.46 million in Bangladesh even more precociously.

July-September 2008 23
Genetics & biodiversity

Although M. rosenbergii breeds and demand. The average price of wild

throughout the year under optimum PL is much higher than that of hatchery
climatic conditions (28 to 32ºC), PL, because of quality. The average
the peak breeding activity occurs in price of wild PL varies from Tk 1,800 to
Bangladesh during pre-monsoon and 2,400 per 1,000 PL.
monsoon seasons, i.e., from March to
August, a production period of around
4 to 5 months, depends on number Sources of broodstock
of production cycles, availability of
broodstock and favourable environ- Prawn hatcheries require an uninter-
ment. According to the survey, most rupted supply of berried females Transporting broodstock by van over
of the hatcheries (67%) operate two during the season. For the consistent short distance.
production cycles in a year, while 21% operation of hatcheries broodstock
and 12% of hatcheries operate one and are collected at regular intervals. The
three cycles, respectively. Each produc- principal sources of broodstock to
tion cycle normally ranges from 35 to prawn hatcheries are wild and prawn
45 days, an average 40 days. After farm. According to the survey, 33%
completion of one cycle, a few days (7 of hatcheries use natural broodstock,
to 10 days) are required for preparing to 13% use farm-reared broodstock and
operate the next cycle. In general, the the remainder (54%) both sources. In
first cycle produces more PL rather than those hatcheries using both sources,
other cycles due to high demand and it is believed that broodstock are
the peak stocking season. However, commonly being sourced from prawn
most hatcheries do not operate at farms rather than wild. Among the farm
full capacity due to low survival of broodstock, almost all are grown from Fishers are drying nets after fishing.
PL, technical constraints, outbreak of wild PL. A few hatcheries have their own
disease, and difficulty in securing good prawn farms for continuous supply of
quality broodstock. broodstock. The quantity of broodstock
used in hatcheries rather obscure
Broodstock are commonly selected because hatchery operators often do
on the basis of readiness to spawn. not distinguish between wild and farm
In general, healthy broodstock are broodstock. However, it was estimated
selected for hatchery operation. The that only 15% of broodstock were from
average size of broodstock is 75 g and wild and the rest (85%) were from
ranges from 40 to 200 g. Broodstock prawn farms.
are disinfected with 10% formalin for 30
minutes before use in hatcheries. About Most hatcheries prefer to stock wild
two to three broodstock are stocked broodstock rather than farm-reared A fisher and his prawn fishing site near
in a brackishwater tank with 12 PPT broodstock because of quality. However, the Sunderbans.
salinity and reared until hatching, which the supply of wild broodstock is not
is completed within two to three days if regular and therefore hatcheries uses an average 520 broodstock in
advanced berried females are stocked also use farm broodstock. Hatchery a season, ranging from 310 to 2470.
with grey eggs on their pleopods. operators noted that the demand for From this figure, it seems that a total
Once hatching occurs it may continue wild broodstock has increased due to of 42,120 broodstock are required for
for 24 to 48 hours. The spent females expansion of hatchery operations and operation of all 81 hatcheries in Bang-
are removed and released back to the increased number of hatcheries. Inad- ladesh, and is projected to increase
broodstock tank. Brine shrimp nauplii equate supply of wild broodstock can to 80,000 broodstock for successful
are fed to the prawn larvae. The appear- therefore be a significant constraint for operation in the future.
ance of first PL is usually observed 20 producing quality fry. A few hatcheries
days after hatching, normally between were reported to prefer farm broodstock
22 and 26 days, and 90% of larvae due to low price and availability in Broodstock collection
metamorphose within next 10 days. The markets. However, according to the
PL are gradually acclimatised to the hatchery operators, the quality of PL, Various methods are used to collect
freshwater and reared at high densities its production rate and survival rate is broodstock from different sources
(2,000 to 5,000/m2) for 10 to 15 days in higher when wild broodstock are used (Table 1). In nature, berried females
the hatchery. rather than farm broodstock. are caught as a bycatch of prawn. A
large number of fishers are known to be
With a few exceptions, the hatchery The wild broodstock mainly come from engaged in fishing of prawns including
operators never directly communicate Mongla, Joymoni and Sharankhola of broodstock. Fishers are involved in
with prawn farmers, market communica- Bagerhat district, while farm broodstock broodstock capture on the Pasur River
tion normally being made through inter- mostly come from Fakirhat and Mollahat from Mongla through to Joymoni on the
mediaries: transporters, fry traders and areas in same district. Suppliers carry coast. The peak season of broodstock
suppliers. The average price of hatchery these broodstock to the hatcheries fishing is from March to July during the
PL varies from Tk 1,000 to 1,200 (1 US$ in Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira daily high tides and monthly full moons
= Tk 67) per 1,000 PL depending on districts, and other parts of Bangladesh. when numbers of broodstock are high.
their availability, quality, season, supply According to the survey, a hatchery According to the survey, fishing for

24 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Genetics & biodiversity

broodstock first started in 2002 in this Table 1. Fishing of Macrobrachium broodstock by using different methods
area. Since then it spread throughout and their percent of catch.
other parts of coastal areas. Over this
Source Harvesting technique % of catch
time, broodstock fishing has become a
profitable business for its participants Wild broodstock 1. Char net 11
and has generated new employment. 2. Set bag net 1
Broodstock collectors are mostly from 3. Pull net 1
the rural poor and this activity is a
substantial part of their income. It is 4. Hook and line 2
considered that broodstock collectors Farm broodstock 1. Seine net 68
contribute substantially to the economy 2. Cast net 17
and to a part of the foreign exchange
earnings (i.e. most prawns are exported Source: Survey data (2007).
to the international market), although
the collectors themselves benefit little. Table 2. Average farm-gate prices of broodstock from different sources.
No. of Average weight of a Wild broodstock Farm broodstock
According to the survey, a fisher caught Grade
broods/kg broodstock (g) (Tk/piece) (Tk/piece)
an average of 32 broodstock (ranging
from 19 to 44 pieces) during the season 5 5 or less 200 300 150
in 2007, while in some years previously 10 6-10 125 230 90
the rate was 50 to 60. Broodstock
20 11-20 70 180 75
collectors reported that the availability
of broodstock has reduced due to 30 21-30 40 120 50
over fishing, use of destructive gears, Source: Survey data (2007).
environmental degradation and massive
PL collection. A large range of bycatch
species are caught and discarded due Marketing of developed with suppliers and fishers.
to the fine mesh nets (i.e. set bag net Around five to six fishers are connected
and pull net) used for PL fishing which broodstock with a supplier and one supplier is
may have severe long term impacts linked to two to four hatcheries. A fisher
on wild prawn production including In Bangladesh, the market for carries typically two to five broodstock
broodstock. As a result, uncontrolled broodstock is associated with strong per day from remote fishing areas to the
fishing of PL may pose a threat to the demand, driven by continued increases supplier in a depot. In general, suppliers
natural population. of hatcheries. However, in terms of rear broodstock for few days in net
volume, value and employment, the cages with pelleted feed. Consign-
broodstock market is very small. The ments are sent to the hatcheries once
broodstock marketing system is less sufficient quantities have been obtained,
competitive but plays a vital role in an average 300 broodstock per week
connecting the broodstock and hatch- per supplier.
eries, thus contributing significantly
freshwater prawn farming as well Marketing of farm broodstock is
as earning foreign currency. A small almost entirely managed, financed
number of people, many of whom live and controlled by a group of powerful
below the poverty line, find employment intermediaries. Market communication
in the broodstock marketing chain as is normally being made through local
Harvesting of prawn including fishers, suppliers, agents, transporters agents and suppliers. Broodstock
broodstock in a farm. and day labourers, including women marketing is seasonal and suppliers are
and children. involved in prawn and fry trading during
the rest of the year. In general, farmers
In wild broodstock marketing, fishers sell their broodstock to the suppliers
are the primary producers. With a through local agents. A local agent
few exceptions, fishers never directly carries typically 25 to 30 broodstock per
communicate with hatchery owners, week from remote villages to the depots
market communication normally being of suppliers. Sometimes local agents
made through suppliers. A small take small amounts of credit from depot
number of people (around 10 to 15) owners to ensure the supply of brood-
are engaged in broodstock marketing stock from farmers. Local agents also
as suppliers. Their role is to buy often take temporary credit from the
broodstock from the fishers in coastal farmers, buying broodstock one day and
areas and carry them to the hatcheries. paying one or two days later. Suppliers
Communication between the suppliers also receive cash loan from hatcheries
and hatchery owners is generally good in return for a promise to sell all their
and takes place by mobile phones. broodstock. Hatcheries are linked to
The demand for wild broodstock is suppliers when they act as fry traders.
high within coastal markets but supply A few hatcheries often take temporary
Broodstock kept in net cages. is limited, and a strong network has credit from suppliers, buying broodstock

July-September 2008 25
Genetics & biodiversity

one season and paying in exchange implemented to maintain the quality.

of fry during the fry trading season. Training of broodstock bank operators
The hatcheries capital installations and in areas of stocking, feeding, rearing
much of their working capital is provided and harvesting should be provided. It is
by the banks. Hatcheries typically enjoy also necessary to improve handling and
a very close working relationship with transportation practices to reduce the
their banks, for which this sector is big mortality of broodstock.
business.
Acknowledgments
The price of broodstock depends on
size and weight, quality, season, and This study was partially funded by the
supply and demand. In coastal markets, Fishers with hook and line fishing for Winrock International, Bangladesh. The
price is generally higher in early season prawns including broodstock. author is grateful to Dr Abul Hossain of
during March to April and drops in the Winrock International for his excellent
following months. The average price field support. The opinions expressed
of wild broodstock from fishers to the herein of the author and do not neces-
suppliers varies from Tk 120 to 300 per sarily reflect the views of Winrock
piece (Table 2). Comparatively the price International. The author would like to
of wild broodstock is higher than farm express his gratitude to all people met
broodstock. The average price of farm during field visits those have given a lot
broodstock varies from Tk 50 to 150 of valuable information without which
per piece, depending on grade. Due the study could not have been realised.
to higher price of wild brood, suppliers
sometimes camouflage farm broodstock A typical prawn hatchery. References
as wild in order to get a higher price.
Suppliers sell wild broodstock to poor handling. Because broodstock are Ahmed, N. 2000. Bangladeshis need prawn
hatcheries at Tk 350 to 800 per piece, caught using different nets and hooks, hatcheries: farmers seek solution to wild
while farm broodstock at Tk 150 to 500 mortalities are common. fry dependency. Fish Farming International
per piece. 27(10):26-27.
Ahmed, N. 2001. Socio-economic Aspects of
Conclusions Freshwater Prawn Culture Development in
Transportation of Bangladesh. PhD Thesis, Institute of Aquacul-
Despite strong demand of broodstock ture, University of Stirling, Scotland, UK.
broodstock by the hatcheries there is no broodstock Ahmed, N. 2003. Environmental impacts of
bank in Bangladesh. Due to the scarcity freshwater prawn farming in Bangladesh.
A considerable number of people are of wild broodstock supply to the hatch- Shellfish News 15:25-28.
involved in the transport of broodstock. eries, it is urgently needed to establish Angell, C.L. 1994. Promotion of Small-scale Shrimp
Transport of live broodstock to a broodstock bank in prawn farming and Prawn Hatcheries in India and Bangladesh.
hatcheries takes place in the very early areas. To meet a part of immediate Bay of Bengal Program (BOBP), Madras, India.
morning hours, to take advantage demand for quality broodstock, both the Brown, J.H. 1991. Freshwater prawns. In:
of cooler temperatures. Pickups, public and private sector should come Production of Aquatic Animals: Crustaceans,
microbuses, taxis, motorcycles, trawlers forward to establish their own brood- Molluscs, Amphibians and Reptiles, World
and vans are used for transportation. stock banks. Hatcheries could be linked Animal Science (edited by C.E. Nash), Elsevier
In general, taxis, motorcycles, vans to the public and private broodstock Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Netherlands,
are used for small quantities (5 to 20 bank to ensure the availability of quality C4: pp. 31-41.
broods), and others are used for large broodstock. It would also necessary to D’Abramo, L.R., Daniela, W.H., Fondeen, M.W. &
quantities (50 to 200). Plastic and encourage private entrepreneurs to start Brunson, M.W. 1995. Management practices
aluminium containers with 12 PPT commercially producing good quality for culture of freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium
brackishwater are commonly used for broodstock. Rearing broodstock of good rosenbergii) in temperate climates. Division of
holding broodstock during transport. quality requires special techniques Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine,
Most broodstock are transported with and fresh spawns from the nature. Mississippi State University, Mississippi, USA.
oxygen at a low temperature to reduce Improving the quality of broodstock DOF. 2002. Balancing Resource Conservation with
their metabolism. Brackishwater is used will result in better quality spawns, Livelihood Protection for Shrimp Fry Collectors:
normally at a ratio of two liters per one reduce mortality rate and increase an Integrated Approach to Managing Coastal
broodstock for eight hours transporta- productivity. However, concerns Resources. Department of Fisheries (DOF),
tion. According to the suppliers, the may arise about the sustainability of Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Dhaka,
broodstock mortality rate is very low, broodstock banks in terms of technical, Bangladesh.
less than 10%. Mortalities reported biological, environmental and economic DOF. 2007. Fishery Statistical Yearbook of
by the suppliers are due to the poor aspects. It is therefore necessary to Bangladesh 2005-2006. Fisheries Resources
transport conditions, water temperature, provide institutional and organisational Survey System, Department of Fisheries (DOF),
long duration of transport and poor support and government support for Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Dhaka,
handling. According to the respondents, sustainable development of broodstock Bangladesh.
5% of the broodstock are wastage from banks. In addition, broodstock rearing Winrock International. 2007. List of Freshwater
the time they are caught to the time techniques to be developed to maintain Prawn Hatcheries in Bangladesh. Unpublished
they are stocked in hatcheries due to genetic quality. Moreover, a certification Report, Winrock International, Dhaka.
system should be developed and

26 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Research & farming techniques

Production of Cirrhinus molitorella and Labeo

chrysophekadion for culture based fisheries development
in Lao PDR 2: Nursery culture and grow-out
Oulaytham Lasasimma1 and Brett A. Ingram2

1. Living Aquatic Resources Research Center, National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute, PO Box 9108, Vientiane,
Lao PDR; 2. Marine and Freshwater Fisheries Research Institute (MAFFRI), Private Bag 20, Alexandra, Victoria, 3714,
Australia.

Introduction pond preparation requires the following 1,500-3,000 kg/ha once every 4-5 days
steps to be observed (Meenakarn and to maintain and enhance plankton (FAO
This article is the second of a two part Funge-Smith 1998): 2007). Occasionally other food sources
series that aims to review current, (both direct and indirect to supplement
readily available, information on these • Empty the water out of the pond and or replace organic fertilizers) are added
two indigenous species, Cirrhinus dry the pond. to the ponds, including soybean milk,
molitorella (mud carp, “Pa Keng”) and soybean cake or other by-products
Labeo (syn Morulius) chrysophekadion • Add lime to the pond at a rate of from grain processing, water lettuce
(black sharkminnow, “Pa Phia”), which 1 kg for every 25 m2 of pond area. and water hyacinth (FAO 2007). After
are being used to improve and refine Lime assists soil fertility and reduces 4-5 weeks fish are about 30 mm (called
artificial propagation and culture the amount of fertilizer required summer fingerlings in China).
techniques to support Culture Based to produce an algal bloom in the
Fisheries (CBF) development in Lao nursery pond. Growth rates are generally high in
PDR. In particular, the review focuses nursery ponds, but survival rates can
on information within Lao PDR, as • Add organic fertilizer (manure) to vary greatly. Survival rates of C. molito-
well information from the Mekong Fish the pond at the rate of 1.5 kilos per rella fry during this period are typically
Database (MRC 2003). The first part 10 m2. Fertilizers that can be used 70-80%, but can exceed 90% under
of this review was published in the include buffalo, cow, chicken and pig good management (FishBase 2007). In
previous issue of Aquaculture Asia. manures. After the manure is applied contrast, survival rates of C. molitorella
the pond can be filled to a depth of fry reared in Lao PDR are considerably
5 - 10 cm to allow the breakdown lower than this; 30-45% (Gorda 2001,
Nursery culture of the manure. After 3 - 5 days, the Somboon et al. 2003). One of the
pond should be filled to a depth of principle problems affecting survival of
Larviculture 30 - 50 cm and is then ready for fry stocked into nursery ponds in Lao
stocking. PDR is predation by carnivorous dragon
Gorda (2001) described the larviculture fly nymphs, tadpoles and fish that enter
of C. molitorella. Initially larvae are • Fry are stocked into the nursery the ponds (Meenakarn and Funge-
held in incubation tanks in the hatchery pond at a rate of 125 - 500 indi- Smith 1998).
for 4-5 days and fed boiled chicken viduals/m2.
egg yolk, finely smashed, twice each Stocking density will affect growth and
day, before being placed into fertilised • After stocking the fry into the pond survival in nursery ponds. Somboon et
earthen ponds for rearing. Nuanthavong (usually done in the early evening) al. (2003) reared C. molitorella larvae
and Vilayphone (2005) reared C. the water level is maintained for one (0.004 g, 5.0 mm) in fertilised earthen
molitorella larvae at 19 larvae/L in a week and then increased to 80 cm. ponds at different stocking densities
3,000 L tank for 5-7 days. The water from 100 fish/m2 to 1,000 fish/m2, and
was aerated and 1/3 of the volume C. molitorella after one month final mean lengths and
replaced daily. On the third day after weights varied from 14-36.6 mm and
hatching, larvae commenced feeding on Earthen ponds (usually 0.1-0.2 ha and 0.01-0.37 g, respectively. Not surprising
boiled egg yolk and green plankton (fed 1.5-2.0 m deep) are used for the nursing growth rates were greatest (14.9%/day)
once-twice/day). of C. molitorella. Dry ponds are quick- at the lowest stocking density. Somboon
limed at 900-1,125 kg/ha, and fertilised et al. (2003) concluded that a stocking
Fry rearing (animal manures 3,000 kg/ha and/or density of 500 fish/m2 was optimal
plant wastes 4,500 kg/ha) to increase in terms of growth and yield (fish
Fry are transferred to nursery facilities the natural biomass of algae and produced). Harvested fish were sold at
shortly after feeding commences. There zooplankton, 5-10 days before stocking, an average price of 100 Kip/fish (9,000
are many forms of nursery facilities, according to water temperature (FAO Lao Kip ≡ US$1).
including earthen ponds, concrete 2007). Fry are stocked at a rate of
tanks, fiberglass tanks and ‘Orlon’ 450-600 fish/m2, depending on targeted Gorda (2001) described the rearing of
cages, that have been used success- fish size at harvest. The nursery phase C. molitorella larvae in fertilised earthen
fully to rear fish fry in Lao PDR (Meen- usually takes 4-5 weeks in China. ponds, which had been dried, limed
akarn and Funge-Smith 1998). Good Organic fertilizer is applied at a rate of (200-300 kg/ha), applied with cut grass

July-September 2008 27
Research & farming techniques

Table 1. Polyculture of C. molitorella as a primary species with other fish species (Source: FAO 2007).
Type of polyculture Size of fish (g) Stocking rate (fish/ha) Fish production after one year (kg/ha)
C. molitorella 1
25-50 15,000-25,000 2,000-3,000
Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp)1 250 1,200-1,800 1,800
Aristichthys nobilis (bighead carp) 1
500 450-2,250 2,700
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp)2 250 375-750 700
Tilapia 2
15-20 3,000-6,000 560
Cyprinus carpio (common carp) 2
100 375 270
1 = Primary species and 2 = Secondary species.

Table 2. Published information on the grow-out of L. chrysophekadion.

Duration
Stocking and culture details Size and yield at harvest Source
(mths)

166 kg/rai
1 fish/m2 9
(1,038 kg/ha)

290 kg/rai
2 fish/m2 9 Thavonnan and Udomkananat 1979
(1,813 kg/ha)

249 kg/rai
4 fish/m2 9
(1,556 kg/ha)

60.7 g,
3 fish/m2 in 1,200m2 earthen pond (initial size 1.8 g). 192 kg/pond
12 192 kg/pond Thienchareon et al. 1990
(1,600 kg/ha)
(1,600 kg/ha)

71.6 kg/1,600m2
0.5 fish/m2 in polyculture with Cyprinus carpio at 1:10 (L. c : carp). Pennapaporn 1970
(447.5 kg/ha)

0.6 fish/m2 in polyculture with Pangasius sutchi at 1:1 ratio. 94.63 g (21.9 cm),
11
Fed 5% body weight/day 590 kg yield
U-domkananat 1983
1.2 fish/m2 in polyculture with Pangasius sutchi at 1:1 ratio. 94.63 g (21.9 cm),
11
Fed 5% body weight/day 714 kg yield

0.17 fish/m2 earthen pond (initial size 1.8 g). Fed 20-30% protein diet 12 428.7 g (32.9 cm) Unsrisong et al. 1990

(780-1,200 kg/ha), chicken manure (9.4 m3, 3.5 x 3 x 1 m) (stockings • 5-6 day old fry, fed with Artemia or
(5,000 kg/ha), buffalo manure (10,000 density 0.7 fry/L) and reared for a Moina and a mixture of fish meal
kg/ha) and urea (100-150 kg/ha), and further three weeks. During the culture and rice bran.
then filled. Manure was continually period fish were fed plankton, rice bran
added throughout the culture period. and floating pellets. The survival rate 6 • 10-30 days old fry, fed with meal and
Larvae were stocked at a rate of 400 weeks after hatching was 20%. rice bran.
fish/m2, 5-6 days after filling. By the
1st week fish were 11 mm in length L. chrysophekadion After one month, fry were to 3-4 cm in
and 4th week were 30.2 mm in length, length (Thienchareon et al. 1990).
which represented a growth rate of 0.91 The larvae of L. chrysophekadion have
mm/day. According to Gorda (2001), in been reared in fertilised earthen ponds
2000 the Nah Luang Hatchery Station by Thienchareon et al. (1990). The Grow-out
sold 15,000 larvae and 62,060 fry ponds were dried for 5-7 days, limed
(1 month old) at 5 Kip/fish and 100 at a rate of 100 kg/rai (625 kg/ha; 1 C. molitorella
Kip/fish, respectively rai = 1,600 m2), fertilised with chicken
or cattle manure at a rate of 400-600 The most commonly adopted method
Nuanthavong and Vilayphone (2005) kg/rai2 (2,500-3750 kg/ha), then filled to for on-growing C. molitorella is in large
described the nursing of C. molitorella a depth of 80 cm. After 3-5 days, when earthen ponds in polyculture with
fry at a small private farm in the Luang the water has turned green due to the other fish species, as both the primary
Prabang Province, undertaken in hapas increase in phytoplankton, 3 day old fry and secondary species, at various
situated in a 800 m2 pond. Initially, fry were stocked at a rate of 200 fish/m2. densities depending on the species mix
(5-7 days old) were stocked into hapas The fish were fed as follows: (FAO 2007). As the primary species,
made from plankton net (1,800 L; 1.5 C. molitorella is stocked at 15,000-
x 2.0 x 0.8 m) at a rate of 2.8 larvae/L. • 3-4 day old fry, fed with chicken egg 25,000/ha (25-50 g fish) along with a
After two weeks fry were transferred to yolk. range of other species including grass
larger hapas made from 3 mm mesh carp and bighead carp also as primary

28 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Research & farming techniques

Pond-reared L. chrysophekadion.

The fry of L. chrysophekadion.

July-September 2008 29
Research & farming techniques

Pond reared C. molitorella.

30 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Research & farming techniques

species, and silver carp, common Research and Fisheries Development in Lao PDR
carp, black carp, tilapia and bream (Project No. FIS/2005/078). The authors
as secondary species (FAO 2007) development needs wish to thank the project leader, Prof.
(Table 1). In monoculture, fingerling Sena S De Silva (Network of Aquac-
C. molitorella (30-60 mm in size) are Based on this review (Parts 1 and 2), ulture centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA),
on-grown in earthen ponds at a stocking a number of key areas of research and Bangkok, Thailand), as well as Dr. Thuy
density of 3.5-4.5 million/ha. During the development have been identified to Nguyen (NACA, Bangkok, Thailand),
fingerling growing phase, which takes improve production of C. molitorella and Mr Lieng Khamsyvilay (Director, Living
4-8 months in China, fish are mainly fed L. chrysophekadion, which in turn will Aquatic Resources Research Center
commercially manufactured feeds and facilitate and augment culture based (LARReC), Vientiane, Lao PDR), Mr
ponds are fertilised to encourage the fisheries development in Lao PDR. Roger Khamphet (Deputy Director,
proliferation of plankton (FAO 2007). These needs are: LARReC, Vientiane, Lao PDR) and
Mr Bouthong Saphakdy (Department
C. molitorella grows slowly and will (a) Captive breeding: of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of
not reach a large size, but can be Agriculture and Forestry, Lao PDR) for
reared at a high density and has a • Develop and refine captive spawning support and advice during the prepara-
high production rate (FAO 2007). After techniques for C. molitorella and L. tion of this review.
one year in polyculture as the primary chrysophekadion to support culture
species, C. molitorella typically reach based fisheries development. References
125-200 g, with a production level of
2,000-3,000 kg/ha, accounting for about • Establish baseline information on Chabjinda, K., Tienchareon, P. & Jittakorn, A.
24% of total production, which ranges the reproductive performance of C. (1992a). Black shark, Morulius chrysopheka-
from 7,500 to 10,000 kg/ha (FAO 2007). molitorella and L. chrysophekadion dion (Bleeker) in three different reservoirs.
As a secondary species C. molitorella under various husbandry conditions. Technical Paper No. 11/1992. Inland Fisheries
is stocked at 7,500-9,000/ha (25-50 g Division, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of
fish), and after one year production can Monitor influence of broodstock holding Agriculture and Cooperatives. 15 pp.
achieve 1,000-1,500 kg/ha, which may conditions (ponds and tanks, monocul- Chabjinda, K., Tienchareon, P. & Jittakorn, A.
account for 10-15% of total production ture and polyculture, stocking density, (1992b). Monitoring of stocking of black shark,
(FAO 2007). feeding regime, nutritional profile of diet, Morulius chrysophekadion (Bleeker) in Mae
etc.) and performance of individually Ngad Somboonchon Reservoir, Chiang Mai
In Lao PDR grow-out of C. molitorella tagged broodstock (e.g. temporal Province. Technical Paper No. 10/1992. Inland
is concentrated in the Luang Prabang changes in weight, length and condition, Fisheries Division, Department of Fisheries,
Province (Ounidate et al. 1993, fecundity, spawning frequency, gamete Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 14 pp.
Souksavath 2001, Nuanthavong and quality, etc.). FAO (2007). Cirrhinus molitorella (Valenciennes,
Vilayphone 2005). 1844) Cultured Aquatic Species Information
(b) Incubation and larviculture Programme http://www.fao.org/fi/website/FIRe-
L. chrysophekadion stage trieveAction.do?dom=culturespecies&xml=Cirrhi
nus_molitorella.xml (Acessed November 2007).
Several studies have examined the • Improve the growth and survival of FishBase (2007). title. http://www.fishbase.
monoculture and polyculture of L. hatchery produced C. molitorella org/search.php (Acessed 10 November 2007).
chrysophekadion in ponds and although and L. chrysophekadion eggs and Gorda, S. (2001). Fish Propagation and Nursing
information is limited, yields of 447.5- larvae, determine the best food Techniques. LARReC Research Report No
1,813 kg/ha are reported (Table 2). One types and feeding regimes, deter- 0012, Vientiane. 56 pp.
study indicated that fish grew from 1.8 mine the optimal stocking densities Leelapatra, W.P., Srisakultiew, P. & Sukumasavin,
g to 60.7 g in 12 months (0.96%/day, for this period of development, and N. (2000). Biology and Breeding of Indigenous
0.16g/day) (Thienchareon et al. 1990), undertake research on weaning Mekong Fish Species in Thailand. Management
while in another, fish grew from 1.8 g to larvae to suitable dry feeds. of Reservoir Fisheries in the Mekong Basin II,
428 g (32.9 cm) in 12 months (1.5%/ Vientiane.
day, 1.17g/day) (Unsrisong et al. 1990). (c) Fry rearing (nursery) stage Meenakarn, S. & Funge-Smith, S. (1998). Small-
The species may also be suitable for Scale Fish Hatcheries for Lao PDR. Provincial
culture in net cages and pens (Warren • Improve the growth and survival of Aquaculture development Project, Support for
2000). hatchery produced C. molitorella technical Services FAO, Bangkok. 35 pp.
and L. chrysophekadion fry, MRC (2003). Mekong Fish Database version 2003.
L. chrysophekadion grows well when determine the best fry culture CD-ROM. Mekong River Commission, Phnom
stocked into reservoirs (Chabjinda et al. method (pond, hapas, tanks, etc.), Penh, Cambodia.
1992a, Leelapatra et al. 2000). In Mae determine the best food types and Nuanthavong, T. & Vilayphone, L. (2005).
Ngad Somboonchon Reservoir (1,040 feeding regimes, and determine Reproduction and nursing of Cirrhinus
ha), Chiang Mai Province, Thailand, L. optimal stocking densities for molitorella in a small fish farm in Luang
chrysophekadion grew at a rate of 4.09 nursery ponds, hapas and tanks. Prabang Province, Lao PDR. In Proceedings of
g/day, and reached maturity at 2 years 7th Technical Symposium on Mekong Fisheries,
of age (62 cm, 2,960 g) (Chabjinda et Acknowledgements pp. 197-203 Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand,
al. 1992b). 15th-17th November 2005.
This review has been undertaken
as part of the Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research
(ACIAR) Project, Culture-Based Continued on page 50.

July-September 2008 31
Research & farming techniques

Mussel farming: alternate water monitoring practice

G. Misra and P. K . Mukhapadhyay

Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneswar-751 002, Orissa, India

Mussel ecology Buddha images in the mussel Cristaria Figure 1. Commonly available mussel
plicata in lake Tahu in China. The species in India.
Understanding the function of conventional method of production of
freshwater mussels within aquatic cultured pearls in vivo involves huge a. Lamellidens marginalis.
ecosystems is vital for successful risk. In India, marine pearl culture had
management. The Indian freshwater its beginning in the early seventies b. Lamellidens corrianus.
mussel fauna comprises two genera by the efforts of the Central Marine
that are abundantly found in most Fisheries Research Institute and the c. Parreysia corrugate.
of the freshwater bodies. The genus theory of natural and culture pearl
Lamellidens is represented by nine formation in marine oysters is now fairly
species and two sub-species, while the established. Freshwater pearl culture,
genus Parreysia is represented by 35 on the other hand, remained as an
species and 6 sub-species under two unexplored area despite vast freshwater
sub-genera (Subba Rao, 1989). These resources and abundant natural stocks
bivalves typically live partly buried in the of freshwater mussels in the country.
sand or mud and leave characteristic Realizing the scope and importance
furrows on the substratum due to the of inland pearl culture, an indigenous
sloughing movements of the wedge-like system of culturing pearls from common
powerful foot during restricted locomo- freshwater mussels, Lamellidens
tion. They are encountered in greater marginalis, L. corrianus and Parreysia
abundance in waterways located in corrugata has evolved (Janakiram
alluvial soil areas with soft soil substrate 1989) producing conventional regular
harboring green algae. It may be said round, mabe (half round and design),
that Lamellidens marginalis (Fig. 1a) small round, oval to irregular pearls of
is a typical pond species, while L. assorted colour and luster. Traditionally
corrianus (Fig. 1b) is often encountered in the fisheries sector, freshwater
in shallow habitats including paddy mussel fauna are in great demand
fields during inundation. The species of because of their requirements in diverse
the genus Parreysia (Fig. 1c) are more fields viz. shell button industry, lime and
frequent in flowing habitats like irrigation handicrafts. Mussel meat, an affluent
canals, streams and rivers. Species of source of protein, is conventionally used
the genus Lamellidens are normally as feed in shrimp and catfish hatcheries
distributed in stagnant to slow flowing and is also eaten in some tribal belts
habitats like ponds, tanks, lakes and of India, such as West Bengal, Bihar,
reservoirs at a depth of 0.5 m (Fig. 2) North Eastern States and Orissa. Their
and beyond (Misra et. al. 2000; Misra, task in maintaining the water body
G. 2005). Neutral to slightly alkaline as a natural cleanser is a boon to the tion in aquatic environment as they are
waters are in general conducive for aqua-industry. an important indicator of water quality,
mussel colonization. including waters used for drinking,
Water body monitoring process irrigation and recreational purposes as
their community responds to changes in
Efficacy of freshwater Water quality monitors often look for water or habitat quality. The advantages
benthic macro invertebrates to evaluate of molluscs over other organisms for
mussels water quality. These include aquatic biomonitoring studies are their large
insects, worms, shellfish, crustaceans size as macro-invertebrates and their
Freshwater pearl culture and other animals that are large enough restricted mobility. Their abundance
to see without magnification and live at in diverse types of aquatic bodies and
Mussels had been largely ignored the bottom of a water body. Increasing their trouble-free collection is an added
by the aquaculture sector since their effort has been devoted towards the benefit for such studies.
practical utility was limited. However, in selection of appropriate biomonitors.
recent times, role of freshwater bivalves Quite a few such studies specify that The abiotic and biotic factors of an
in producing an aquatic gem cannot be molluscs can endure persistent toxins to aquatic ecosystem are interdependent
ruled out. Cultured pearls are produced a greater extent than other organisms and the fluctuations of abiotic factor
both in marine and freshwater environ- and serve as effective biomonitors or frequently affect the biotic factors (flora
ments. Possibly, the genesis of modern indicators (Fang et al, 2001; Salanki et. & fauna) changing their quality and
freshwater pearl culture can be traced al. 2003 and Somoldes et. al. 2003). variety. The abundance of this benthic
back to the traditional practice from the Bivalves have been used for decades fauna greatly depends on physical and
12th century in producing pearl-coated as sentinel organisms to monitor pollu- chemical property of the substratum

32 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Research & farming techniques

Figure 2. Collecting freshwater mussels from the peripheral pond area.

and can be employed as a barometer shell mussel. However, since freshwater makes bivalves potentially useful as
of over all biodiversity in aquatic mussels are hardy creatures, their ‘biomonitors’ for water quality monitoring
bionetworks. The widespread reduction presence or absence can provide even programmes, and also for bioremedia-
in density and diversity of freshwater more information about the history of tion to improve the quality of polluted
mussels in aquatic ecosystems water quality at a site. waters.
suggests that insubstantial changes in
water quality characteristics can have Bioaccumulation Bioaccumulation of toxins is one of
pervasive effects. Species of commer- the many possible tools that can be
cially obtained freshwater mussel Mussels are sedentary, benthic and employed in bio monitoring. In the
Elliptio complanata, a native of Canada, gregarious invertebrates. They filter United States, hanging culture of
have been shown to actively filter, water continuously and feed on Dreissena polymorpha is used to
concentrate, and retain fecal coliform phytoplankton. The water current is reduce suspended matter loads, toxins
bacteria from a variety of freshwater taken through the inhalant siphons that and especially organic pollutants.
stream environments (Beth et. al. 2004). passes through the gills, labial palps, Mytilus edulis, the blue mussel have
mantle of the mussels and is finally been used traditionally in the marine
The advantage of using bioindicators ejected through the exhalent siphon. sector for environmental monitoring
over chemical and physical tests During such processes the suspended due to concern for pollution in coastal
to evaluate water quality is that the soil particles, excess algal blooms and and estuarine areas. Anodonta cygnea
presence of living organisms inherently metal ions (Cu, Zn, Ni etc.) are removed when exposed to toxin strain of cyano-
provides information about water quality from the water. In addition to the gills, bacterium, accumulated huge quantity
over time. The lack or poor conditions the mantle, kidney, foot and hepatopan- of the peptide oscillatoria toxin that was
of bioindicators might provide a clue of creas are anticipated to be major sites present in low concentrations within
adverse consequence. The presence of of metal uptake because of their large the cyanobacterial cells. Pollutants or
a mixed population of healthy, mussels surface area, thus clearing the aquatic chemicals enter the mussels system
along with aquatic insects or fish habitat. They accumulate both essential as they filter water through their gills
usually indicates that the water quality (Na, Ca, Mg) and non essential (Hg, Cd, for respiration and feeding or in case of
has been good for some time. The Pb) metals in higher concentrations than inorganic contaminants such as metals,
absence of bioindicators at a site that the ambient water. Through their filter through facilitated diffusion, active
appears good according to chemical feeding and respiratory mechanisms transport or endocytosis. Moreover
and physical sampling might demand mussels also take up other pollutants some bivalve species are exposed to
further investigations of water quality. such as hydrophobic organic contami- pollution through pedal feeding or gill
Each species of mussel has different nants, poly aromatic hydrocarbons, ingestion of sediment. Accumulation
environmental requirements. Some metallothionein and organochlorines. occurs in tissues e.g. heavy metals will
species like E. complanata, are more The accumulation of contaminants from accumulate primarily in muscles and
pollution tolerant than species like the water column by bivalves is referred organ (soft) tissues and organic pollut-
Margaretifera margaretifera, the pearl to as ‘bioconcentration’, a property that ants accumulate in the lipid. Bivalves

July-September 2008 33
Research & farming techniques

Figure 3. Pearl culture ponds. criteria that includes freshwater mussel

response requires an understanding of
conventional assessment approaches
and scientific considerations.

Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Department
of Science and Technology, New Delhi,
for financial assistance and Central
Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture for
Infrastructure.

References

Beth, C., Michael, S., Mac, L., Robin, O. and Jay,

L. 2004. Evaluation of potential health risks to
Eastern Elliptio (Elliptio complanata) (Mollusca:
Bivalvia: Unionida: Unionidae) and implications
for sympatric endangered freshwater mussel
have been known to metabolize certain Future thrust species. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystems Stress
classes of compounds better than and Recovery 9: 35-42.
others controlling ecotoxicity. Mussels In recent times mussels are widely Fang, Z. Q., Cheung, R. Y. H. and Wong, M. H.
possess only minimal ability to bio- used as indicators of water quality 2001. Heavy metal concentration in edible
transform poly aromatic hydrocarbon or for remediation purposes, even in bivalve and gastropods available in major
(PAH) and are therefore good sentinels water treatment plants. Conserving the market of the Pearl River Delta. Journal of
of the accumulation of PAHs. More mussel fauna will ensure that our river Environmental Science 13: 210-217.
recently freshwater bivalves have been and lakes are clean enough to perform Freshwater Pearl Culture. Training Bulletin, Gayatri
utilized to assess the quality of lakes, aquaculture and other related activities. Misra, Maharathy, C., Mohanty, P., Pattnaik,
rivers and streams. Easy dissemination techniques for use S., Ghadai, K., Bhanot, K.K. and Janakiram,
mussels is these contexts need to be K. 2000. Central Institute of Freshwater
Plankton control developed. The reproduction system Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar. 37pp.
and gonadal behavior of mussel in Misra, G. 2005. Pearl farming – Avenue For
For upkeep of water systems in particular needs attention. Globally Women Entrepreneurship. In Ninawe, A.S and
aquaculture practices it is can be substantial work has been done in Diwan, A.D. (eds.) Women Empowerment in
useful to include freshwater mussel relation to conservation of mussel Fisheries. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi,
fauna or follow an integration practice. fauna, especially of the endangered pp.201–212.
In freshwater pearl farming mussels species such as Lampsilis and M. Misra, G. Kumar K. and Janakiram K. 1998. Role
can plan a very significant role in margaretifera. In India as well as in the of selected feeds in captive culture of Indian
water quality management through adjoining countries like Bangladesh, pearl mussel Lamellidens marginalis (Lamarck).
their control of plankton population Sri Lanka, and Myanmar the bivalves, Current and Emerging Trends in Aquaculture.
as a result of filter feeding. Mussels Lamellidens marginalis and L. corrianus Ed. P. C. Thomas. Daya Publishing House,
consume both green and blue-green are known to be distributed in the New Delhi. pp. 241 –243.
algal cells (Misra et. al. 1998; Wood perennial and artificial freshwater bodies Naimo, T. J., A review of the effects of heavy metals
et. al. 2006). Freshwater mussels can (Subba Rao, 1989). Conservation of on mussels. 1995. Ecotoxicology 4: 341 – 362.
affect phytoplankton populations in these species is of prime importance Salanki, J., Farkas, A., Kamardina,T. and Rozsa, K.
two ways; by direct consumption and and thus their culture and maintenance S. 2001. Molluscs in biological monitoring water
indirectly by altering nutrient cycles that is to be emphasized for uninterrupted quality. Toxicology Letters 11: 403 –410.
may favour undesirable algal species. accessibility of these species to the Smolden, R., Bervoets, L.,Wepenser, V. and Blust,
Pearl farming ponds are provided concerned sector. R. 2003. A conceptual frame work of using
with floating rafts made up of PVC or mussels as biomonitors in whole effluent
bamboo in which the operated mussels Issues that require further study include toxicity. Human Ecology. 9(3): 741 –760.
are hung in the water column at a the endurance of mussels in eutrophic Subba Rao, N. V., 1989. Handbook on freshwater
depth of 60cm. The stocking density of waterways, the quantity of vigorously molluscs of India. Zoological Survey of India.
mussels can be 20,000-30,000 in a 0.4 feeding mussels required to effectively Calcutta, India, 289 pp.
ha pond. Mussels can also be used for control algal growth under different Janaki Ram, K., 1989. Studies on culture pearl
bioremediation or as natural biofilters ecological conditions, and whether it is production from freshwater mussels. Current.
in prawn farming or simply to control possible to rear mussels in adequate Science 58 (8): 474-476.
excess algal blooms that may pose numbers for their eventual introduction Wood, S. A., Briggs, L. R., Sprosen, J., Ruck, J.
a risk of eutrophication. The filtration into water bodies with algal problems. G., Wear, R. G., Holland, P. T., Bloxham, M.
rate can be accelerated by selecting In future a holistic approach is needed 2006. Changes in concentration of microcystis
larger individuals that are likely to be to quantify mussel filtration rate along in rainbow trout, freshwater mussels and
more effective than the smaller ones in with the propagation experiments to cyanobacteria in lakes Rotoiti and Rotochu.
accumulating phytoplankton. establish their role in water quality Environmental Toxicity 21: 205 – 222.
management. Establishing water quality

34 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Research & farming techniques

Benefit-cost analysis for fingerling production of kutum

Rutilus frisii kutum (Kamensky, 1901) in 2005 in Iran
Hassan Salehi

Assistant Prof., IFRO, and Head of Economic Group, Iranian Fisheries Research Organization,
279 West Fatemi Ave., Tehran, Iran, email: [email protected].

Introduction Shehadeh, 1996, Bartley and Rana, 1. To determine the real costs and
1998, Abdolhay, 1998, Tahori, 1998, production of kutum fingerlings.
Knowledge of production costs and their Salehi, 2002, 2005 and PDD, 2007).
evolution is essential to the successful 2. To find the cost contribution of the
management of a hatchery farm, and As Fushimi (Fushimi, 2001) noted, the input factors.
helps to identify the main items for main issue that should be considered
which cost reduction is worthwhile. in any stock enhancement plan is the 3. To determine the cost sensitivity
Benefit-costs analysis may also assist economic aspects. The economic of main operating cost factors
the manager in decision making and in advantages of stock enhancement, for hatchery production of kutum
adjusting to changes. and other aspects of population fingerlings.
rehabilitation, have been considered in
The primary interest in most fisheries recent years by Bartley (1995) (1999); Attention was directed to addressing
is directed toward establishing viable Sreenivasan (1998); Hansson, et al. questions such as: which inputs are
industries for the purpose of, stock (1997); Ahmad et al. (1998); Lorenzen significant in explaining outputs from
enhancement, domestic consumption, et al. (1998); Gateway (1999), Kitada various hatcheries? What constraints
export, employment opportunities, (1999) and Salehi (1999, 2002, 2005b & inhibit increased productivity and
income distribution, or a combination 2008). Some researchers emphasized production of existing kutum culture
of these objectives (Shang, 1981 and the profitability of stock enhancement systems? The study, conducted in 2005,
Pillay, 1994). As Shang (1990) noted, and stressed that in some species covered kutum hatcheries in northern
elements such as biology, technology, the rate of return of investment can Iran, including Guilan, Mazandaran, and
feed and nutrition, engineering, fish be very high (Hansson, et al., 1997; Golestan provinces. For this purpose, a
pathology, and institutional factors all Ahmad, et al., 1998; Lorenzen et al., questionnaire was prepared and filled
affect the economics of production. 1998, Lorenzen et al., 2001, Gateway, in by an expert team comprised of an
From a micro-economic view point the 1999 and Salehi, 2006). The analysis economist, statistician and aquaculturist
primary motivation of a fish farm may be of the economics of all aspects of stock using data available in kutum hatcheries
profit making, but sometimes these can enhancement for species such as kutum for fingerling production and other
be other considerations such as stock is a very complicated undertaking. It is related departments in the Iranian Fish-
enhancement (Salehi, 2003). also very expensive and takes a long eries Organization, with data collection,
time to generate satisfactory returns, classification, and analysis covering
Research on the economics of kutum although it may have a key role in 2004. Two sources of data were used.
(Rutilus frisii kutum) culture will play an improving the productivity of stock Primarily data were obtained through
important role in its future development. enhancement. personal interviews with managers
It is clear now, to overcome the problem and related experts in hatcheries,
of declining kutum stocks the promotion The natural maturation and reproduction which were conducted to obtain
of hatcheries to produce large quantities of all bony fishes in the Caspian Sea, information on the resources used and
of fingerlings for stock enhancement including kutum, has faced serious the quantity of output. Other relevant
is certainly going to be an important problems. As noted by Razavi Sayyad documents obtained from the Iranian
strategy. Stock enhancement is prac- (1995) the contribution from hatchery Fisheries Organization (IFO) were
ticed in many countries with different production in the Caspian Sea landings consulted including information from
methods and various objectives, not has been estimated to be more than the accounting, budgeting and stock
the least of which is the reconstruction 95% for kutum. By considering the enhancement offices. These data were
of stocks of economically important background data on stock enhancement supplemented with other data main-
species. For example, Japan has a long of kutum and the results of fishing tained by other affiliated departments of
history in using stock enhancement data, it seems that increase of the IFO, affiliated provincial fisheries offices
to support and rehabilitate almost 80 contribution of kutum in total fish catch and the Iranian Fisheries research
species (Matsuda, 2000) with varying was most probably affected by stock Organization (IFRO). Data were entered
results. Iran contributes to these efforts enhancement in Iran. into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet 2003
through the reproduction and enhance- and methods for classification, summa-
ment of more than thirteen main native Study structure and methods rizing, averaging, and other functions
species, releasing more than 250 million based on Shang (1981, 1990); Jolly and
fingerlings into the Caspian Sea and the A study of kutum fingerling production Clonts (2003) and Salehi (1991, 2004
Persian Gulf annually (Bartley, 1995, was carried out to help clarify fingerling and 2006) were used for analysis.
production costs. Specific objectives
were:

July-September 2008 35
Research & farming techniques

Results Table 1: Total landings and the number of kutum fingerlings releasing in the
Caspian Sea between 1982 and 2006.
Total fingerling production of kutum
Kutum Number of kutum Total landings Contribution of kutum
increased from 2.8 million in 1982 Year landings fingerlings of bony to total landings of
to more than 225 million in 2002, (mt) releasing fishes (mt) bony fishes (%)
but declined to 179 million by 2004.
1982 563 2,809,000 7,924 7
Fingerling production increased to more
than 229 million in 2005 (Table 1) and 1986 3,500 51,704,000 6,296 56
again declined to 174 million in 2006 1991 10,920 109,843,000 16,335 67
(PDD, 2007). From 1991-2006, on
1992 10,085 96,619,000 17,260 58
average, the contribution of kutum to
total landings of bony fish was more 1993 10,061 100,047,000 17,629 57
than 51% in the Iranian reach of the 1994 11,175 142,733,020 18,638 60
Caspian Sea, ranging from a high of 1995 9,525 117,918,845 17,981 53
67% in 1991 to a low of 40% in 2002.
The annual landing of kutum averaged 1996 9,436 142,091,873 17,638 53
more than 9,209 tonnes over the 1991- 1997 8,316 154,367,000 16,698 50
2006, ranging from a high of 16,118 1998 6,878 143,361,000 15,611 44
tonnes in 2006 to a low of 6,417 tonnes
in 2002. Over the period 2000-2006, 1999 6,583 147,879,000 12,804 51
yearly production of kutum fingerlings 2000 8,977 132,900,000 16,863 53
averaged more than 186 million (Table 2001 7,199 196,600,000 16,378 44
1). The trend line of fingerling releasing
2002 6,417 225,198,000 16,200 40
of the kutum shows steady growth over
the period (Figure 1). 2003 8,984 155,000,000 16,573 54
2004 7,036 179,365,000 15,665 45
From 2000-2005, the contribution of
2005 9,631 229,110,000 21,845 44
kutum to total landings of bony fishes
was almost 47% and annual landings 2006 16,118 174,300,000 23,802 68
averaged more than 8,040 tonnes. Average 9,209 152,958,296 17,370 46.6
Kutum landings ranged from 7,036 to
Sources: Developed from Salehi (2005b) and PDD (2005, 2006, 2007).
9,631 tonnes over the same period.
By considering fishing data in light of
stock enhancement of kutum, as Table 9% of total costs respectively. The cost as well as benefit return of hatchery
1 shows, it seems that increases in the of harvesting and post harvest averaged enhancement and its opportunities for
contribution of kutum to the total catch only 8% of total costs. The steady resource reconstruction have also been
in Iran was positively influenced by growth of kutum fingerling enhancement discussed internationally (eg. Bartley
stock enhancement. from 1995-2006 in the South Caspian 1995, 1999, Hansson et al., 1997,
Sea is shown in Figure 1. Fish landing Sreenivasan 1988, Salehi 1999, 2002,
In 2005, of 9,631 tonnes of kutum data after the establishment of various 2006, Ahmad et al. 1998, Lorenzen et
landings, 56% belongs to the province kutum hatcheries along the Iranian parts al. 1998, Garaway 1999, Kitada 1999
of Guilan, followed by 39% in the of the Caspian Sea clearly indicate and Lorenzen et al. 2001 and Rosenthal
province of Mazandaran, with the the success of stock enhancement et al. 2006). Fsh landing data from
balance produced by Golestan province programs over this period (Figure 3). 1991-2006 clearly indicate the success
(PDD, 2006). From 2000-2005, annual of stock enhancement programs initi-
fishery production of bony fishes Cost sensitivity analysis of hatchery ated after the establishment of kutum
averaged more than 20,400 tonnes. production of kutum shows that labor is hatcheries along the Iranian parts of the
Of that landings 47% belongs to the the most sensitive component. A 50% Caspian Sea over the period (Figure 1).
province of Guilan, followed by 35% in increase of this item increases the total
the province of Mazandaran, with the cost by almost 27%, followed by feed As shown in this study, the major cost
balance produced by Golestan province. and fertilizer cost (Figure 4). in kutum hatcheries was labor, which
Mazandaran Province had the highest averaged IR Rials 54 (almost $US
variation but also showed steady growth 0.006) for each fingerling, followed
in landings, averaging more than 7,000 Discussion by feed and fertilizer, were averaged
tonnes over the 2000-2005 period. IR Rials 18. Compared with other
Stock enhancement has many aquaculture activities, the share of
As Figure 2 shows, in 2004, total socio-economic and environmental labor cost in kutum hatcheries was
costs per kutum fingerling production advantages. Many researchers have very high compared to carp farming
averaged IR Rials 130 ($US 0.016) in discussed the positive effects of stock (12%), trout farming (13%), shrimp
Iran. This represents a 7% increase in rehabilitation for sturgeon and bony farming (17%) and shrimp hatcheries
total cost per fingerling relative to 2003. fishes in Iran (see Razavi Sayyad due to using foreign experts (26%) (see
Average cost for labor was IR Rials 1995, Abdolhay 1998, 2006, Danesh Salehi, 1999, 2003, 2005a and 2005b).
54 representing an average of 42% of Khoosh Asl 1998, Tahori 1998, Hosseini It seems, the main reason for this
total costs. The other main costs were 1998, Pourkazemi 2000, 2006, higher labor cost may be the inactivity
feed and fertilizer, maintenance and Keyvan 2002, Salehi 2006, 2008 and of hatcheries during a few months
depreciation averaging 14%, 10% and Moghim et al., 2006). The importance off season, which could be reduced

36 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Research & farming techniques

Table 2: Total landing of bony fishes in the north provinces of Iran over the 2000-2005.
Average % contribution of province to
Year / Province 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 SD
yearly total landings

Guilan 10,110 8,410 8,320 6,686 5,704 9,211 9,661 47 636

Mazandaran 5,840 4,837 5,280 7,983 6,046 8,316 7,078 35 1,751
Golestan 3,050 3,253 2,600 1,903 3,914 4,318 3,684 18 897
Total 19,000 16,500 16,200 16,572 15,664 21,845 20,423 100 2,012
SD: Standard deviation. Sources: Developed from Salehi, 2005b and PDD, 2006.

by adopting extra activities in such Figure 1: Number of kutum fingerlings releasing from 1991-2005 in the Iranian
hatcheries. The importance of stock reach of the Caspian Sea. Sources: Developed from Salehi (2005b) and PDD
rehabilitation in general, and kutum (2006, 2007).
enhancement in particular as a means
of biodiversity preservation, and as a 250000
source of socio- economics activity has
Number (1,000)

been addressed in this paper. Current 200000

production and enhancement of kutum
150000
fingerling and the huge investment
expended by IFO suggest that this 100000
sector might be expected to become
increasingly important in coming years. 50000
Future fingerling production of kutum 0
is likely to vary widely and will be to
a large extent dependent on ability to

06
97

01

03

05
91

93

95

99

20
19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20
obtain brood fish from the Caspian Sea

1-
99
as well as continued investment by

.1
government. Overall, kutum rehabilita-

vg
A
tion may benefit from research aimed at
developing technically viable production Year
and enhancement systems, improved
nutrition, genetic improvement, disease
kutum fingerling Linear (kutum fingerling)
prevention, water quality and industry
management. It seems that the co-
operation of beach seine net co-opera-
tives and other organizations involved
in Iran might be expected to have an Figure 2: Average cost (Rials per fingerling) of kutum fingerling production in
important effect on stock enhancement 2004 in Iran (L&S: Labor & Salary, F&F: Feed & Fertilizer, H&Ph: Harvesting &
and biodiversity preservation of kutum in Post harvest, W&E: Water & Energy, Ch&D: Chemical & Drugs, Main: Mainte-
the coming years. nance, Misc: Miscellaneous and D: Depreciation).

Considering an 8.3% fingerling return 60 54 50

aged 3.7 years at 815 g average weight
(Razavi Sayed, 1995 &1999) it might 50 41.5 40
be expected that more than 19,016,130
kutum fingerlings will be returned by 40
2008-2009 with total meat production 30
Rials

around 15,500 tonnes, assuming a 30

15% annual growth rate per year for 18 20
kutum as recorded from 1993-2001 and 20 15
13.8 13 12
2001-2005 (PDD, 2002, 2005, 2006 10 11.5
7 10 9.2 10
& 2007). The wholesale price of this 10 7.7
5.4 1
production would potentially be around
IR Rials 1,100 billion (US$ 116 million). 0 0.8 0
This suggests that a return of US$116 L&S F&F H&Ph W&E Ch&D Main Misc D
million could potentially be generated
from an investment of less than US$ Cost Percent
320,000 used for stock enhancement
in the year 2004. There are of course
many questions and issues that need
to be resolved in order to sustain kutum
production such as the state of the
environment, reduction of pollution to
improve its suitability for kutum produc-

July-September 2008 37
Research & farming techniques

Figure 3: Total landing of kutum over the years 1991-2006 in Iran. Bartley, M.D. 1995. Marine and coastal area
hatchery enhancement programmes: Food
18000 security and Conservation of Biological
16000 Diversity. Paper prepared for Japanese/FAO
14000 Conference on Fisheries and Food security
12000 Kyoto, Japan, Dec. 1995, p15.
Tones

10000 Bartley, M.D. and K. Rana, 1998. Stocking inland

8000 waters of the Islamic Republic of Iran. FAO, 5p.
6000 Bartley, M.D. 1999. Marine ranching : current
4000 issues, constraints and opportunities. In Marine
2000 ranching; FAO Fish. Circ., No. 943, pp28-43.
0 Bjorndal, T. 1990. The economics of salmon
aquaculture. Blackwell scientific Publications.
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
London. UK. 118p.
Danesh Khoosh Asl, A. 1998. The role of stock
kutum fishing (t) Linear (kutum fishing (t)) enhancement of kutum on quality and quantity
of resources in Caspian Sea. 7th National
Fisheries Conference. Responsible Fisheries (in
Figure 4. The cost sensitivity of fingerling production of kutum for the year Persian), Shilat, Tehran, Iran, p 207-219.
2004 in Iran. Fushimi, H. 2001. Production of juvenile finfish for
stock enhancement in Japan. Aquaculture 200:
200 33-53.
Garaway, J. 1999. Small water body fisheries and
the potential for community-led enhancement:
case study from the Lao PDR. PhD Thesis,
150
University of London, 414pp.
Hansson, S. Arrhenius, F. and Nellbring, S. 1997.
Benefits from fish stocking: Experiences from
100
stocking young-of-the year pikeperch to a bay in
the Baltic Sea. Fish Res. 32: 123-132.
Hosseini, M. 1998. The end of unresponsible
50 sturgeon Fishing. 7th National Fisheries
Conference. Responsible Fisheries (in Persian),
Shilat, Tehran, Iran, p115-128.
0 Ivanov, V.P., Vlasenko, A.D., Khodorevskaya, R.P.
and Raspopov, V.M. 1999. Contemporary status
0 50 100 150 200
of caspian sturgeon (Acipenseridae) stock and
its conservation. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 15: 103-105.
L F&F 100% correlation line Jolly, C.M. and Clonts, H. A. 1993. Economics of
Aquaculture. Haworth Press. Inc. Binghamton.
New York. 319p.
tion, and the need to address illegal Acknowledgments Keyvan, A. 2002. Introduction on biotechnology of
fishing activities. Who will be respon- cultured sturgeon. Azad University, (in Persian),
sible and answer for these matters? Are We would like to gratefully acknowledge Lahijan, Iran, 270p.
15,500 tonnes kutum attainable? the assistance of the Fisheries Organi- Kitada, S. 1999. Contribution of hatchery enhance-
sation of Iran, Fisheries Research ment and comprehensive fishery resource
Overall, from the economic point of Institute, and especially Mr Darvish, Mr management: from Japanese experience.
view, the results of this study indicate Abdoulhy, Mr Mogadsi, and Mr Amini. In: Marine ranching: global perspective with
that the hatchery production of kutum emphasis on the Japanese experience. FAO.
is profitable and could present an References Fish. Circ. 943: 98-130.
option for increasing the productivity Khodorevskaya, R.P., Dovgopol, G.F., Zhuravleva,
and breeding procedure of hatchery Abdolhay, H. 1998. Artifical hatching for stock O.L. and Vlasenko, A. D. 1996. Present status
production in Iranian reach of the rehabilitation. 7th National Fisheries Confer- of commercial stocks of sturgeon in the Caspian
Caspian Sea. However, for enhance- ence, Responsible Fisheries (in Persian), Sea Basin. Proceedings of the International
ments to achieve their full potential and Shilat, Tehran, Iran, p 187-205. Conference on Sturgeon Biodiversity and
provide benefits on a sustainable basis, Abdolhay, H. 2006. Fingerling production and Conservation. American Museum of Natural
improvements are required in both release for stock enhancement in the Southern History, New York p28-30.
policy and research support, particu- Caspian Sea: an overview. Journal of Applied Lorenzen, K., Juntana, J., and Tourongruang, D.
larly, on national and regional basis. Ichthyology 22: 125-131. 1998. Assessing culture fisheries practices in
Finally, key opportunities for regional Ahmed, I., Bland, S.J.R., Price, C.P. and Kershaw, small water bodies: a study of village fisheries
cooperation arise from pro-active R. 1998. Open water stocking in Bangladesh, in Northeast Thailand. Aquaculture Res. 29:
approaches to regional comparative experiences from the Third fisheries Project. 211-224.
studies, including identification of key FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 374: Lorenzen, K., Amarasinghe, U.S., Bartley, D.M.,
opportunities for learning and designing 351-370. Bell, J.D., Bilio, M., De Silva, S.S., Garaway,
programmes for collection and analysis J.C., Hartmann, W.D., Kapetsky, J.M., Laleye,
regional data. P., Moreau, J., Sugunan, V.V. and Swar, D.B.

38 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Research & farming techniques

2001. Strategic review of enhancements and Razavi Sayyad, B. 1995. Kutum, IFRO. (in Salehi, H. 2006. Comparative economics of kutum
culture- based fisheries. Aquaculture in the Persian),Tehran, Iran, 165p. (Rutilus frisii kutum) fingerling production
Third Millennium. Subasinghe, R., Bueno, P., Razavi Sayyad, B. 1999. Introduction to ecology and releasing over the 2001-2003 in North of
Phillips, M., Hough, C., McGladdery, S. and of the Caspian Sea, Kutum, IFRO. (in Iran (submitted for Pajohesh and Sazandagi
Arthur, R., NACA/ FAO, Bangkok, Thailand, Persian),Tehran, Iran, 90p. magazin), 13p.
2001, p221-237. Rosenthal, H., Pourkaxemi, M., and Bruch, R., Shang, Y. C. 1981. Aquaculture economics: Basic
Lukyanenko, V.I., Vasilev, A.S., Lukyanenko, V.V. 2006. The 5th International Symposium on concepts and methods of analysis. Croom Helm
and Khabarov, M.V. 1999. On the increasing Sturgeons: a conference with major emphasis Ltd. London. 153p.
threat of extermination of the unique caspian on conservation, environmental mitigation and Shang, Y. C. 1990. Aquaculture economics
sturgeon population and the urgent measures sustainable use of the sturgeon resources. analysis: An introduction. Advances in world
required to save them. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 15: Journal of Applied Ichthyology 22: 1-4. aquaculture. Volume 2. The world aquaculture
99-102. Salehi, H. 1999. A strategic analysis of carp culture society. USA. Louisiana State University. Baten
Matsuda Y. 2000, Recent development on stock development in Iran. PhD.Thesis, University of Rouge. 211p.
enhancement in Japan, cited by Tahori, 1998, Stirling. Stirling, UK, 328p. Shehadeh, Z. H. 1996. Major trends in global
Aquaculture Department, Shilat, Tehran, Iran, Salehi, H. 2002. Economic analysis of kutum aquaculture production and summary overview
No. 18. p73-109. (Rutilus frisii kutum) fingerling production and of the Gulfs (Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman)
Moghim, M., Kor, D., Tavakolieshkalak, M. and release in Iran, (unpublished in Persian), 10p. area (1984 to 1994). TOFC Committee for
Khoshghalb, M.B. 2006. Stock status of Persian Salehi, H. 2004. An economic analysis of carp Development and Management of the Fishery
sturgeon along the Iranian coast of the Caspian culture production costs in Iran. Iranian Journal Resources of the Gulfs, Cairo, Egypt, 1-3
Sea. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 22: 99-107. of Fisheries Sciences, IFRO, Tehran, Iran, October, 8p.
PDD, 2002. Annual report of Shilat, Shiat (in p1-24. Sreenivasan A. 1988. Fish stock enhancement in
Persian), Tehran, Iran, 42p. Salehi, H. 2005a. An economic analysis of trout larger Indo- Pacific inland water bodies using
PDD, 2005. Annual report of Shilat, Shiat (in farming production in Iran. World aquaculture carps and tilapias. FAO Fish. Rep. No. 405,
Persian), Tehran, Iran, 40p. 2005, May 2005, Bali-Indonesia. Unpublished, p6-33.
PDD, 2006. Annual report of Shilat, Shiat (in 35p. Tahori B. H. 1998, Sturgeon hatching in South
Persian), Tehran, Iran, 63p. Salehi, H. 2005b.An economic analysis of fingerling Caspian Sea. 7th National Fisheries Confer-
PDD, 2007, Annual report of Shilat, Shiat, (in production of sturgeon in the south Caspian ences. Responsible Fisheries (in Persian),
Persian, unpublished),Tehran, Iran 6p. Sea over the years 2002-03. 5th International Shilat, Tehran, Iran, p221-244.
Pourkazemi, M. 1999. Management and enhance- Symposium on Sturgeon, Ramsar, 9-13 May,
ment of sustainable resource. Aquaculture Iran. p.319-324.
Department (in Persian), Shilat, Tehran, Iran,
18: 17-30.

The effects of feeding frequency on FCR and SGR factors

of the fry of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss
Nasrin Choobkar

Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah Branch, Iran

Economically efficient production of and feed utilization efficiency in rainbow • Estimate and compare SGR and
carnivorous fish requires the use of trout. The experiment involved several FCR between experimental treat-
suitable feeds in quantities and frequen- different treatments with feeding ments.
cies that produce efficient growth, frequencies of 4, 6 and 8 feeds per
considering both biological performance day. The research was conduced at Differences in feeding rate can result
and return on feed costs invested by Ghezelrood Aquaculture center, in from different temperatures, environ-
the farmer. Standard measures for Broujerd, Iran. mental conditions and life stage of fish.
determing ration performance are In this experiment, fry of rainbow trout of
specific growth rate (SGR), food conver- The aims of my research into the effects around 6±1 g in body mass were placed
sion ratio (FCR) and also condition of feeding frequency were to: into compartments, with 400 fry stocked
factor (CF = weight x 100 / length3). in each net and with three replicates
• Estimate and compare condition of each treatment. The fish were fed
Production cost efficiency can be factor (CF) between experimental with regard to feeding tables based
improved by monitoring these perform- treatments. on body mass and temperature. They
ance indicators and assessing the were grown for a period of 71 days with
impact of alterations in feed, feeding • Determine optimum feeding frequen- biometric assessment conducted every
and other management practices. I cies for growth of fish with consider- two weeks, while anaesthatised with
conducted a study to investigate the ation of feed expense points. carnation (clove flower) oil at a concen-
effect of feeding frequency on growth

July-September 2008 39
Research & farming techniques

Table 1. Average FCR of rainbow trout fry in different feeding frequencies.

Daily feeding frequency Week 2 Week 4 Week 6 Week 8 Week 10 Total period
4 times 0.61 1.35 4.59 4.71 3.02 1.51
6 times 0.51 0.85 1.90 3.61 3.61 1.52
8 times 0.52 1.34 1.71 3.87 4.42 1.63
The results are mean ± SD(n=20). There was no statistically significant difference between treatments.

Table 2. Average weight of rainbow trout fry in different feeding frequencies (g).
Daily feeding frequency Week 2 Week 4 Week 6 Week 8 Week 10
4 times 10.2±1.03 15±2.32 21.5±3.53 27±3.12 b
34.45±2.99a
6 times 10.8±1.10 16.2±1.55 22.3±2.05 28.8±2.23a 35.91±2.76a
8 times 10.7±1.24 15.6±1.72 21.1±2.39 26.2±2.77 b
32.2±2.68b
The results are mean ± SD(n=20). Statistically significant differences between treatments (p<0.05) are designated by superscript within each column.

Table 3. Average SGR of rainbow trout fry at different daily feeding frequencies.
Daily feeding frequency Week 2 Week 4 Week 6 Week 8 Week 10 Total period
4 times 3.78 2.61 2.64 1.67 1.65 2.46ab
6 times 4.19 2.89 2.28 1.83 1.47 2.52a
8 times 4.12 2.70 2.15 1.55 1.38 2.36b
The results are mean ± SD(n=20). Statistically significant results between treatments (p<0.05) are designated by superscript within each column.

Table 4. Average CF of rainbow trout fry at different daily feeding frequencies.

Daily feeding frequency Week 2 Week 4 Week 6 Week 8 Week 10
4 times 1.05 1.01 1.31 1.20 1.21
6 times 1.16 1.24 1.39 1.34 1.18
8 times 1.24 1.08 1.33 1.23 1.06

tration of 6 g per 20 litres of water. The Statistically significant differences References

data was analysed using an analysis of (p<0.05) in SGR between treat-
variance statistical technique. ments were observed over the full Church, D.C. and W.G. Pond. 1982. Basic animal
experimental period (table 3), but nutrition and feeding.
The results of my study showed that variation in bi-weekly samples during Kayano,Y.D., Jeong, S., Oda, T. and Nekagawa,
feeding six times per day led to the best the course of the experiment were not H. 1990. Optimum feeding frequency on young
results. significant. The highest SGR was at a red spotted grouper, Epinephelus akaara.
feeding frequency of 6 times per day. Suisanzoshoku 38: 319-326(in Japanese,with
The minimum FCR occurred at feeding No significant difference in CF was English summary).
frequencies of 4 and 6 times per detected between any of the treatments Kayano,Y., Yao, S., Yamamoto, S. and Nekagawa,
day, with fairly similar (statistically (table 4), however, the best growth H. 1993. Effects of feeding frequency on
non-significant) overall results across rates and most efficient FCR were the growth and body constituents of young
treatments (table 1). achieved at a feeding frequency of 6 red spotted grouper, Epinephelus akaara.
times per day. Aquaculture 110.
Statistically significant differences in Mcdonald, P., Edwards, R.A. and Greenhalgh,
average fish weight between treatments A similar study on Channel catfish J.F.D. 1973. Animal nutrition.
(p<0.05) were only detectable in weeks (Lovel 1989) found that feeding Mehrabi,Y. 1998. The effects of anaesthetic clove
8 and 10, towards the end of the frequency did not have a significant on Oncorhynchus mykiss. Abziparvar, Sixth
experiment (table 2). The best results difference on FCR, consistent with the year, 21.
in terms of growth were obtained at a outcomes of this experiment. However, SAS institute.1996. SAS users guide.SAS Institute
feeding frequency of 6 times per day. Lovel (1989) also reported that feeding Inc. Cary. NC.
Feeding at 8 times per day lead to frequency did not significantly affect
poor results, possibly because high SGR, which is not consistent with this
feeding frequency led to greater energy experiment. This may be due to the
expenditure in terms of movement, different species, different feeding
as the accessible food amount at any behaviour and experiment conditions.
single feeding time was low, and some
fish may have been unable to access
food due to high competition.

40 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Magazine
The use of poultry by-product meals in pelleted feed for
humpback grouper
Rossita Shapawi1, Saleem Mustafa1 and Wing-Keong Ng2
1. Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Locked Bag 2073, 88999 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia;
2. Fish Nutrition Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia.
E-mail: [email protected].

Introduction
Grouper farming, especially in South-
east Asia, is still heavily dependent on
feeding with trash fish. The demand
for trash fish is increasing steadily
despite decreasing prey fish stocks in
the world’s oceans and competing use
for human consumption (Tacon et al.,
2006). In order to sustain the rapidly
expanding marine fish farming industry
in Southeast Asia, more farmers are
using commercial formulated feeds in
the aquaculture of captive groupers.
Currently available commercial feeds
for tropical marine carnivorous fish
are based on fish meal as the main
dietary protein source. Total global
fish meal production has remained
relatively static over the past quarter
century. This limited supply coupled
with increasing demand for fish meal
has greatly inflated the cost of this
commodity. Therefore, finding suitable
protein sources as alternatives to fish Humpback grouper is a high value carnivorous tropical marine fish with farm gate
meal is critical in the commercial culture prices of US$40 to 65 /kg in Malaysia. Retail prices are about US$90 /kg depending
of carnivorous fish species, especially on size.
for fish such as the humpback grouper,
Cromileptes altivelis, which require one-quarter of the global poultry trade
high protein (about 50%) in their diets (FAO, 2004). It has high potential to be
(Williams et al. 2004). Groupers, incorporated in the diet of carnivorous
especially slower growing species such fish species such as groupers due to
as the humpback grouper, are highly its high protein content and lower price
valued fish, priced for their excellent compared to fish meal. In addition,
meat quality and taste in the regional studies on the apparent digestibility
live fish trade. of PBM revealed that this product is
well-digested by several fish species
One potential fish meal alternative is (Bureau et al., 1999). Back in 1980s
poultry by-product meals (PBM) which -1990s, PBM was only able to replace
are rendered by-products from the fish meal in fish diets at a level not
poultry processing industry. PBM are exceeding 50%. Tremendous improve- Humpback grouper fingerlings are also
produced in many parts of the world, ment has been achieved in recent years highly priced in the marine ornamental
including the Southeast Asia region when PBM was reported to be able to fish trade due to their polka-dotted body
which accounts for approximately replace fish meal at higher levels of up and prominent fan-shaped pectoral fins.

July-September 2008 41
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Table 1. Growth performance and feed utilization efficiency of humpback grouper fingerlings fed PBM-based diets.
FM FPBM50 FPBM75 FPBM100 PPBM75 PPBM100
Final weight (g) 31.4a 31.3a 31.0a 26.7b 31.7a 30.5a
Weight gain (%) 150.4a 148.9a 154.3a 112.5b 156.7a 148.7a
Specific growth rate (%/d) 1.7a 1.7a 1.7a 1.4b 1.7a 1.7a
Total feed intake (g/fish) 20.7 22.5 22.5 21.5 22.6 20.8
Feed conversion ratio 1.1a 1.2a 1.2a 1.5b 1.2a 1.1a
Protein efficiency ratio 1.8a 1.7ab 1.6b 1.3c 1.7ab 1.7ab
Net protein utilization (%) 29.0bc 27.0c 31.6ab 18.1d 31.8a 31.1ab

Table 2. Nutrient composition of experimental diets (% dry matter).

Diet
FM FPBM50 FPBM75 FPBM100 PPBM75 PPBM100
Proximate Composition
Moisture 11.3 11.5 11.4 12.1 11.6 11.6
Ash 14.0 13.4 13.4 13.2 14.4 14.7
Crude lipid 12.6 12.8 12.4 12.1 12.3 12.0
Crude protein 49.9 50.2 51.8 52.4 51.0 50.5
Crude fiber 0.5 0.8 1.5 1.8 0.8 1.3
Nitrogen free extract 23.0 22.9 20.9 20.6 21.5 21.6
Amino Acid composition
Aspartic acid 4.43 4.13 3.90 3.66 4.00 3.63
Glutamic acid 8.55 7.88 7.48 7.51 8.03 7.49
Serine 2.12 2.52 2.55 3.05 2.04 1.95
Glycine 3.99 5.05 5.21 5.40 5.54 6.15
Histidine 1.11 1.22 1.11 1.16 1.26 1.32
Arginine 3.17 3.39 3.79 3.94 3.92 4.08
Threonine 2.26 2.25 2.17 2.25 2.07 1.99
Alanine 3.29 3.24 3.30 3.29 3.48 3.38
Proline 2.07 2.90 3.55 3.99 3.37 3.63
Tyrosine 1.01 1.27 1.22 1.38 1.23 1.16
Valine 2.70 2.73 2.92 3.02 2.59 2.39
Methionine 1.47 1.13 1.01 0.87 1.22 1.13
Cystine 0.37 0.71 0.79 1.08 0.55 0.56
Isoleucine 2.38 2.26 2.27 2.27 2.18 2.01
Leucine 4.03 3.92 4.01 4.05 3.83 3.61
Phenylalanine 2.16 2.33 2.18 2.39 2.06 2.10
Tryptophan 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.45
Lysine 3.96 3.25 2.99 2.72 3.45 2.99

to 100% (Nengas et al., 1999; Takagi fish meal with a locally sourced feed- Upon completion of the feeding trial,
et al., 2000; Gaylord and Rawles, grade PBM (Dindings Soya & Multifeeds remaining fish from the same treatments
2005). The improved performance of Ltd., Malaysia) at 50% (FPBM50), were pooled, divided into duplicate sets
PBM was mainly due to the improved 75% (FPBM750) or 100% (FPBM100), and transferred into 12 fiberglass tanks
quality of the product through the use of respectively. In Diets 5 and 6, 75% (300L) with a flow-through system. After
more advanced processing technology. (PPBM75) and 100% (PPBM100) of one week acclimatization in the new
We recently conducted a feeding trial fish meal, respectively, were replaced culture system, feces were collected by
using PBM of two origins (local vs. by an imported pet food grade PBM carefully siphoning the tank bottom for
imported) and grades (feed vs. pet food) [National Renderers Association (NRA), diet digestibility determination.
in the diets of humpback grouper at USA]. Chromic oxide (1%) was added
graded levels and compared with a fish to determine the apparent digest-
meal-based diet (control diet) for the ibility coefficient (ADC) of the diets. Join our online community
effects on growth, feed efficiency, body Humpback grouper fingerlings of mean
composition and nutrient digestibility. initial body weight 12.41 ± 0.24 g were
randomly distributed into groups of 15
fish in cylindrical cages (61 cm depth Farmers and scientists from
Materials and methods and 43 cm diameter; total of 18 cages), around the world
and placed in a 150-ton seawater poly-
Six experimental diets were formulated ethylene tank, supplied with aeration.
to replace fish meal with PBM. Diet 1 The experimental diets were fed close
(FM) was the control diet with Danish to apparent satiation twice a day to www.enaca.org
fish meal as the only protein source. triplicate groups of fish. The feeding
Diets 2-4 were formulated to replace trial was conducted for eight weeks.

42 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Results and discussion Figure 1. Nutrient apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of

experimental diets
Good growth and survival rates of
humpback grouper fingerlings were 100
observed. Except for diet FPBM100 a a
a a
(replacement with 100% local PBM), a a a
90 b ab b Dry matter
all PBM-based diets performed as c
d Crude protein
well as the control diet (Table 1). Feed

ADC (%)
Crude lipid
conversion ratio (FCR) ranged from 80
1.1 to 1.5. No significant difference
was detected in the total feed intake of a ab
70 abc
fish fed the various experimental diets c bc
c
(P>0.05). The results demonstrated
that a significant amount of fish meal 60
can be replaced with PBM in the diet FM FPBM50 FPBM75 FPBM100 PPBM75 PPBM100
of humpback grouper without adverse
effects on growth performance and feed
utilization. In view of the high protein
requirement of humpback groupers, the
use of PBM will contribute significantly
to cost-savings. In addition, humpback
groupers are slow-growing species, diets. This might have contributed in The full results of this project
which takes a longer time to reach part to the poor growth of fish fed diet were published in:
marketable size compared with other FPBM100. Longer-termed feeding
grouper species. This longer culture trials will be required to determine if Shapawi, R., Ng, W.K., & Mustafa,
period implies a higher requirement for a dietary methionine level of below S., 2007. Replacement of fish meal
feed input and cost of maintenance. 1% can support the normal growth of with poultry by-product meal in diets
Therefore, feed costs can be substan- humpback grouper fingerlings. The formulated for the humpback grouper,
tially reduced with the inclusion of quantitative lysine requirement for Cromileptes altivelis. Aquaculture 273,
greater quantities of PBM in the diets humpback grouper is currently not 118-126.
of humpback grouper and possibly known. Compared to the control diet,
in the diets of other tropical marine the FPBM100 diet had markedly lower References
carnivorous cultured fish species. lysine content which was the lowest
concentration among all the PBM-based Bureau, D.P., Harris, A.M., Cho, C.Y., 1999.
diets. Apparent digestibility of rendered animal protein
ingredients for rainbow trout. Aquaculture 180:
The dry matter and protein ADC for 345-358.
the FPBM100 diet were the lowest FAO, 2004. EMPRES Transboundary Animal
among the various diets (Figure 1). This Diseases Bulletin No 25, January-June 2004.
was probably the major contributing Gaylord, T.G. and Rawles, S.D., 2005. The
factor to the poor growth performance modification of poultry by-product meal for
of humpback grouper fingerling fed use in hybrid striped bass Morone chrysops x
this diet. High lipid ADC values were M. saxatilis diets. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 36:
observed in all dietary treatments (91.7 365-376.
– 96.7 %), and these values were not Nengas, I., Alexis, M.N., Davis, S.J. 1999. High
significantly different among dietary Inclusion levels of poultry meals and related by
The feeding trial was conducted at the treatments. The better nutrient digest- products in diets for gilthead seabream, Sparus
Borneo Marine Research Institute in ibility of the PPBM compared to FPBM aurata L. Aquaculture 179: 12-23.
Sabah, Malaysia. allowed higher dietary levels of this Tacon, A.G.J., Hassan, M.R., Subasinghe, R.P.,
ingredient to be included without notice- 2006. Use of fishery resources as feed inputs
The amino acid composition of the PBM able growth depression. In conclusion, to aquaculture development: trends and policy
used was within the published values terrestrial PBM can successfully replace implications. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 1018.
for this ingredient, and it influenced more than half of the protein from FAO. Italy, Rome, 99 pp.
the overall amino acid composition marine fish meal in the formulated diets Takagi, S.T., Hosokawa, H., Shimeno, S., Ukawa,
of the experimental diets (Table 2). It for the humpback grouper, a marine M., 2000. Utilization of poultry by-product meal
was interesting to note that the cystine carnivorous tropical fish. However, the in a diet for red sea bream Pagrus major.
concentration in FPBM was about use of PBM as the sole protein source Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 66: 428-438.
double that found in PPBM but the in the diets of humpback grouper might Williams, K.C., Irvin S., Barclay, M., 2004. Polka dot
sparing value of cystine for methionine be constrained by lowered nutrient grouper Cromileptes altivelis juvenile require
in grouper is currently not known. digestibility and limiting essential amino high protein and moderate lipid diets for optimal
Both methionine and lysine appeared acids, especially methionine and lysine. growth and nutrient retention. Aquacult. Nutr.
to be the limiting amino acids in the Further research with longer-term 10: 125-134.
experimental diets with 100% PBM. feeding trials is currently being carried
The methionine concentration was 0.87 out to evaluate the nutritive value of
% in FPBM100 diet and ranged from PBM for marine fish species.
1.01 – 1.47 % in the other experimental

July-September 2008 43
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Production update – marine finfish aquaculture in the

Asia-Pacific region
Mike Rimmer, James Cook University
Correspondence: c/- Balai Budidaya Air Payau Ujung Batee, Banda Aceh, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, Indonesia.

Introduction Figure 1. Value in USD millions (line) and production by country (columns) of
milkfish (Chanos chanos) in the Asia-Pacific region, 1997 – 2006.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation 600,000 700 Tuvalu
of the United Nations (FAO) updates its 600
Tonga
Taiwan Province of China
500,000
statistics on global aquaculture produc-
Production (tonnes)
Singapore
500 Philippines
tion and value annually (www.fao.org). 400,000 Micronesia,Fed.States of

This article summarises recent changes 400 Kiribati

Indonesia
300,000
in production trends for marine finfish 300
Cook Islands
Value (US$ m)
aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific region 200,000
200
based on these FAO data, which now
100,000 100
cover the period up to 2006. Although
the FAO data sets go back to 1950 0 0
(production) and 1984 (value), only the 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
last 10 years’ data are presented here.
Figure 2. Value in USD millions (line) and production by country (columns)
Note: the data compiled by FAO are of barramundi (Lates calcarifer) in the Asia-Pacific region, 1997 – 2006.
provided by the producer countries. 40,000 90 Thailand
In many cases the classification of 80 Taiwan Prov ince of China

aquaculture production is not reliable, 70

Singapore
Saudi Arabia
30,000
Production (tonnes)

particularly at species level (see the 60

Philippines

FAO web site for comment on the 50

Malay sia
Indonesia
accuracy of the data sets). To reduce 20,000 French Poly nesia
40 China, Hong Kong SAR
potential inaccuracies I have confined Brunei Darussalam
30
this analysis to fairly broad search 10,000
Australia
20 Value (US$m)
criteria, or to well-known species.
10
However, there are undoubtedly inac-
0 0
curacies in the data sets; for example,
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Australian production of barramundi is
classified as ‘brackishwater’ although
most barramundi produced in Australia Figure 3. Global production value in USD millions (line) and production by
are farmed in freshwater ponds. Unless country (columns) of groupers (Family Serranidae), 1997 – 2006.
otherwise noted, data were sorted for: 100,000 U nited States of Am eric a
Countries: Continent = Asia & Oceania; 200 U nited Arab Em irates

Environments: Brackishwater and 80,000 175

Tunis ia
Thailand
Production (tonnes)

Mariculture. 150 Taiwan Prov inc e of China

Singapore
60,000
125 Saudi Arabia
Philippines

Marine finfish 40,000

100
75
Malay s ia
Kuwait
Korea, Republic of
50
Production of marine finfish in the Asia- 20,000 Indones ia
C hina, Hong Kong SAR
25
Pacific region increased 4.7% between C hina

2005 and 2006, from 1,148,892 to 0 0 Brunei D arus s alam

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Brazil
1,203,165 tonnes (Table 1). Overall Value (U S$m )

value increased by 3.1%, from USD

4.09 billion to 4.22 billion from 2005 to Japan has the highest value of marine Production trends in
2006 (Table 2). The largest producer finfish production, with 246,000 tonnes
remains China, with 715,000 tonnes of of production valued at USD 1.97 billion. some selected species
production in 2006 valued at USD 734 Japan’s focus on producing high-value
million. Based on these data, China marine finfish is demonstrated by the Milkfish
produces nearly 60% of total regional fact that Japan produces around 20%
production, but this represents only 17% of regional production, but the value of Milkfish (Chanos chanos) remains a
of total value, suggesting that much Japanese production forms 47% of the popular commodity in Asia and the
of Chinese production is of low-value regional total. The bulk of Japanese Pacific. Although production of milkfish
species. production of marine finfish (~155,000 decreased slightly from 542,842 tonnes
tonnes) remains the Japanese amber- in 2005 to 524,010 tonnes in 2006,
jack (Seriola quinqueradiata). value of production increased from USD
552 million to USD 574 million over

44 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

the same period (Figure 1). Indonesia Figure 4. Value in USD millions (line) and production by country (columns) of
and the Philippines are consistently Japanese amberjack (Seriola quinqueradiata) in the Asia-Pacific region, 1997
the largest producers of milkfish, with – 2006.
94% of production in 2006. Milkfish 200,000 1,500
is also cultured in the Pacific Islands
(Cook Islands, Federated States of 1,250
Micronesia, Kiribati, Tonga, Tuvalu) but 150,000

Production (tonnes)
total production from the Pacific is only 1,000
about 13 tonnes. Korea, Republic of
100,000 750 Japan
Value (US$m)
Barramundi
500
50,000
Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) production 250
stayed relatively steady at 27,522
tonnes, up slightly from 26,915 tonnes 0 0
in 2005 (Figure 2) (note that these 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
figures exclude production listed as from
freshwater, which is a relatively minor Figure 5. Value in USD millions (line) and production by country (columns) of
component of total production). Thailand cobia (Rachycentron canadum) in the Asia-Pacific region, 1997 – 2006.
remains the largest producer of farmed 30,000 50
barramundi with 55% of production. 45
25,000 40
Production (tonnes)

Total value of production increased

35
slightly from USD 73.1 million to USD 20,000
30
77.5 million (Figure 2). Taiwan Province of China
15,000 25 China
Value (US$m)
20
Grouper 10,000 15
10
5,000
Global production of groupers (Family 5
Serranidae) increased from 65,714 to 0 0
69,074 tonnes from 2005 to 2006, an 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Table 1. Aquaculture production of marine finfish (tonnes) in the Asia-Pacific 1997 – 2006. FAO data by ISSCAAP
Division: Marine Finfish; Countries: Continents = Asia & Oceania; Environments: Brackishwater & Mariculture.

Country (tonnes) 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Australia 2,184 1,699 1,602 2,731 4,075 4,009 2,414 4,558 2,240 3,638
Bahrain <0.5 1 3 12 <0.5 3 4 8 3 2
Brunei Darussalam <0.5 <0.5 36 53 30 16 18 42 42 30
China 254,979 306,697 338,805 426,957 494,725 560,404 519,158 582,566 658,928 715,275
China, Hong Kong SAR 2,960 1,200 1,250 1,769 2,468 1,211 1,486 1,541 1,539 1,488
Cyprus 842 1,053 1,313 1,735 1,725 1,705 1,654 2,069 2,452 2,560
Fiji Islands - - - - - - - - - -
French Polynesia . 2 <0.5 1 4 1 2 3 9 9
Guam 5 5 7 7 7 7 . . . .
India 1,429 1,740 . . . . 2,644 8,000 17,000 18,510
Indonesia 12,264 8,386 14,879 12,623 15,020 23,007 22,810 19,884 18,783 15,558
Israel 1,430 1,817 2,359 2,874 3,404 3,202 3,349 3,850 3,864 3,378
Japan 245,847 255,297 253,289 245,566 252,173 260,382 264,710 252,674 256,192 246,336
Korea, Republic of 39,121 37,323 34,382 27,052 29,297 48,073 72,393 64,195 80,861 88,604
Kuwait 154 150 176 346 179 179 164 100 142 11
Malaysia 2,706 2,266 3,092 5,645 5,165 5,570 7,369 7,704 8,451 12,081
Oman - 13 - - - - 352 503 168 89
Philippines 726 144 188 266 376 305 732 591 724 951
Qatar 2 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 1 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Saudi Arabia <0.5 31 30 42 62 45 49 41 97 165
Singapore 205 210 295 421 259 181 226 396 579 689
Taiwan Province of China 13,511 15,373 14,558 15,518 17,450 26,715 29,553 26,925 25,192 20,964
Thailand 1,243 1,682 1,175 1,358 1,463 1,179 2,349 3,597 2,602 3,056
Turkey 13,800 18,810 23,000 33,337 28,485 26,020 37,717 47,442 68,454 69,201
United Arab Emirates <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 2,300 570 570 570
Total 593,408 653,899 690,439 778,313 856,368 962,214 971,453 1,027,259 1,148,892 1,203,165

July-September 2008 45
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Table 2. Value of marine finfish production (USD millions) in the Asia-Pacific region 1997 – 2006. FAO data sorted for
ISSCAAP Division: Marine Finfish; Countries: Asia, Oceania; Environments: Brackishwater, Mariculture.
Country (USD millions) 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Australia 30 18 24 87 107 103 53 85 32 48
Bahrain 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brunei Darussalam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
China 178 184 203 256 322 560 474 536 662 734
Hong Kong SAR 35 11 9 15 23 9 13 13 11 11
Cyprus 7 8 8 9 8 9 10 14 20 18
Fiji Islands 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
French Polynesia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Guam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
India 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 7 18 20
Indonesia 21 14 28 26 34 58 99 61 23 15
Israel 20 21 28 21 22 17 18 21 21 28
Japan 2,141 1,878 2,082 2,020 2,058 2,102 2,103 2,001 2,044 1,968
Korea, Republic of 435 267 326 276 227 298 537 531 702 824
Kuwait 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0
Malaysia 23 11 12 22 19 20 39 35 44 67
Oman 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 1
Philippines 7 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 5
Qatar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saudi Arabia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Singapore 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 3 4 4
Taiwan Province of China 73 79 84 91 97 107 144 142 137 107
Thailand 9 9 8 9 9 6 12 22 14 17
Turkey 114 153 169 131 85 78 176 245 349 348
United Arab Emirates 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 4 4 4
TOTAL 3,097 2,658 2,988 2,969 3,016 3,373 3,696 3,727 4,091 4,219

increase of 5% (Figure 3). (Note that 159,741 tonnes in 2005 to 155,004 reported production of cobia with a
this analysis includes countries outside tonnes in 2006. Value also decreased provisional figure of about 26 tonnes.
the Asia-Pacific region, however the slightly from USD 1.36 billion to USD Total value of production increased from
bulk of production is from Asia-Pacific 1.32 billion in 2005 – 2006 (Figure USD 41.2 million to USD 43.8 million
countries). China remains the largest 4). The price of Japanese amberjack (Figure 5).
producer of farmed grouper, contributing has remained steady at USD 8.50 per
70% of total production. The next kilogram since 2001.
largest producer is Taiwan Province of Conclusion
China, with 14% of production. Despite Cobia
this increase in reported production, While marine finfish aquaculture
total value of production decreased by Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) is continues to expand in the Asia-Pacific
9%, from USD 184 million to USD 168 an emerging species of considerable region, these data suggest that the
million over the same period (Figure interest to farmers in the Asia-Pacific rate of growth is beginning to slow.
3). Value for farmed grouper has been region. Presently, China and Taiwan The growth in production (4.7%) was
trending downward since 2003, possibly Province of China are the only two substantially below the 10-year average
due to increasing supply of lower-valued countries in the Asia-Pacific region to of 9.6% p.a. In contrast, the growth in
cultured species. report production of cobia. The apparent value (3.1%) was closer to the 10-year
dramatic increase in cobia production average of 4.2% p.a. These data
Japanese amberjack in 2003 (Figure 5) is likely due to China suggest that, overall, markets for marine
beginning to report disaggregated finfish remain relatively buoyant despite
Although there is some production of production which had previously been increasing production.
Japanese amberjack from the Republic reported as ‘marine finfish’ production.
of Korea, the bulk of production is In 2005 – 2006, cobia production
from Japan (Figure 4). Production has increased from 22,745 to 25,367 tonnes
been relatively steady over the past (Figure 5). Outside of the Asia-Pacific
10 years, and decreased slightly from region, only Mayotte and Réunion

46 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Crustacean parasites and their management in

brackishwater finfish culture
K.P. Jithendran*, M. Natarajan and I.S. Azad
Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, 75 Santhome High Road, Chennai - 600 028, India.*
Email: [email protected], Fax: +91-44-24610311.

Introduction among males. In branchiura the body is of naupliar stages they moult to
dorso-ventrally flattened with two pairs form copepodid stages. In primitive
There are three main groups of parasitic of antennae and pre-oral proboscis. The groups of parasitic copepods such as
crustaceans affecting commercially second maxillae are modified to form ergasilids, the copepodids are free
important aquaculture species, most prehensile suckers (eg. Argulus). swimming. Copulation occurs during
of which are external parasites: the the free-swimming stages, after which
Branchiura, Copepoda and Isopoda. the male die. The female is left to seek,
Members of the Branchiura and Isopoda Parasites attach and mature on a marine or
are relatively large and both sexes are freshwater fish host with the help of the
parasitic, while copepods, the most The common crustacean parasite prominent claw like second antennae.
common crustacean parasites, are species encountered in brackish water or In more evolved copepods such as the
generally small to microscopic with both low saline systems are given in Table 1. caligids some or all of the copepodid
free living and parasitic stages in their stages may be parasitic including adult
life cycle. Male parasitic copepods die males. Caligid copepods generally have
after copulation in the pre-adult stages, Life cycle and direct life cycle, consisting of a free-
so those that are seen attached to living planktonic nauplius stage, free
fish are generally mature females with transmission swimming infective copepodid stages,
distinctive paired egg sacs at the poste- attached chalimus, pre-adults and adult
rior end. The crustacean parasites dealt Parasitic copepods have a complex stages. In case of Lernaea sp. the eggs
here are primarily those that are likely life cycle with different larval stages; released by the female hatch in 1-3
to cause problems when commonly between each of which is a moult. days with subsequent nauplii larvae.
cultured fish species are grown in Eggs hatch to release free-swimming The nauplius metamorphoses into first
inland low saline or freshwater, though nauplius larvae. After a succession or second copepodid stage in 4-16
such studies are scarce in India. Under
culture conditions, modified specificity Figure 1. Important crustacean parasites in brackishwater fish:
is also exhibited by many crustacean Lernanthropus sp. and Caligus sp.
parasites in that they will invade
‘unnatural’ hosts that are not normally
present in their natural habitats.

Parasitic crustaceans are numerous

and have worldwide distribution in fresh,
brackish and salt waters (Figure 1).
Usually they cause only minor harm
to their hosts when present in small
numbers. However, in case of heavy
infections severe damage to skin,
muscles, and gill tissue accompanied
with secondary infections can occur.
Parasitic crustaceans a great diversity
of forms with marked structural
modifications to suit their parasitic mode
of life. These range from the typical
features of normal copepods such
as unfused abdominal segments and
nearly full complements of appendages,
to genera such as Lernaea (‘anchor
worm’) in which the body segments
are fused together and many of the
appendages are missing or modified
at least in parasitic stages. Generally,
sensory organs and the reproductive
systems are well developed. Sexes
are usually separate with clear sexual
dimorphism with predominant dwarfism

July-September 2008 47
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Table 1. Common crustacean parasitic infection in brackish water finfish in coastal and estuarine zones.
Subclass / family Genus Characteristics
Branchiura
Body broad and flat covered anteriorly with dorsal shield with a pair of compound eyes,
Argulidae Argulus sp. hooks and barbs, which it uses to attach to the fins, gills and skin of its host, second
maxillae usually form prehensile suckers.
Copepoda
Transparent, cephalothorax covered dorsally by a sub circular shield, with a pair of
Caligus sp.
suckers on the frontal edge of the body and four pair of legs, vestigial abdomen in
Caligidae Lepeophtheirus sp.
some species, found in large numbers on gills and body surface with different stages of
Anuretes sp.
life cycle in the same host.
Cephalothorax constituting half or more of body length, the second antennae are
Ergasilidae Ergasilus sp. modified for clinging to the host, moderate to large numbers on gills with rigorous
feeding action and movements.
Few in number but large in size, feed on gill tissues and blood, seriously damage the
Lernanthropidae Lernanthropus sp.
tissues.
Body unsegmented, with its anterior part deeply embedded in host tissue with the help
Lernaeidae Lernaea sp.
of a hold fast organ, infect nostril, skin, fin, gills, buccal cavity.
Isopoda
Entire dorsal surface of body divided into many narrow segments, eyes are sessile,
Cymothoidae Cymothoa sp.
parasite immovably attached to surface, buccal or branchial cavity of fish.

days. No further development occurs Parasites, clinical signs parasites access to cultivable fish. Since
unless it attaches to a host. Larvae both adults and larval stages are active
pass through five successive copepodid and effects swimmers, it is difficult to prevent them
stages before attachment. Copulation from entering the pond. Appropriate filter
occurs during the fourth copepodid Branchiurans designs might prove more efficacious to
stage and the male dies similar to the check the degree of infestation.
Ergasilus sp. Although Argulus sp. Members of the family Argulidae
cannot survive without a host for long represented by genus Argulus
period, they may swim freely looking commonly called as ‘fish lice’ has a Copepods
for new host. Unlike other crustaceans, broad, flat oval body with hooks and
there is no sexual dimorphism; eggs barbs, which it uses to attach to the fins, Caligus sp.
are not carried by the females in egg gills and skin of its host. They are one
sacs, but the parasite leaves its host to of the most widespread and dangerous Caligus sp. or ‘sea lice’ are common
deposit its eggs on submerged objects. ectoparasites of freshwater and marine copepod parasites in the family
Larvae do not hatch as nauplii but as fish. They damage the fish directly Caligidae, infesting a wide range of fish
copepodid stage with thoracic append- by extracting blood and vital tissue species in the coastal and estuarine
ages to follow a series of subsequent fluids from the host with their modified zones although other lesser known
larval stages by progressive develop- mouthparts. The mode of feeding of fish species viz., Lepeophtheirus sp.
ment of the dorsal shield and abdomen, Argulus involves secretion and injection and Anuretes sp. are have also been
the maxillary suckers and reproductive of relatively large quantities of digestive reported to be afflicted in the Indian
organs. Thus, transmission of parasites fluids, which are toxic to the fish. The subcontinent. Three species of Caligus,
within the system is by physical contact sting of one fish lice can kill a small fish. C. epidemicus, C. orientalis and C.
with infected animals or by the free Feeding sites become hemorrhagic punctatus are the potential major
living infective stages after reproduction. and ulcerated and provide access to pathogens in the development of cage
Many species simply glide from one fish secondary infections by other patho- culture. Caligus orientalis seriously
to other. Many parasites are transferred gens. Mucous is secreted when skin, fin affects wild populations as well. When
to culture system by way of water, live and gills become infected. they first infect a farmed fish population
feed, wild fish, contaminated farm imple- they cause extensive irritation and
ments etc. Hence control methods may Branchiuran parasites on fishes nervous activity. Feeding on the fish
vary greatly depending upon the farm are usually found in the walls of the skin, mucous and blood, these lice
conditions, the type of parasites and its branchial cavity and not permanently can cause small hemorrhages and
life cycle stages. attached to their hosts, but can crawl sore, erode the skin and expose the
on their surfaces and can slowly swim underlying tissue to secondary infection.
leaving one fish to another. Sexual Caligid copepods have direct life cycle,
dimorphism is not marked. The only way consisting of a free-living planktonic
to prevent Argulus infection is to deny nauplius stage, free swimming infective

48 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Table 2 Common treatment against copepods in brackish water finfish.

Drugs / chemicals Dose Type of treatment, duration
Formalin 100-200 ppm Short bath; 30-60 min
H2O2 1000 ppm Short bath; 30-60 min
Dichlorvos 0.75 - 1 ppm Short bath; 60 min
Caprylic acid I mM Short bath; 5-10 min

copepodid stages, attached chalimus, Lernaea sp. crustacean organisms (Macrobrachium

pre-adults and adult stages. In most sp., Peneaus monodon) in coastal
cases, it is the attached chalimus stages Better known as the ‘anchor worm’, this freshwater or on brackishwater fishes
that cause significant pathological species affects a large number of warm inhabiting freshwater. They have a short
lesions leading to mortality when water fishes. Adults are visible to the free-living planktonic phase; juveniles
present in large numbers. The pre-adult naked eye. Although Lernaea is typically and adults are exclusively parasitic
and adult stages are not very invasive a freshwater copepod, it has been living on the skin, buccal cavity and gill
and cause minor tissue damage. In reported from brackishwater fish also. chamber of the fish (eg. Cymothoa).
disease situations, death is caused by The parasite seems to have an affinity The damage caused by them resem-
the development of secondary infections for the heart region of small fish and kills bles that of other copepods but the
exacerbated by stress, osmoregulatory them by piercing the heart or other vital most serious effect of isopod infection is
failure and in the case of the gills, organs. The female lernaeidid copepod destruction of host tissue resulting from
respiratory impairment. has long filamentous body with trailing the pressure of the parasites body. No
attached eggs sacs. Morphological specific control or therapeutic measures
The intensity of copepod infestation modifications include the head, which against isopods have been in practice
generally increases after rainfall and is a rounded knob inserted into the except the manual removal of the
late spring and decline in winter and musculature of its fish host; one or two parasite and by implementing optimum
summer due to the lack of recruitment pairs of anchors to hold it in position. management practices during culture
and parasite death. This is a major Damage to the fish host includes as infection by the planktonic phase is
problem in cage cultured brackish water hemmorhagic and ulcerated lesions the common feature.
fishes but the economic impact of this with potential for secondary infections,
disease is not known. anemia, retarded growth, loss of weight Diagnosis and management
and loss of equilibrium.
Ergasilus sp. Diagnosis is usually done by gross and
The destructive activity of Lernaea sp. microscopic examination of scrapings
Ergasilid copepods are found on the is due to its relatively large size and from skin, gills, fins etc. from affected
body surface, gills and branchial and its mode of attachment and feeding. fishes and by observing general clinical
nasal cavities of many fish species As the maximum damage to the fish symptoms. Pre-disposing factors for
including seabass, grouper, mullet, pearl is caused by the adult parasite which transmission of crustacean parasites
spot, tilapia etc, where it feeds on the remain attached to the host tissue with are poor water exchange and thus suffi-
blood and epithelium. Heavy infesta- an anterior holdfast organ and also by cient water exchange can prevent their
tions can result in mechanical damage, the developmental stages that remain proliferation. Modification of husbandry
patechial hemorrhage, impaired attached to the host, any reliable and practices can be a very effective
respiration, epithelial hyperplasia, and effective prophylactic measures should method to reduce the magnitude of
anemia with growth retardation. Severe aim at killing the free living stages of infection. Application of husbandry
gill damage is caused by the feeding the parasites at nauplii and copepodid practices to control the abundance
activity of the copepod and this often stages before it gets attached to the of parasitic copepods requires a
leads to fish death. Proliferation of this fish host. Lernaea is extremely difficult good knowledge of their biology (eg.
parasite is observed in summer. to control because only the free-living growth rates, duration of survival of
larvae are susceptible to treatment. infectious stages off-host etc.) and host
Lernanthropus sp. The adult female produces three sets of range. Routine disease management
eggs; these eggs produce larvae over measures such as reducing stocking
This species is relatively large, reddish a four week period. Since the larvae density and water quality management
in colour, firmly attached to the gills, remain free living for about one week, are likely to reduce the impact of
inflicts serous damage to the gills by it is necessary to treat once a week for parasitic copepods. It is well recognized
way of erosion, desquamation and four weeks to eliminate this parasite. that a few unhealthy / stressed animals
necrosis of the secondary lamellae near are more susceptible to infection and
the site of attachment. The grasping harbour the majority of the parasites.
action of the mandibles and the Isopods In pond culture, overcrowding and
maxillae results in the exposure of blood poor water quality has been cited as
vessels and hemorrhages. This serious Cymothoa sp. factors responsible for the development
pathogen is frequently encountered of parasitic copepod diseases. The
in many species of wild fish and cage This cause serious problem in fishes important management techniques
cultured sea bass. kept in captivity or cages. Isopods are to be followed are, rearing different
large parasites of wild tropical marine batches in separate tanks, pond drying,
fish and rarely found in other culture of removal of all probable hosts from the

July-September 2008 49
Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

stocking sites prior to stocking so that of copepod parasitism is becoming a (eds. Gilda Lio Po, Celia R. Lavilla and Erlinda
all infectious stages die due to lack of regular phenomenon in culture condi- R Cruz-Lacierda), SEAFDEC, Philippines. pp.
hosts, quarantine prior to stocking and tions. The only sure way to prevent 55-73.
introduction to the rearing system and parasitic infection is to deny the parasite Thirunavukkarasu, A.R., Mathew Abraham and
frequent cleaning of holding tank/nets. access to the protected habitat. Although Kailasam, M. (2004). Hand book of seed
The parasites can be controlled by fresh it is well established that parasitic crusta- production and culture of Asian seabass, Lates
water bath for 10-15 min or by chemical ceans have a major impact on brackish calcarifer (Bloch). Bulletin No. 18. p.58.
treatment using 1000 ppm hydrogen water aquaculture there are relatively
peroxide or 100-200 ppm formalin for few published reports of disease and
30-60 min. Some of the treatments / or disease treatments and economic Lao PDR...from page 31.
commonly applied in brackishwater losses associated with these infections
fishes are shown in Table 2. Strong in India. We need to study the ecology Ounidate, Khometun & Parsirth (1993). Technical
aeration must be provided during of the parasite, including seasonality, report on the aquacultue of C.molitorella in
treatment. Drying of unused tanks also maturation and the population dynamics Luang Prabang. Living Aquatic Resource
helps to destroy the developing stages. and transmission mechanisms vis-à-vis Research Center, Vientiane, Lao PDR.
Treated fish should be transferred to physicochemical parameters of the Pennapaporn, P. (1970). The culture of pla-ka,
clean parasite free facility. rearing water in order to prevent and Morulius chrysophekadion (Bleeker) with
control the outbreak of the species in common carp, Cyprinus carpio Linn. in ponds.
It is well recognized that parasites act brackish water aquaculture. Annual Report 1970. Pond and Experiment
as mechanical vectors of the pathogens Culture section. Aquaculture Unit, Inland
though they are not an obligatory host. References Fisheries Division. Department of Fisheries.
It is likely that any fluid or tissue feeding 133-141 pp.
parasites could potentially act as a Heckmann, R. (2003). Other ectoparasites infesting Somboon, Souksavath, O., Amphone, Soulig-
vector for bacteria, fungus, virus etc. fish; copepods, branchiurans, isopods, mites namath, P., Khamsivilay, L. & Saphakdy, B.
It has been speculated that parasitic and bivalves. Aquaculture Magazine, Nov/Dec. (2003). Nursing Cirrhinus molitorella in the
copepods may serve as vectors of viral 2003. pp. 20-31. earthen ponds with four different stocking
and bacterial diseases of fish due to Ho, J. S. (2000). The major problems of cage densities. In Proceedings of the Fifth Technical
their feeding activities on host mucous, aquaculture in Asia relating to sea lice. In Symposium on Mekong Fisheries, 11-12
tissues and blood. I.C. Liao, C.K. Lin, eds. Cage aquaculture in December 2002 (Poulsen, A. ed., pp. 155-158.
Asia: Proceedings of the First International Mekong River Commission Phnom Penh.
Parasitic copepods with relatively Symposium on cage Aquaculture in Asia. Souksavath, O. (2001). Report on nursing of
narrow host ranges such as Ergasilus Manila: Asian Fisheries Society, and Bangkok: Cirrhinus molitorella in ponds and cages, Luang
are easier to control especially, where World Aquaculture Society. Southeast Asian Prabang, Lao PDR. Internal report. LARReC,
there are few wild hosts present. Chapter, pp 13-19. Vientiane, Lao PDR.
Species with broad host ranges and / Johnson S.C., Treasurer J.W., Bravo, S., Nagasawa, Thavonnan, W. & Udomkananat, K. (1979). Culture
or abundant wild hosts (eg. Caligus sp.) K. and Kabata, Z. (2004). A review of the impact of black shark in earth ponds for growth rate
in the vicinity of aquaculture sites are of parasitic copepods on marine aquaculture, Annual report 1979. Kanchanaburi Inland
generally difficult to control because Zoological Studies, 43: 229-243. Fisheries Division, Department of Fisheries,
of recurrent infestations from carrier Kabata, Z. (1985). Parasites and diseases of fish Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 51-57.
hosts. Lernaea sp. is very difficult to cultured in the tropics. Taylor and Francis Ltd., 4 Thienchareon, P., Ounsrisong, G., Jittakorn,
control due to different stages of life John St. London. p 316. A. & Sriwatanawarunyu, S. (1990). A study
cycle showing different susceptibility to Nagasawa, K. (2004). Sealice, Lepeophtheirus on production of Morulius chrysophekadion
chemicals. Further the concentration salmonis and Caligus orientalis (Copepoda: grown in earthy ponds. Annual Report 1990.
of these chemicals required to kill the Caligidae) of wild and farmed fish in sea and Chiangmai Inland Fisheries development
developmental stages are toxic to fish. brackishwaters of Japan and adjacent regions: A Center. Inland Fisheries Division, Department of
Temperature dependant development review. Zoological Studies, 43: 173-178. Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Coopera-
of larval stages and the lethal effects of Nagasawa, K. and E.R. Cruz-Lacierda (eds.) (2004). tives. 100-113 pp.
even low salinity on larval stages etc. Diseases of cultured groupers. Southeast Asian U-domkananat, K. (1983). A study on production
can be utilized for the control of fresh Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture and stocking rate of Pla Ka Dum (Morulius
infections in the system. Eradication of Department, Iloilo, Philippines.81.p. chrysophekadion) and Pla Svay (Pangasius
copepods using freshwater bath is also Pillai, N.K. (1985). Fauna of India. Parasitic sutchi). Annual Report 1983 Kanchanaburi
suggested. copepods of marine fishes. Technical and Inland Fisheries Station, Inland Fisheries
General Press, Calcutta, 900 pp. Division, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of
Prabha, C. and Pillai, N.K. (1986). Additions to the Agriculture and Cooperatives. 23-26 pp.
Conclusions copepods parasitic on the marine fishes of India Unsrisong, K., Jittakorn, A., Sriwatanawarunyu, S.
4. On twenty six species of caligids. Rec. Zool. & Thienchareon, P. (1990). A culture of Morulius
Crustacean parasites are numerous and Surv. India, Occas. Pap. 79: 1-139. chrysophekadion (Bleeker) spawners in earthy
have a worldwide distribution in marine Rajkumar, M. Perumal, P. and Trilles, J.P. (2005). ponds. Annual Report 1990. Chiangmai Inland
and brackishwater aquaculture systems. Cymothoa indica (Crustacea, Isopoda, Fisheries Research Center. Inland Fisheries
Copepods comprise the largest group Cymothoidae) parasitizes the cultured larvae Division, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of
of crustacean parasites on fish causing of the Asian seabass Lates calcarifer under Agriculture and Cooperatives. 86-99 pp.
economical loss. Disease outbreaks laboratory conditions, Disease of Aquatic Warren, T.J. (2000). Indigenous Mekong Fish
and subsequent mortalities are rare Organisms, 66: 87-90. Species with Potential for Aquaculture, Stocking
under effective broodstock management Roberts, R.J. (2001). Fish Pathology. Third edition, or Translocation. Management of Reservoir
systems due to effective treatment W.B. Saunders London. P. 472. SEAFDEC Fisheries in the Mekong Basin II, Vientiane.
methods. However, increasing incidence (2001). Health management in Aquaculture, 92 pp.

50 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 NACA News

NACA Newsletter ISSN 0115-8503

Published by the Network of Aquaculture Centres Volume XXIII, No. 3

in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand July-September 2008

Participants in the Beijing workshop on development of aquaculture certification guidelines.

Aquaculture certification guidelines development process

continues in Beijing, Washington D.C.
The final two workshops on the It brought together 65 participants, opment of the international guidelines
development of international guidelines including several experts and stake- and strategies for implementation of
for aquaculture certification have been holders in aquaculture from China, and aquaculture certification.
held in Beijing, China, 6-8 May and regional/international experts from FAO,
Silver Springs, USA, 30 May 2008. The NACA and SEAFDEC, from government The Silver Springs workshop similarly
workshops, hosted by the Government agencies, private business, and experts provided the opportunity for input and
of China and the Government of the involved in certification schemes and open discussion among interested
United States respectively, are the final food safety. This workshop had a strong stakeholders. This workshop focused
meetings in a series of six international emphasis on aquaculture products mainly on the North America region
expert consultations intended to build from China, and looked at opportunities (USA and Canada) as a major global
consensus and gather technical input and challenges for implementing the seafood market with many diverse
for the development of the guidelines. certification guidelines in China towards stakeholders in certification in
Previous consultations have been held improving aquatic production and trade aquaculture. This workshop provided
in Thailand, Brazil, India and the UK. of aquaculture products nationally, the opportunity for dialogue between
regionally, and globally. Many useful the secretariat, producing country
The Beijing workshop was conducted observations were made on the status representatives, and stakeholders in
as a joint initiative of FAO, NACA, the and implementation of certification the North American seafood supply
Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences schemes for aquaculture products chain. The workshop assessed the
and Department for Certification and in China, and the outcomes provide status, opportunities and mechanisms
Accreditation Administration of China. important inputs to the process of devel- for enhanced partnerships within supply

July-September 2008 51
NACA News

chains to support change, and as may

be necessary, to assist aquaculture Development of BMPs for catfish
certification in producing countries. The
workshop also reviewed the most recent farming in Vietnam – survey of
version of the draft aquaculture certifica-
tion guidelines. management practices
The draft guidelines
A comprehensive survey of manage- At a relatively large farm in Vinh Long
The draft guidelines that have emerged ment practices in the catfish farming province we were fortunate to observe
cover the range of potential issues sector is planned in support of the Tesco Lotus representatives negotiating
which may be considered relevant project Development of Better Manage- directly with the farmer. Larger proces-
for the certification in aquaculture ment Practices for Catfish Aquaculture sors seem to be aiming for a more
production including: animal health and in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. The vertically integrated approach as many
welfare, food safety and quality, environ- project team has just spent a week in are now starting grow-out operations to
mental integrity and social responsibility the delta developing and testing a set of complement the processing operations.
associated with aquaculture. The draft questionnaires, including survey forms Some are even intending to also include
guidelines address the development of for hatchery, nursery and grow-out hatchery and nursery operations. A
standards, accreditation and associated farms. variety of market/value chain links
certification procedures. seem to be forming and a market chain
During the visit our project team analysis will be an important supporting
Next steps conducted field trials to test the draft component of the BMP project.
questionnaires painstakingly developed
The next step in the consultation during a previous field visit from 11 to 16 The team hopes to complete the survey
process will be to draft aquaculture May 2008. We found that the question- of existing management practices by
certification guidelines will be presented naires still needed some modification early August 2008, and the analysis
by FAO to its member governments in light of field conditions, but happily by the end of September. Data will be
for discussion and consideration at the the cooperation of the farmers was presented at a national workshop for
upcoming Fourth Session of the COFI excellent; they were eager to share development of BMP interventions,
Sub-Committee on Aquaculture, to information and spent hours discussing which will be then field tested through
be held in Puerto Varas, Chile in 6-10 with us the highs and lows of catfish selected demonstration farms in early
October 2008. farming and their perceptions on the 2009.
way forward.
More information A video of the feeding of catfish is
We also had opportunity to meet available at:
For more information about the and hold discussions with provincial
workshops and the development of aquaculture authorities with regard • http://www.enaca.org/modules/news/
the guidelines please refer to the links to future collaboration in promoting article.php?storyid=1752
below or contact [email protected]. the adoption of better management
practices. Overall, many parts of the Please see the project web page for an
The draft international guidelines on industry seemed very knowledgeable overview of the project’s activities and
aquaculture certification (version 4.2): about the concerns of the overseas regular updates on progress:
markets in terms of BMP related issues
• http://www.enaca.org/modules/ such as traceability, pollution, use of • http://www.enaca.org/modules/
wfdownloads/singlefile. chemicals and related disease treat- inlandprojects/index.php?content_
php?cid=166&lid=945. ments. This high level of awareness/ id=1
understanding would seem to bode
Summary of the consultation process for well for the understanding of BMPs Report by Thuy Nguyen on behalf of the
development of the guidelines: and their uptake in Vietnam. We also project team which includes personnel
learnt that government at various levels of Fisheries Victoria (Department of
• http://www.enaca.org/modules/ (district, province and national) must Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia),
tinyd10/index.php?id=1. be an integral part of the process of NACA, the Research Institute for Aquac-
BMP development and implementation ulture No. 2 and Can Tho University.
The report and presentations from the in order to reach an acceptable co-
Beijing workshop: management arrangement.

• http://www.enaca.org/modules/
tinyd11/index.php?id=20.

Key documents and presentations from

the Silver Springs workshop can be
downloaded from:

• http://www.enaca.org/modules/
tinyd11/index.php?id=21.

52 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 NACA News

NACA extends cooperation with ADB for tsunami

rehabilitation in Indonesia
NACA has extended its cooperation 11th March that will extend the services To date, the NACA assistance in Aceh
with the Asian Development Bank of NACA until January 2009. The new and Nias has reached over 20,000
for assistance to rehabilitation of the package will assist the Rehabilitation coastal farmers and fishers, men and
fisheries sector in the Special Province and Reconstruction Agency for Aceh women, and their families. The new
of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam through and Nias (BRR) to complete ongoing package will enable this support to be
the ADB Earthquake and Tsunami fisheries sector rehabilitation work, and continued, but with more emphasis
Emergency Support Project (ETESP) extends the scope of the services with on capacity building and development
Fisheries Component. The Director additional assistance with aquaculture of services to lay a foundation for
General of NACA signed a new contract and fisheries training, policy formulation longer-term recovery and growth of the
with the Asian Development Bank on and development of livelihood centres. fisheries sector in Aceh and Nias.

Cage aquaculture carrying capacity

International tool now available
hands-on training A Cage Aquaculture Decision Support calculate carrying capacity. Two of these
Tool (CADS_TOOL) is now available are of particular relevance to the Asia
programme on from the Australian Institute of Marine Pacific region:
Science website. CADS_TOOL is
molecular biology a decision support system for cage • TROPOMOD, a tropical extension of
aquaculture managers, developed by the temperate models DEPOMOD
techniques Dr. Halmar Halide. CADS_TOOL is and MERAMOD, developed under
coded in Java and designed to run on PHILMINAQ.
any computer platform. The objective of
Fish Genetics and Biotechnology this software is to: • CADS_TOOL (Cage Aquaculture
division of CIFA is contemplating Decision Support Tool), developed
to organize a hands-on training on • Classify a site. under ACIAR project FIS/2003/027.
molecular biological techniques, which
would cover all the basic and essential • Select the best site from several site Workshop participants identified that
techniques Researchers interested in alternatives. there is a regional need for develop-
molecular biology need to experience ment of carrying capacity models, and
the many ways in which research is • Calculate the sustainable holding suggested that ongoing work should be
conducted in this field, and the hands- density of a chosen site. broadened to include study sites in two
on nature of the molecular biology or three countries.
techniques course is an effective way • Perform a basic economic appraisal
to introduce them to these methods. of a site. CADS_TOOL was developed as part of
Thus the present training is expected the Australian Centre for International
to serve effectively the researchers CADS_TOOL was first demonstrated Agricultural Research (ACIAR) project
working in the area of fish genetics and at the workshop Modeling carrying FIS/2003/027 Planning tools for environ-
biotechnology. The hands-on training capacity for tropical finfish cage culture: mentally sustainable tropical finfish
programme would be conducted at towards a consensus view, held in cage culture in Indonesia and northern
CIFA, Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneswar, Lampung, Indonesia, in November Australia. This project is a collaboration
Orissa state, India during 13th – 27th 2007. This workshop was funded by between the Australian Institute of
October 2008 (tentative). A maximum the Australian Centre for International Marine Science, (Dr. David McKinnon)
of ten participants will be trained on a Agricultural Research (ACIAR), and and the Research Institute for Coastal
first-come basis. This training is suitable convened by the Network of Aquacul- Aquaculture, Maros, South Sulawesi,
for researchers, scientists, government ture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) and Indonesia (Dr. Rachmansyah). Dr
officials, teachers and students working the Directorate General of Aquaculture Halmar Halide was employed by this
in the field of Aquaculture/Life Sciences/ of Indonesia. project at the Australian Institute of
genetics/biotechnology. For a brief Marine Science, and has now returned
overview of the course contents, visit This workshop aimed to demonstrate to Hasanuddin University, Makassar.
the link below or contact Dr Kuldeep and compare models developed for
Kumar, Senior Scientist in charge of the estimation of the sustainable The CADS Tool can be downloaded
Anabas, Murrel and Pearl units, CIFA, development of finfish cage culture from: http://data.aims.gov.au/cads/
Phone: 91-674-2465446, Ext-320, in the Asia Pacific Region, and to
2465421, fax: 91-674-2465407 or email develop a consensus view of how to
[email protected]. best implement such models and make
recommendations for best management
practice. The workshop identified a
number of models currently used to

July-September 2008 53
NACA News

Participants in the 6th grouper hatchery training course.

6th Regional training course was officially opened InterVet provided support to the training
by Dr Made L Nurdjana, Director course by sending Dr Cedric Komar,
Grouper Hatchery General for Aquaculture, Directorate Technical Manager, to provide lectures
General for Aquaculture. The opening on health management in marine
Production ceremony also attended by the Head aquaculture to participants.
of the Situbondo District Fisheries, and
Training Course the Head of the East Java Provincial In additional to providing the scholar-
Fisheries. ships for the training course, Skretting
completed sent its Technical Manager from the
The training course was a success, Marine Hatchery Feeds Division, Mr
A total of 19 participants from 10 participants were able to conduct Nick King, to provide presentations and
countries attended the 6th Regional hands-on activities from egg harvest demonstrations of rotifer culture, rotifer
Grouper Hatchery Production Training to larviculture. Field trips to hatchery, and Artemia enrichments for the training
Course from 5-25 May 2008 in nursery and grow-out of grouper and course.
BADC Situbondo, Indonesia. These marine finfish were organized to enable
participants came from Australia, participants to have a broader under-
Hong Kong SAR (China), Indonesia, standing of the overall marine finfish
India, Iran, Malaysia, Oman, Thailand, operation in Indonesia.
Trinidad and Tobago and Vietnam. The

2008 Forum on Fisheries Science and Technology, 25-27

September 2008, Shanghai, China
The Chinese Academy of Fishery an important role in promoting the • Eco-friendly fishing gear
Sciences will convene the Forum on development of fishery science and
Fishery Science and Technology in technology. • Rational exploitation and manage-
Shanghai, China in September. The ment for fisheries resources
purpose of the forum is to provide a The theme of the 2008 forum is Sustain-
high-level platform for scientists in able Development and Ecological • Seed source and germplasm
China as well as around the world to Safety of Fisheries, and will focus on the improvement for aquaculture
exchange their newest research fruits, following areas:
to share their experiences and achieve- • Food safety and fishery ecology
ments in the development of fisheries • Aquaculture carrying capacity and
and aquaculture with other countries. ecological balance For more information about the forum,
The forum has been supported by many including registration details, download
fisheries and aquaculture scientists all • Ecological environment adjustment the from: http://library.enaca.org/
over the world since 2003 and played and restoration announcements/cafs-forum-2008.pdf.

54 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

 NACA News

Aquaculture Bookshelf:
success stories New publications for free download
‘write shop’
Following the recommendations of
the Workshop on Research Needs to
Sustaining Aquaculture to 2025 and
Beyond, June 2007, held in Rayong,
Thailand (sponsored by IDRC Canada),
NACA, the International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD) and
the World Fisheries Trust (WFT) will
document “Aquaculture Success
Stories” covering a wide range of
topics that were established through
consensus at the Rayong Workshop.

As aquaculture seeks to move to a

more sustainable future and meet
the challenges of globalization, it
is important to consider how the
lessons of the past may guide future
development. The documentation
and comparative analysis of success
stories is the first step in this process. Marine finfish aquaculture shrimp or milkfish. By definition, small-
This activity is intended to capture the publications translated into scale hatcheries do not have broodstock
trends and lessons learned that have Bahasa facilities, so a supply of fertilised eggs
driven the rapid evolution of aquaculture (usually from a larger hatchery) is
(augmented with comparable cases Two of NACA’s most popular marine essential. Access to fertilised eggs and
on small scale fisheries). The success finfish publications are now also experienced hatchery staff will limit
stories will form part of the strategy available in Bahasa Indonesia: the application of small-scale hatchery
for guiding further actions intended to technology. Despite this, there is consid-
influence policy development and set a A Guide to Small-scale Marine erable potential for this technology to be
new course for the sustainable develop- Finfish Hatchery Technology widely adopted. Download from:
ment of aquaculture. (Panduan Teknologi Hatcheri Ikan
Laut Skala Kecil) http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdown-
Our plans include the development loads/singlefile.php?cid=75&lid=582.
of a series of ‘influencing strategies’ This guide provides an outline of the
to share the lessons learned from the requirements to establish a small-scale A Practical Guide to Feeds and
documentation and analysis of the marine finfish hatchery, particularly Feed Management for Cultured
success stories. This will include the the economic aspects. It is intended Grouper (Pedoman Praktis
production of a variety of materials to provide sufficient information for Pemberian dan Pengelolaan
tailored to reach out to the identified potential investors to decide whether Pakan untuk Ikan Kerapu yang di
target audiences and decision makers investment in such ventures is appro- Budidaya)
and active, targeted dissemination. priate for them. The guide provides
some basic technical information in Groupers are carnivorous and conse-
The success stories will be prepared order to give an indication of the level of quently prefer feeds high in fish protein.
at a “write shop” to be conducted technical expertise necessary to operate Most farms in Asia still rely on what is
from 22-27 September in Thailand. a small-scale marine finfish hatchery. commonly termed ‘trash fish’. Despite
Arrangements are being made to liaise However, it is not intended as a detailed the apparent abundance and availability
with selected experts in the region technical guide to the operation of of ‘trash’ fish in many areas, there are
to cooperate in this activity, and it is small-scale hatcheries. Additional some issues and problems related to its
expected the initial phase of the activity resources, such as training courses in use in fish farming. To provide farmers
to be completed in the course of 2008. marine finfish hatchery production, are with a viable alternative to feeding trash
available and these are listed in this fish to grouper, the Australian Centre
For more information about the write document. This guide has been written for International Agricultural Research
shop, contact [email protected]. by a team of experts in marine finfish (ACIAR) supported project FIS/97/73
The report of the June 2007 Rayong aquaculture who have been involved in Improved hatchery and grow-out
workshop, which serves as background a multinational collaborative research technology for grouper aquaculture in
material, is available for download at: project since 1999. Development of the Asia-Pacific region from 1999 to
http://www.enaca.org/modules/ small-scale hatcheries may be more 2002, with one component to develop
wfdownloads/singlefile. appropriate where there are existing formulated feed for grouper aquaculture.
php?cid=189&lid=902. marine hatchery operations, e.g. for The experiences of the project have

July-September 2008 55
NACA News

been synthesized into this Practical enhance fish food production in rural
Guide to Feeds and Feed Management areas. As such, the manual does not Network of
for Cultured Groupers to promote the deal with the dynamics and interactions Aquaculture
use of formulated feeds; promote reduc- of stocked populations. It deals with Centres in
tion in the use of ‘trash’ fish in grouper the gross factors that are applicable Asia-Pacific
aquaculture; and to assist farmers in to improving fish yields and therefore
making more efficient use of feeds and revenue; and sustaining culturebased
feed resources. This guide explores fisheries as a development activity in Mailing address:
new and better farming practices the long-term. The manual addresses P.O. Box 1040,
making use of formulated feeds, as well the constraints to culture-based Kasetsart University
as technical aspects of feed storage fisheries development in the region, Post Office,
and quality control, management of and provides guidelines on ways and Ladyao, Jatujak,
feeding including weaning of groupers means of overcoming such constraints. Bangkok 10903,
onto formulated feeds and economic Download from: Thailand
considerations. Download from:
http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdown- Phone +66 (2) 561 1728
http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdown- loads/singlefile.php?cid=193&lid=944. Fax +66 (2) 561 1727
loads/singlefile.php?cid=77&lid=583. Email: [email protected]
New free publications from FAO Website: www.enaca.org

FAO has released several great new NACA is a network composed of

publications for free download this 17 member governments in the
quarter. Download them from the links Asia-Pacific Region.
below:

Economics of aquaculture feeding

practices in selected Asian countries.
FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 505,
edited by Mohammad R. Hasan, 205p. Copyright NACA 2008.
Download from: Published under a Creative
Commons Attribution license.
• http://www.enaca.org/modules/ You may copy and distribute this
wfdownloads/singlefile. publication with attribution
php?cid=12&lid=941. of NACA as the original source.

Assessment of freshwater fish seed

resources for sustainable aquaculture.
FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 501, • http://www.enaca.org/modules/
edited by Melba G. Bondad-Reantaso, wfdownloads/singlefile.
2007, 628p. Download from: php?cid=12&lid=925.

Vietnamese translation of culture- • http://www.enaca.org/modules/ Assessment and communication of

based fisheries book wfdownloads/singlefile. environmental risks in coastal aquac-
php?cid=12&lid=930. ulture. GESAMP (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-
ACIAR and NACA are pleased to make IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint
available a Vietnamese translation of Comparative assessment of the Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects
the book “Better Practice Approaches environmental costs of aquaculture of Marine Environmental Protection)
for the Development of Culture-based and other food production sectors. FAO 2008, Rome, FAO. Reports and Studies
Fisheries in Asia”. The book is also Fisheries Proceedings No. 10, Edited GESAMP No. 76: 198 pp. Download
available for download in English and by Devin Barley, Cecile Brugere, Doris from:
Lao (see the link below). Soto, Pierre Gerber and Brian Harvey,
2007, 241p. Download from: • http://www.enaca.org/modules/
The primary objective of this manual is wfdownloads/singlefile.
to provide guidelines for attaining better- • http://www.enaca.org/modules/ php?cid=73&lid=943.
practices in culture-based fisheries, an wfdownloads/singlefile.
emerging practice in rural areas in the php?cid=200&lid=927.
Asian region. It deals will the principles
of culture-based fishery practices, Study and Analysis of Feeds and
primarily based on relatively long-term Fertilizers for Sustainable Aquaculture
experiences in Sri Lanka and Vietnam. Development. FAO Fisheries Technical
It is not only targeted at researchers Paper 497, Edited By Mohammad R.
per se, but also at stakeholders at the Hasan, Thomas Hecht, Sena S. De
grass root levels, as well as planners Silva, Albert G.J. Tacon, 2007, 507 pp.
and policy developers, particularly Download from:
those of Asian nations embarking on
culture-based fisheries as a strategy to

56 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

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