RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Assignment 1 ( unit 1 &2 )

Q1. What is observation method ? What are different types of observation

methods? Elaborate with examples.

Ans Observation
Observation, as the name implies, is a way of collecting data through observing.
Observation data collection method is classified as a participatory study, because the
researcher has to immerse herself in the setting where her respondents are, while
taking notes and/or recording.
The observation method involves human or mechanical observation of what people actually do or what
events take place during a buying or consumption situation. “ Information is collected
by observing process at work. ”
observation method involves human or mechanical observation of what people actually do or what events take
place during a buying or consumption situation. “Information is collected by observing process at work

Types of observational methods

Participant observation
Participant observation was first introduced by Prof. Edward Winder Man. It
means the activities of a group in which an observer himself participate and
note the situation. He willingly mixes with the group and perform his activities
as an observer not merely a participator who criticize the situation. In other
words he takes place and share the activities with his group. For example when
we study the rural and urban conditions of Asian people, we have to go there
and watched what is going on. The best philosophy of participant observation is
that we watch the phenomena not to ask. The actual behavior of the group can
be observed only by participant observation not by any other method.

Non - Participant Observation

The non-participant observation has a lack of participation of the observer in his
group activities. He either watch the phenomena from a distance or participate
in the group but never in its activities. He only sit in the group but do not
interest in the process.

The difference between participant & non-participant observation is that, in the

former the observer himself take part in a group and become the member of that
group also participate in their activities with full fledge while the latter refers to
the less or no participation of the observer in his group, their membership and
activities. He watch from a distance but do not have active eye sight that what is
going on in the field of research.
Controlled Observation
Here observer and observe or subject both are controlled. For systematic data
collection control is imposed on both for accuracy and precision. When
observation is pre-planned and definite, then it is termed as controlled
observation. In control observation, mechanical devices are used for precision
and standardized. So, control increase accuracy, reduce bias, ensure reliability
and standardization. Some of the devices are as under.

1. Observational plan.
2. Observational schedule.
3. Mechanical appliances like, camera, maps, films, video, tape recorder
etc.
4. Team of observers.
5. Socio Matric Scale.
Un-Controlled Observation
Uncontrolled observation takes place in natural setting without the influence of
external or outside control. The observer does not plan in advance but this is
related to day-to-day happenings and socio-cultural problems. It studies some of
our life situations.

Structured and Un-Structured Observation

It this type careful information’s are recorded in a standardized way. It is a
planned observation of a phenomena and to follow certain patterns, rules and
designs for the purpose what, how and when to observe, . Unstructured
observation is opposite to structured. This is not systematic and un-planned
observation. A researcher do not set a plan in advance but he get the
information’s freely. There is no rules to follow by the researcher.

General or Layman Observation

General or layman observation make by people in day-to-day happenings. They
see many things daily but there is no objectivity of their study. For example a
person see the children playing in a garden is general observation.

Scientific Observation
Scientific observation is based on some scientific rules and deliberate thinking.
The observer must know what to observe. He have proper planning, objectivity,
hypothesis and observation schedule in his study. Scientific observation is
reliable and more standardized than general observation.
Q2. What are the types of measurement scales? Discuss thier details with
example?
Ans. Measurement scale, in statistical analysis, the type of information provided
by numbers. Each of the four scales (i.e., nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio)
provides a different type of information. Measurement refers to the assignment
of numbers in a meaningful way, and understanding measurement scales is
important to interpreting the numbers assigned to people, objects, and events.

Nominal Scales

In nominal scales, numbers, such as driver’s license numbers and product serial
numbers, are used to name or identify people, objects, or events. Gender is an
example of a nominal measurement in which a number (e.g., 1) is used to label
one gender, such as males, and a different number (e.g., 2) is used for the other
gender, females. Numbers do not mean that one gender is better or worse than
the other; they simply are used to classify persons. In fact, any other numbers
could be used, because they do not represent an amount or a quality. It is
impossible to use word names with certain statistical techniques, but numerals
can be used in coding systems. For example, fire departments may wish to
examine the relationship between gender (where male = 1, female = 2) and
performance on physical-ability tests (with numerical scores indicating ability).

Ordinal Scales

In ordinal scales, numbers represent rank order and indicate the order of quality
or quantity, but they do not provide an amount of quantity or degree of quality.
Usually, the number 1 means that the person (or object or event) is better than
the person labeled 2; person 2 is better than person 3, and so forth—for
example, to rank order persons in terms of potential for promotion, with the
person assigned the 1 rating having more potential than the person assigned a
rating of 2. Such ordinal scaling does not, however, indicate how much more
potential the leader has over the person assigned a rating of 2, and there may be
very little difference between 1 and 2 here. When ordinal measurement is used
(rather than interval measurement), certain statistical techniques are applicable
(e.g., Spearman’s rank correlation).

Interval Scale

In interval scales, numbers form a continuum and provide information about the
amount of difference, but the scale lacks a true zero. The differences between
adjacent numbers are equal or known. If zero is used, it simply serves as a
reference point on the scale but does not indicate the complete absence of the
characteristic being measured. The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales
are examples of interval measurement. In those scales, 0 °F and 0 °C do not
indicate an absence of temperature.

Ratio Scales

Ratio scales have all of the characteristics of interval scales as well as a true
zero, which refers to complete absence of the characteristic being measured.
Physical characteristics of persons and objects can be measured with ratio
scales, and, thus, height and weight are examples of ratio measurement. A score
of 0 means there is complete absence of height or weight. A person who is 1.2
metres (4 feet) tall is two-thirds as tall as a 1.8-metre- (6-foot-) tall person.
Similarly, a person weighing 45.4 kg (100 pounds) is two-thirds as heavy as a
person who weighs 68 kg (150 pounds).
 Assignment -2 (unit 3& 4)

Q1. What are the steps involving writing a research report?

Ans. Report Writing

 A report is the formal writing up of a project or a research investigation
 A report has clearly defined sections presented in a standard format,
which are used to tell the reader what you did, why and how you did it and what
you found

Structuring Your Report

Most reports include the following sections:

1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Method
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
8. References
9. Appendices

What goes in each section?

1. Title

 This should be short and precise. It should tell the reader of the nature of
your research.
 Omit any unnecessary detail e.g. ‘A study of….’ is not necessary.

2. Abstract

The Abstract is a self-contained summary of the whole of your report. It will

therefore be written last and is usually limited to one paragraph. It should
contain:
 An outline of what you investigated (as stated in your title)
 Why you chose to look at that particular area with brief reference to prior
research done in the field
 Your hypothesis (prediction of what the results will show)
 A brief summary of your method
 Your main findings and how these relate to your hypothesis
 A conclusion which may include a suggestion for further research

3. Introduction

The Introduction ‘sets the scene’ for your report; it does this in two ways:

 By introducing the reader in more detail to the subject area you are
looking at
 Through presenting your objectives and hypotheses

Explain the background to the problem with reference to previous work

conducted in the area (i.e. a literature review).Only include studies that have
direct relevance to your research.

Briefly discuss the findings of other researchers and how these connect with
your study.

Finally, state your aims or hypothesis.

4. Method

The Method section should describe every step of how you carried out your
research in sufficient detail so that the reader understands what you did.
Information on your experimental design, sampling methods, participants, and
the overall procedure employed should be clearly specified.

This information is usually presented under the following sub-headings:

 Objective
 Design
 Participants
 Procedure(s)

5. Results
 Your Results section should clearly convey your findings. These are what you
will base your commentary on in the Discussion section, so the reader needs to
be certain of what you found.

 Present data in a summarized form

 Raw data

Do not over-complicate the presentation and description of your results. Be

clear and concise.

 Describe what the results were, don’t offer interpretations of them

 Present them in a logical order
 Those that link most directly to your hypothesis should be given first

Presenting Data in Tables and Graphs

 Do not present the same data in two or more ways i.e. use either a table
or a graph, or just text.
 Remember that a graph should be understandable independently of any
text, but you may accompany each with a description if necessary.
 Use clear and concise titles for each figure. Say which variables the graph
or table compares.
 Describe what the graph or table shows, then check that this
really is what it shows! If it isn’t, you need to amend your figure, or your
description.

Statistical Analysis

If you conducted a statistical analysis of your results:

 Say which test you used

 Show how your results were analyzed, laying out your calculations
clearly (ensure you include the level of probability or significance p or P, and
the number of observations made n)
 Clearly state the results of the analysis saying whether the result was
statistically significant or not both as numbers and in words

6. Discussion

The Discussion section is the most important part of your report. It relates the
findings of your study to the research that you talked about in your introduction,
thereby placing your work in the wider context. The discussion helps the reader
understand the relevance of your research to previous and further work in the
 field. This is your chance to discuss, analyze and interpret your results in
relation to all the information you have collected.

The Discussion will probably be the longest section of your report and should
contain the following:

 A summary of the main results of your study

 An interpretation of these results in relation to your aims, predictions or
hypothesis, e.g. is your hypothesis supported or rejected?, and in relation to the
findings of other research in the area
 Consideration of the broader implications of your findings. What do they
suggest for future research in the area? If your results contradict previous
findings what does this suggest about your work or the work of others? What
should be studied next?
 A discussion of any limitations or problems with your research method or
experimental design and practical suggestions of how these might be avoided if
the study was conducted again
 Some carefully considered ideas for further research in the area that
would help clarify or take forward your own findings

7. Conclusions

The Conclusion section briefly summarize the main issues arising from your
report

8. References

 Give details of work by all other authors which you have referred to in
your report
 Check a style handbook or journal articles for variations in referencing
styles

9. Appendices

The Appendices contain material that is relevant to your report but would
disrupt its flow if it was contained within the main body. For example: raw data
and calculations; interview questions; a glossary of terms, or other information
that the reader may find useful to refer to. All appendices should be clearly
labelled and referred to where appropriate in the main text (e.g. ‘See Appendix
A for an example questionnaire’).
 Q 2 Explain the various steps in hypothesis testing using examples?

How to Test a Hypothesis

At this point, you'll already have a hypothesis ready to go. Now, it's time to test
your theory. Remember, a hypothesis is a statement regarding what you believe
might happen. These are the steps you'll want to take to see if your suppositions
stand up:
1. State your null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is a commonly accepted
fact. It's the default, or what we'd believe if the experiment was never
conducted. It's the least exciting result, showing no significant difference
between two or more groups. Researchers work to nullify or disprove null
hypotheses.
2. State an alternative hypothesis. You'll want to prove an alternative
hypothesis. This is the opposite of the null hypothesis, demonstrating or
supporting a statistically significant result. By rejecting the null hypothesis, you
accept the alternative hypothesis.
3. Determine a significance level. This is the determiner, also known as the
alpha (α). It defines the probability that the null hypothesis will be rejected. A
typical significance level is set at 0.05 (or 5%). You may also see 0.1 or 0.01,
depending on the area of study.
If you set the alpha at 0.05, then there is a 5% chance you'll find support for the
alternative hypothesis (thus rejecting the null hypothesis) when, in truth, the
null hypothesis is actually true and you were wrong to reject it.
In other words, the significance level is a statistical way of demonstrating how
confident you are in your conclusion. If you set a high alpha (0.25), then you'll
have a better shot at supporting your alternative hypothesis, since you don't
need to find as big a difference between your test groups. However, you'll also
have a bigger chance at being wrong about your conclusion.
4. Calculate the p-value. The p-value, or calculated probability, indicates
the probability of achieving the results of the null hypothesis. While the alpha is
the significance level you're trying to achieve, the p-level is what your actual
data is showing when you calculate it. A low p-value offers stronger support for
your alternative hypothesis.
5. Draw a conclusion. If your p-value meets your significance level
requirements, then your alternative hypothesis may be valid and you may reject
the null hypothesis. In other words, if your p-value is less than your significance
level (e.g., if your calculated p-value is 0.02 and your significance level is 0.05),
then you can reject the null hypothesis and accept your alternative hypothesis.
Hypothesis Testing Examples

Vitamin C

Is it true that vitamin C has the ability to cure or prevent the common cold? Or is it just a
myth? There's nothing like an in-depth experiment to get to the bottom of it all. A potential
hypothesis test could look something like this:

1. Null hypothesis - Children who take vitamin C are no less likely to become
ill during flu season.
2. Alternative hypothesis - Children who take vitamin C are less likely to
become ill during flu season.
3. Significance level - The significance level is 0.05.
4. P-value - The p-value is calculated to be 0.20.
5. Conclusion - After providing one group with vitamin C during flu season
and the other with a placebo, you record whether or not participants got sick
by the end of flu season. After conducting your statistical analysis on the
results, you determine a p-value of 0.20. That is above the desired
significance level of 0.05, and thus you fail to reject the null hypothesis.
Based on your experiment, there is no support for the (alternative)
hypothesis that vitamin C can prevent colds.

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Name- SHUBHAM TALWAR

BBA E3

ENROLLMENT NO. - 13024401718