3/24/2013

AIR CONDITIONING

• Steady-State Thermal Equilibrium

• M = W + C+ R+ Esk + Eres

where
• M - metabolic rate, W/m2
• W - mechanical work performed, W/m2
• C + R - convective and radiative, or sensible heat
loss from skin surface, W/m2
• Esk - evaporative heat loss from skin surface, W/m2
• Eres - evaporative heat loss from respiration, W/m2

• The skin surface area of a naked human body can

be approximated by an empirical formula proposed
by Dubois ;

where
• AD = Dubois surface area of naked body,m2
• mb = mass of human body, kg
• Hb = height of human body, m

1
 3/24/2013

Table 5. Heart Rate and Oxygen Consumption at Different Activity Levels

Oxygen Consumed,
Level of Exertion Heart Rate, bpm mL/s
Light work <90 <8
Moderate work 90 to 110 8 to 16

Heavy work 110 to 130 16 to 24

Very heavy work 130 to 150 24 to 32

Extremely heavy work 150 to 170 >32

Source: Astrand and Rodahl (1977).

Outdoor Air Requirements for

Occupants
• For both comfort and process air conditioning
systems, outdoor air is required to do the
following:

• To meet metabolic requirements of the occupants

• To dilute the indoor air contaminants, odors, and

pollutants to maintain an acceptable indoor air quality

• To support any combustion process or replace the

amount of exhaust air required in laboratories,
manufacturing processes, or restrooms

• To provide makeup for the amount of exfiltrated air

required when a positive pressure is to be maintained
in a conditioned space

2
 3/24/2013

• THERMAL COMFORT
• Thermal comfort is defined as the state of mind in
which one acknowledges satisfaction with regard to
the thermal environment. In terms of sensations,
thermal comfort is described as a thermal sensation
of being neither too warm nor too cold, defined by
the following seven-point thermal sensation scale
proposed by ASHRAE:

Seven-point thermal sensation scale proposed

by ASHRAE
• -3 = cold
• -2 = cool
• -1 = slightly cool
• 0 = neutral
• +1 = slightly warm
• +2 = warm
• +3 = hot

3
 3/24/2013

• If an indoor environment can provide thermal

comfort for the occupant, the duration of the
exposure has no significant influence upon the
physiological responses of the person’s thermal
regulatory mechanism.

• If the indoor environment is uncomfortable,

subjecting the subject to a certain degree of heat
or cold stress, the time exposure will influence the
person’s physiological response.

ACTIVITY
• Human activity is graded according to the level of
physical exertion which is entailed and to the body
area, male or female, ranging from a heat output of
75W when sleeping, through to in excess of 900W
from some sports activity.

Table 4. Typical Metabolic Heat Generation for Various Activities

W/m2 met*
Resting
Sleeping 40 0.7
Seated, quiet 60 1.0
Standing, relaxed 70 1.2
Walking (on level surface)
3.2 km/h (0.9 m/s) 115 2.0
4.3 km/h (1.2 m/s) 150 2.6
6.4 km/h (1.8 m/s) 220 3.8
Office Activities
Reading, seated 55 1.0
Typing 65 1.1
Walking about 100 1.7
Lifting/packing 120 2.1

4
 3/24/2013

Clothing
• Clothing is graded according to insulation value and
the unit adopted is the clo.
• Unity on this scale represents a traditional business
suit, with a value of 0.155 m2K/W
• Zero in the scale is a minimum swim suit
• light summer wear has a value of about 0.5 clo
• typically for people dressed in a traditional suit, a
rise in activity rate equivalent to 0.1 met
corresponds to a reduction of 0.6K in the dry
resultant temperature to maintain a similar comfort
level.

INDOOR AIR TEMPERATURE AND AIR

MOVEMENTS
• Comfort Air Conditioning Systems

• For comfort air conditioning systems, most

occupants have a metabolic rate of 1.0 to 1.5 met.

• The indoor clothing insulation in summer is usually

0.35 to 0.6 clo, and in winter it is 0.8 to 1.2 clo.

• Relative humidity has a lesser influence on thermal

comfort.

Many researchers have conducted tests to determine

the effects of airspeed on the preferred indoor air
temperature and the thermal comfort of
occupants. They have shown the following:
• Higher indoor air temperature requires greater
indoor air velocity to provide thermal comfort.
• Variation of airspeed has a greater influence on
preferred indoor air temperature at lower air
temperatures.

5
 3/24/2013

Figure 6. Air Speed to Offset Temperatures Above

Warm-Temperature Boundaries of Figure 5

• ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 recommended that

within the thermally acceptable temperature ranges
in the ASHRAE summer and winter comfort zones,
there be no minimum airspeed (non directional)
that is necessary for thermal comfort.

• If temperature is increased above the level allowed

for the comfort zone, means must be provided to
elevate the airspeed.

6
 3/24/2013

• Before specifying Ta for summer conditions, one

needs to determine whether occupants are likely to
wear suit jackets, such as members of a church
congregation or guests in a multipurpose

HUMIDITY
• Comfort Air Conditioning Systems
• According to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, for
the zone occupied by people engaged in light,
primarily sedentary activity ( 1.2 met), the relative
humidity should conform with the limits of ASHRAE
winter and summer comfort zones, as given in
ASHRAE comfort zones.
• These limits are intended to maintain acceptable
thermal conditions for the occupants’ comfort.

7
 3/24/2013

• Humidity levels affect the rate of evaporation from

the skin and the mucosal surface
• Low humidities may cause eye irritation and dry nose
and throat
• High humidities reduce the rate of evaporation from
the skin and support growth of organisms, fungi and
house mites.
• Levels between 40% and 70% RH are considered to be
the limits of acceptability for general applications with
control between 45% and 60% for optimum comfort.

ASHRAE Comfort Zones

• ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 specifies winter
and summer comfort zones to provide for the
selection of the indoor parameters for thermal
comfort
• The chart is based upon an occupant activity level
of 1.2 met (69.8 W/m2).
• For summer, typical clothing insulation is 0.5 clo,
that is, light slacks and short-sleeve shirt or
comparable ensemble; there is no minimum air
speed that is necessary for thermal comfort.

• Standard 55-1992 recommended a summer comfort

zone with an effective boundary temperature ET* -
22.5 to 26°C at 20°C wet-bulb as its upper-slanting
boundary and dew-point temperature 2.2°C as its
bottom flat boundary.
• If the clothing insulation is 0.1 clo higher, the
boundary temperatures both should be shifted
0.6°C lower.
• Rohles et al. (1974) and Spain (1986) suggested that
the upper boundary of the summer comfort zone
can be extended to 29.4 or 30°C ET* if the air
velocity of the indoor air can be increased to 1 m/ s.

8
 3/24/2013

• The winter comfort zone is based upon a 0.9-clo

insulation including heavy slacks, long-sleeve shirt,
and sweater or jacket at an air velocity of less than
0.15 m/s.

• Standard 55-1992 recommended a winter comfort

zone with an effective boundary temperature ET* -
20 to 23.3°C at 17.8°C wet-bulb as its slanting
upper boundary and at dew-point 2.2°C as its
bottom flat boundary.

Figure 5. ASHRAE Summer and Winter Comfort Zones [Acceptable ranges of

operative temperature and humidity with air speed ≤ 0.2 m/s for people wearing 1.0
and 0.5 clo clothing during primarily sedentary activity (≤1.1 met).]

• ASHRAE comfort zones recommend only the

optimal and boundary ET* for the determination of
the winter and summer indoor parameters. For
clothing insulation, activity levels, and indoor air
velocities close to the values specified in Standard
55-1992, a wide range of indoor design conditions
are available.

9
 3/24/2013

Figure 17. Effect of Environmental

Conditions on Physiological Variables

Comfort-Discomfort Diagrams

10
 3/24/2013

Mean Radiant Temperature

• Mean radiant temperature TRad is defined as the

temperature of a uniform black enclosure in which
an occupant would have the same amount of
radiative heat exchange as in an actual indoor
environment. Mean radiant temperature TRad, K, can
be calculated by the expression

• The average temperature of the surrounding

surfaces is termed the mean radiant temperature,
Trm, and is defined as:
• The surface temperature of that sphere which, if it
surrounded the point in question, would radiate to
it the same quantity of heat as the room surfaces
around the point actually do.

• Trm varies from place to place throughout the

room.

11
 3/24/2013

• where TR1, TR2, ….., TRn = absolute temperature of

surrounding surfaces of indoor environment, K
• F0 – 1 = shape factor denoting fraction of total
radiant energy leaving surface of occupant’s
clothing 0 and arriving on the surface 1
• F0 – 2 = fraction of total radiant energy leaving
surface 0 and arriving on surface 2, etc.
• Shape factors F0 – n depend on the position and
orientation of the occupant as well as the
dimensions of the enclosure.

AIR CLEANLINESS A clean space is a defined area in

which air cleanliness and environmental conditions are
controlled within specific limits.

• Class 1. Particle count not to exceed 35 particles

/m3 of a size of 0.5 m and larger, with no particle
exceeding 5 m.
• Class 10. Particle count not to exceed 353 particles
/m3 of a size of 0.5 m and larger, with no particle
exceeding 5 m.
• Class 100. Particle count not to exceed 3531
particles /m3 of a size of 0.5 m and larger.

12
 3/24/2013

• Class 1000. Particle count not to exceed 35,315

particles/m3 of a size of 0.5 m and larger.
• Class 10,000. Particle count not to exceed 353,150
particles/m3 of a size of 0.5 m and larger or 2295
particles / m3 of a size 5.0 m and larger.
• Class 100,000. Particle count not to exceed
3,531,500 particles/m3 of a size of 0.5 m and
larger or 24,720 particles / m3 of a size 5.0 m and
larger.

Indoor Air Contaminants

• The indoor air contaminants that relate to indoor air
quality and the symptoms of the sick building
syndrome are mainly the following:

• 1. Total particulate concentration. This parameter

includes particulates from building materials,
combustion products, and mineral and synthetic fibers.
In February 1989, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) specified the allowable indoor
concentration level of particulates of 10 m and less in
diameter (which can penetrate deeply into the lungs,
becoming hazardous to health) as follows:
• 50 g/m3 : 1 year
• 150 g/m3: 24 h

• 2. Combustion products.

• 3. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

• 4. Nicotine.
• 5. Radon.
• 6. Occupant-generated contaminants and odors.
• 7. Bioaerosols

13
 3/24/2013

• According to ASHRAE Handbook 1997, Fundamentals,

particles less than 2 m in diameter are most likely
retained in the lungs, and particles less than 0.1 to
0.5m in diameter may leave the lungs with the
exhaled breath. Particles larger than 8 to 10 m in
diameter are separated and retained in the upper
respiratory tract. Particles between 2 and 8 m in
diameter are deposited mainly in the conducting
airways of the lungs and are swallowed or coughed out
quickly.

ENVIRONMENTAL INDICES
• An environmental index combines two or more
parameters (e.g., air temperature, mean radiant
temperature, humidity, air velocity) into a single
variable. Indices simplify description of the
thermal environment and the stress it imposes.
• Effective Temperature

The Effective temperature is defined as that

temperature of saturated air at which the subject
would experience the same feeling of comfort as
experienced in the actual unsaturated environment.

DBT 250 10C, RH 50 5%, ET 21.70C

14
 3/24/2013

Other indices are:

• Humid Operative Temperature

• Heat Stress Index
• Index of Skin Wettedness
• Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature
• Wet-Globe Temperature
• Wind Chill Index

• ASHRAE Standard 62.1- 2007, Ventilation for Acceptable

Indoor Air Quality,
• ASHRAE Standard 62.2- 2007, Ventilation and Acceptable
Indoor Air Quality in Low Rise Residential Buildings.

• In the ventilation rate procedure, acceptable indoor air

quality is achieved by providing ventilation air of specified
quality and quantity to the space.
• In the IAQ procedure, acceptable air quality is achieved
within the space by controlling known and specifiable
contaminants.

Process Air Conditioning Systems

Humidity affects the physical properties of many
materials and, therefore, their manufacturing
processes.

• Moisture Content. Relative humidity has a marked

influence on the moisture content of hygroscopic
materials such as natural textile fibers, paper, wood,
leather, and foodstuffs. Moisture content affects the
weight of the products and sometimes their
strength, appearance, and quality.

15
 3/24/2013

• Dimensional Variation. Hygroscopic materials

often extend at higher relative humidity and
contract at lower humidity. A 2 percent increase in
moisture content may result in a 0.2 percent
increase in dimension of paper. That is why
lithographic printing requires a relative humidity of
45  2 percent.

• Corrosion and Rust. Corrosion is an electrochemical

process. Moisture encourages the formation of
electrolytes and therefore the corrosion process. A
relative humidity greater than 50 percent may
affect the smooth operation of bearings in precision
instruments. When indoor relative humidity
exceeds 70 percent, rust may be visible on the
surface of the machinery and on parts made of
steel and iron.
•
•

• Static Electricity. Static electricity may cause minute

particles to repel or attract one another, which is
detrimental to many manufacturing processes.
Static electricity charges minute dust particles, in
the air, causing them to cling to equipment and
work surfaces. Static electricity exists in an indoor
environment at normal air temperatures when
relative humidity is less than about 40 percent.

16
 3/24/2013

• Loss of Water. Vegetables and fruits lose water

vapor through evaporation from their surfaces
during storage. Low temperatures and high relative
humidities, such as  = 90 to 98 percent, may
reduce water loss and delay desiccation. It is
important to specify the exact relative humidity
required for product quality and cost control.

REFERENCES
• Engineering Thermodynamics by Rogers and
Mayhew
• 2009 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals
• 2010 ASHRAE Handbook - Refrigeration
• Principles of Refrigeration by Roy J Dossat
• Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by G F Hundy, A.
R. Trott and T. C. Welch
• Thermodynamics – An Engineering Approach –
Cengel & Boles

17