Introduction of Matrices PDF
Introduction of Matrices PDF
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What You’ll See in This Course
This course has two modules.
• Module 1: Linear Algebra
• Module 2: Differential Equation
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
• Matrices: Elementary operations, Row reduced Echelon form,
Rank of matrix, Special matrices, Matrix Inversion, Determinant,
and properties. System of linear equations and equivalent
systems.
• Vector spaces, sub‐spaces, Linear Dependence and Independence;
linear span, Basis; Dimension; Co‐ordinates with respect to a basis.
• Inner Products; Norm of a vector, Cauchy‐Schwarz Inequality;
Orthonormal basis, Gram‐Schimdt process.
• Eigen Values/Eigen Vectors, Characteristic Polynomial,
Diagonalisable matrices , Similarity of matrices.
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Differential Equations
Introduction to Differential Equations., First Order ODE y'=f(x,y),
geometrical interpretation of solutions, Separable forms, Exact
Equations, integrating factor, Linear Equations, Orthogonal
Trajectories.
Picard's Theorem, Qualitative properties and Theoretical aspects,
Euler's Method, Elementary classifications of equations F(x,y,y’)=0.
Second Order Linear differential equations: fundamental system and
general solution of homogeneous equation, reduction of order.
Existence and uniqueness of solution for second order IVP, Wronskian
and general solution of non‐homogeneous equations .
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Differential Equations
Euler‐Cauchy Equations, extensions of the results to higher
order linear equations, Higher order Differential Equations.
Power series method.
Legendre Polynomials, Frobenius Method.
Bessel equation , Properties of Bessel functions.
Sturm Liouville BVP, Orthogonal functions, Qualitative behaviour
of solutions of second order ODE, Sturm comparison Theorem.
Laplace transform, Fourier Series and Integrals.
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Text and Reference books
Text Book:
David C. Lay, Linear Algebra and its Applications, Pearson Education 3rd Ed, 2003.
Erwin Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th edition, Wiley publishers.
Reference books:
George F. Simmons, Steven G. Krantz, Differential Equations: Theory, Technique And
Practice, Tata McGraw‐Hill Education.
Coddington, An Introduction to Ordinary Differential Equations.
G. Strang, Linear Algebra and Its Applications, Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2007.
S. Kumaresan, Linear Algebra, A Geometric Approach, Prentice Hall India, 2008.
Kenneth Hoffman & R. Kunze, Linear Algebra, Prentice Hall 2nd Ed, 1971.
Additional Resource: NPTEL, MIT Video Lectures
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Evaluation Methods:
Methods Weightage
20%
Quizzes
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Introduction to Matrix
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Definitions ‐ Matrix
A matrix is an rectangular array of numbers
enclosed in brackets
a11 a12 a13
A = a 21 a 22 a 23
Denoted with a bold Capital letter
Example:
6 2 1 2 rows
2 0 5
3 columns
What is the order?
All matrices have an order (or dimension): the number of rows the number of columns.
8 1 3 3 x 3 9 5 7 0
0 0 2 (square matrix) 1 x 4
(Also called a row matrix)
10 4 3
2 0 4 6 3
1 9
1 5 9 8 3 x 5 7
7 3 2 7 6
0
6
1 1 2 x 2
0 4 x 1
2 (square matrix) (Also called a column matrix)
Definitions: square matrix
A square matrix is a matrix that has the same
number of rows and columns (n n)
Square Matrices: diagonal entries
• In a square matrix, entries mii are called the
diagonal entries. The others are called non‐
diagonal entries
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Diagonal Matrices
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix whose
non‐diagonal elements are zero.
d1 0 0
0 0
A diag (d1 , d 2 , , d n ) d2
M nn
0 d n
0
A = diag(3, 1, ‐5, 2) =
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Diagonal matrix:
d1 0 0
0 d2 0
A diag (d1 , d 2 , , d n ) M nn
0 d n
0
A = Tr(A) = 3 + 1 + (‐5) + 2 = 1
Vectors as Matrices
• A row vector is a 1 x n matrix.
• Example: 1 x 5 1 2 3 4 5 1
2
• A column vector is an n x 1 matrix. Eg. 5 x 1 3
4
5
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TYPES OF MATRICES
NAME DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Row matrix A matrix with only 1
row 3 2 1 4
Column matrix A matrix with only 1 2
column
3
Square matrix A matrix with same
number of rows and 2 4
columns
1
7
Zero matrix A matrix with all zero
entries 0 0
0 0
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Matrix Equality
Two matrices are equal if and only if
they both have the same number of rows and the
same number of columns
their corresponding elements are equal
Upper triangular matrix
• Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix in
which all the elements below the diagonal are
zero i.e. a matrix of type:
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Lower triangular matrix
• Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix in
which all the elements above the diagonal are
zero i.e. a matrix of type
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Scalar matrix
Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all of
the diagonal elements are equal to some
constant “k”, i.e., a matrix of type
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Identity matrix
Identity matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all of
the diagonal elements are equal to “1" i.e. a
matrix of type
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Transpose of a Matrix: Example
1 3
b 1 b 1 1 2 d 3 4 9 d 4
T
T
2 9
column row row column
1 2 3 1 5 6
A 5 4 1
A 2 4 7
T
6 7 4 3 1 4
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Facts About Transpose
• Transpose is its own inverse: (MT)T = M for all
matrices M.
• DT = D for all diagonal matrices D (including
the identity matrix I).
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Symmetric matrix
• Symmetric matrix: A square matrix in which corresponding
elements with respect to the diagonal are equal; a matrix in
which aij = aji where aij is the element in the i‐th row and j‐
th column; a matrix which is equal to its transpose; a
square matrix in which a flip about the diagonal leaves it
unchanged. Example:
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Skew‐symmetric matrix
• Skew‐symmetric matrix: A square matrix in which
corresponding elements with respect to the diagonal are
negatives of each other; a matrix in which aij = ‐aji where
aij is the element in the i‐th row and j‐th column; a matrix
which is equal to the negative of its transpose. The diagonal
elements are always zeros. Example:
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Orthogonal Matrix
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Periodic matrix
Periodic matrix: A matrix A for which Ak+1 = A , where k is a positive
integer. If k is the least positive integer for which Ak+1 = A , then A is
said to be of period k. If k = 1, so that A2 = A, then A is called
idempotent.
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Nilpotent matrix and Unipotent Matrix
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Matrix Operations
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To add two matrices, they must have the same order. To
add, you simply add corresponding entries.
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To add two matrices, they must have the same order. To
add, you simply add corresponding entries.
If A [aij ]mn , B [bij ]mn Then A B [aij ]mn [bij ]mn [aij bij ]mn
5 3 2 1 5 ( 2 ) 3 1
3 4 3 0
3 3 4 0
0 7 4 3 0 4 7 ( 3)
3 2
0 4
4 4
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8 0 1 3 1 7 5 2
5 4 2 9 5 3
3 2
=
8(1) 07 1 5 3 2
7 7 4 5
=
0 7 5 7
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Subtracting Two Matrices
2 4 3 0 1 8
8 0
7 3 1 1
1 5 0 4 2 7
• Can multiply a matrix by a scalar.
• Result is a matrix of the same dimension.
• To multiply a matrix by a scalar, multiply each
component by the scalar.
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In matrix algebra, a real number is often called a SCALAR. To
multiply a matrix by a scalar, you multiply each entry in the
matrix by that scalar.
2 0 4(2) 4(0 )
4
4 1 4(4) 4 ( 1)
8 0
16 4
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Matrix Multiplication
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Multiplication: Result
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Example
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Another Way of Looking at It
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2 x 2 Case
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2 x 2 Example
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3 x 3 Case
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3 x 3 Example
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Common Mistakes
• Does AB = BA (In general)?
• Whether Matrix multiplication is
commutative?
• Statement is not true in general, see example:
• Example: A =
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Caution!
• If AB = 0 does that mean A = 0, B = 0 or AB = 0
?
• Statement is not true in general, see example:
• Example:
• A =
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Caution!
• If AC = AD does that mean C = D (when A is
non zero matrix) ?
• Statement is not true in general, see example:
Example:
A = , C
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Matrix Multiplication Facts
• Not commutative: in general AB BA.
• Associative:
(AB)C = A(BC)
• Associates with scalar multiplication:
k(AB) = (kA)B =A(kB)
• (AB)T = BTAT
• (M1M2M3…Mn)T = MnT …M3TM2TM1T
• Does AB = BA?
• If AB = 0, then A = ? Or B = ?
• If AB = AC, Then C = ? B
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Matrix
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Row Vector Times Matrix Multiplication
Can multiply a row vector times a matrix
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Matrix Times Column Vector Multiplication
Can multiply a matrix times a column vector.
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Common Mistake
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Vector‐Matrix Multiplication Facts 1
Associates with vector multiplication.
• Let v be a row vector:
v(AB) = (vA)B
• Let v be a column vector:
(AB)v = A(Bv)
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Vector‐Matrix Multiplication Facts 2
• Vector‐matrix multiplication distributes over
vector addition:
(v + w)M = vM + wM
• That was for row vectors v, w. Similarly for
column vectors.
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