Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

Atom
The word atom is derived from Greek word ATOMOS which means indivisible. The term
atom was proposed by John Dalton. Atoms are fundamental building blocks of matter.
Dalton’s atomic theory
Postulates
1. The matter is made of small indivisible particles called atoms, which can take
part in chemical reactions.
2. The atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass and in all other physical
and chemical properties.
3. Atoms of different elements differ from each other in their mass and in all other
properties.
4. Atoms of different elements can combine in simple ratio to form compounds.
5. Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed.
Merits
Dalton’s theory could explain all the laws of chemical combinations.
Draw backs
It failed to explain the internal structure of atoms. With the discovery of electrons,
protons and neutrons, Dalton’s model of an atom became obsolete. It could not explain
how atoms of different elements differ from one another and combine with one another.

Characteristics of the three fundamental particles are:

Property Electron Proton Neutron

Symbol e or e– p n
Relative mass 1/1836 1 1
Relative charge –1 +1 No charge
Mass in kg 9.109 10–31 1.673 10–27 1.675 10–27
Mass in amu 5.485 10–4 1.007 1.008
Actual charge (coulomb) 1.602 10–19 1.602 10–19 0
Actual charge (e.s.u.) 4.8  10–10 4.8  10–10 0

Atomic number
When cathode rays struck different metal surfaces used as anode in the discharge tube.
characteristics X-rays were emitted. The wavelength of these X-rays decrease in a
regular manner passing from one element to another in the order in the periodic table.
2 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

The number of protons present in an atom of an element is called its atomic number
(Z). Mosley gave the relation between atomic number (Z) and frequency ( v ) of the
characteristic X-rays of the element by the equation
 = a  Z-b 

Where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants and they are dependent on the nature of the elements.

Mass number
The sum of protons and neutrons in an atom of an element is called its mass number
(A).
A = number of neutrons + number of protons
A  N Z
Number of neutrons  A  Z .
Mass number is always a whole number.
Isotopes
Such atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass
numbers are called isotopes.
1 2 3
Ex: 1 H, 1 D and 1 T named as protium, deuterium (D) and tritium (T) respectively.
Ordinary hydrogen is protium.
Isobars
Such atoms of different elements which have same mass numbers and of course
different atomic numbers are called isobars
40 40 40
Ex: 18 Ar, 19 K, 20 Ca.

Isotones
Such atoms of different elements which contain the same number of neutrons are called
isotones
14 15 16
Ex: 6 C, 7 N, 8 O.
Isoelectronic
The species (atoms or ions) containing the same number of electrons are called
isoelectronic.
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 3

Ex: O2 ,F  ,Na  ,Mg 2 , Al3 ,Ne all contains 10 electrons each and hence they are
isoelectronic.

LEARN THE SKILLS

1. Complete the following table:
Particle Mass Number Atomic Number Protons Neutrons Electrons
Nitrogen atom – – – 7 7
Calcium ion – 20 – 20 –
Oxygen atom 16 8 – – –
Bromide ion – – – 45 36

Sol: For nitrogen atom

Number of electron = 7 (Given)
Number of neutrons = 7 (Given)
 Number of protons = Z = 7 ( atom is electrically neutral)
Atomic number = Z = 7
Mass Number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 7 + 7 = 14
For calcium ion
Number of neutrons = 20 (Given)
Atomic Number (Z) = 20 (Given)
 Number of protons = Z = 20;
Number of electrons in calcium atom = Z = 20
But in the formation of calcium ion, two electrons are lost from the extra nuclear
part according to the equation Ca  Ca 2  2e but the composition of the
nucleus remains unchanged.
 Number of electrons in calcium ion = 20 – 2 = 18
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 20 + 20 = 40.
For oxygen atom
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 16 (Given)
Atomic Number (Z) = 8 (Given)
Number of protons = Z = 8,
Number of electrons = Z = 8
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 16 – 8 = 8
For bromide ion
Number of neutrons = 45 (given)
Number of electrons = 36 (given)
But in the formation of bromide ion, one electron is gained by extra nuclear part
according to equation Br  e   Br  .
But the composition of nucleus remains unchanged.
 Number of protons in bromide ion = Number of electrons in bromine atom
= 36 – 1 = 35
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons = 35
4 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Mass number (A) = Number of neutrons + Number of protons = 45 + 35 = 80.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Energy of Orbitals
The energy of an electron in hydrogen and hydrogen like species is determined by the
principal quantum number. Thus the energy of the orbitals increases as follows:
1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f
The energy of an electron in a multi-electron atom depends not only on its principal
quantum number (shell), but also on its azimuthal quantum number (subshell).
Aufbau Principle
In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing
energies.
It means, among the available orbitals, the orbitals of lowest energy are filled first. The

relative energy of an orbital is given by  n  value. The lower the value of  n  for

an orbital, the lower is its energy. If two orbitals have the same value of  n  , the
orbital with lower value of 'n' will have the lower energy.
The increasing order of energy of different orbitals is as follows:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s< .......
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 5

Moellar diagram of order of filling of orbital’s

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

Statement: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of all four quantum numbers.
The two electrons in a given orbital may have same values of n, and m, but different
‘s’ value. It says that, an orbital cannot accommodate more than two electrons.
Hund’s Rule
It states that - Pairing up of electrons in degenerate orbitals takes place after filling each
with one electron of parallel spin.
It deals with the filling up of degenerate orbitals with electrons (degenerate = orbitals of
equal energy). The orbitals having the same values for n and  are called degenerate
orbitals.
Electronic Configuration of Atoms
The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called electronic configuration.
It is represented as n x notation
The electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons. The electrons that are added
to the electronic shell with highest principal quantum number are called valence
electrons. Half filled and completely filled degenerate orbitals of a subshell give greater
stability to atoms.
Chromium (Z = 24) and copper (Z = 29) have anomalous electronic configuration due to
this reason.
Ex: Electronic configuration of chromium atom is
C r  Z  2 4  : 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 5 4 s 1

but not 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s 2 .

Thus configurations, which are either half filled or fully filled, are more stable.
Stability of completely filled and half-filled sub shells
6 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

The completely filled and half filled sub shells are stable due to the following reasons.
III. Symmetrical distribution of electrons
It is well known that symmetry leads to stability. The completely filled or half
filled sub shells have symmetrical distribution of electrons in them and are more
stable.
2. Exchange Energy
The stabilizing effect arises whenever two or more electrons with the same spin
are present in the degenerate orbitals of a sub-shell. These electrons tend to
exchange their positions and the energy released due to this exchange is called
exchange energy. The number of exchanges that can take place is maximum
when the sub-shell is either half filled or completely filled.
As a result the exchange energy will be maximum and so is the stability.
Number of exchanges =  n-1
n(n-1)
Eexchange =
2
Here 'n' is the number of electrons having parallel spin.
Possible exchanges by a d5 configuration

1 2 3 4

4 exchanges by electron 1 3 exchanges by electron 2 2 exchanges by electron 3 1 exchanges by electron 4

Magnetic properties
When a substance is placed between the poles of a magnet, their behavior is called
magnetic property. Magnetic properties are mainly classified into paramagnetism and
diamagnetism.
Paramagnetic
Substance which is attracted into magnetic field is called paramagnetic
Diamagnetic
Substance which is repelled by magnetic field is called diamagnetic
If substance contains unpaired electrons it is paramagnetic and if it has paired electrons
then it is diamagnetic. In a substance containing unpaired electrons there is permanent
and definite resultant magnetic moment. The resultant magnetic moment is
combination of orbital and spins magnetic moments.
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 7
For the ions there is no orbital magnetic moment. So, the spin only magnetic moment
is given as = n (n + 2 ) B .M where ‘n’ is no. of unpaired electrons

eh
B.M = Bohr magneton = = 9.27×10-21 ergs/gauss
4mC

Basic Principles of Chemical Bonding

Why do atoms bond at all?
Bonding lowers the potential energy between positive and negative particles, whether these
particles are oppositely charged ions or nuclei and the electrons between them.
Definition of Chemical Bond
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc.) together in different
chemical species is called a chemical bond.

ELECTRONIC THEORY – KÖSSEL-LEWIS APPROACH

According to Kossel and Lewis, only the outer shell electrons take part in chemical combination
and they are known as valence electrons. The inner shell electrons are well protected and are
generally not involved in the combination process.
Atom excluding valance electrons is treated as a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the nucleus plus
the inner electrons) and the outer shell could accommodate a maximum of eight electrons.
Atoms achieve stable octet when they are linked by chemical bonds.
Octet Rule
Atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another
(gaining or losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have an octet in their
valence shells. This is known as octet rule.
Lewis Electron-dot Symbols
The symbol of element represents the nucleus and inner electrons, and dots around
the symbol represent the valence electrons. The valence electrons occupy the corners
of a cube which surround the ‘Kernel’.
Place valence electrons or outer shell electrons as one dot at a time on each of the four
sides (top, right, bottom, left) of the element symbol. Keep adding dots, pairing them,
until all are used up.
Ex: symbols for the elements of second period are

Li Be B C N O F Ne
8 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

The Lewis symbol provides information about an element’s bonding behavior:

For a metal, the total number of dots is the number of electrons an atom loses to form
a cation; for example, Mg loses 2 electrons to form Mg 2+.
For a nonmetal; the number of unpaired dots equals to either the number of electrons

an atom gains to form an anion (F gains 1 to form F  ) or the number it shares to form
bond.
Types of Bonds
The bonding between atoms can be classified into 3 types as
A) Ionic or electrovalent bond
B) Covalent bond
C) Co-ordinate covalent bond or Dative bond

IONIC OR ELECTROVALENT BOND

The bond formed as a result of transfer of electrons from one atom to another atom to form
ions that attract each other by electrostatic attraction between these positive and negative ions
was termed as the electrovalent bond or ionic bond. The electrovalence is thus equal to the
number of unit charge(s) on the ion.
For example, the formation of NaCl from sodium and chlorine.

Na  Na + + e-
[Ne]3s1 [Ne]
Cl + e-  Cl-
[Ne]3s2 3p5 [Ne]3s 2 3p6 or [Ar]
Na + + Cl-  Na +Cl- or NaCl

Lewis dot structure

-
Na + Cl Na +
Cl

Conditions for forming electrovalent of ionic Bond

III) Number of valence electrons
One of the atoms should possess (electropositive/metallic) 1, 2 or 3 valence
electrons while the other atom (electronegative/non- metallic) should have
6 or 7 valence electrons.
2) Difference in electronegativity
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 9
The formation of electrovalent bond will be easier if the difference in the
electronegativities of the two atoms is high and ΔEN minimum should be 2.1.
(on Pauling scale).
3) Overall decrease in energy
In the formation of an electrovalent bond, there must be overall decrease in
energy, i.e. energy must be released.
Energy changes are involved in the following steps:
Energy equivalent to ionization energy is required to convert a neutral isolated
gaseous atom into a cation.

A(g)+I.E  A+ (g)+e-

Lower the value of ionization energy greater will be the ease of formation of the
cation from it. Thus for better ionic character an atom should have low
ionization energy.

Energy equivalent to electron affinity is released when an e- is added to a

neutral isolated gaseous atom to make it univalent anion.

B(g)+e-  B- (g)+E.A

So higher the value of electron affinity of the atom, greater is the ease of
formation of the anion from it. i.e., for better ionic character an atom should
have high value of electron affinity.
Lattice Energy

When A+& B react to form A+B , electrostatic attraction energy is released. This
-

released energy is called lattice energy. So, high Lattice energy is favorable for ionic
bond formation.
Cationcharge×Anioncharge
Electrostatic energy or LatticeEnergy 
Cationradius+Anionradius
Effect of ionic size: As we move down a group, ionic radii increase, so the electrostatic
energy between cations and anions decreases; thus, lattice energies decrease. For the
alkali-metal halides, lattice energy decreases down the group whether we hold the
cation constant (LiF to LiI) or the anion constant (LiF to RbF).
Effect of ionic charge: Across a period, ionic charge changes. For example, lithium
fluoride and magnesium oxide have cations and anions of about equal radii (Li + =76

pm and Mg2+=72 pm; F  =133 pm and O2 =140 pm). The major difference is between
10 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

singly charged Li+and F-ions and doubly charged Mg2+and O2-ions. The lattice energies
of the two compounds is

H0lattice of LiF = -1050 kJ/mol and H0lattice of MgO =-3923 kJ/mol

Determining Lattice Energy with a Born-Haber Cycle

The magnitude of the lattice energy is a measure of the strength of the ionic
interactions and influences macroscopic properties, such as melting point, hardness,
and solubility. Lattice energy is usually not measured directly. It is determined by
application of Hess’s law in a Born-Haber cycle, a series of steps from elements to ionic
solid for which all the enthalpies are known except the lattice energy.
Born-Haber cycle of NaCl
Hformation
Na(s)  21 Cl2 (g)   NaCl(s)
ΔH(sublimation) 1 B.E of Cl
2 2

Na(g) Cl(g) L.E of NaCl

I.E1 of Na E.A of Cl

Na  (g)  Cl  (g)

1
ΔH(formation) =ΔH(sublimation of Na) + I.E1 of Na + B.E of Cl2  E.A of Cl + Lattice energy
2
1
Lattice energy=ΔH(formation) -[ΔH(sublimation of Na) + I.E1 of Na + B.E of Cl 2  E.A of Cl ]
2
The Born-Haber cycle shows that the energy required for elements to form ions is
supplied by the attraction among the ions in the solid. i.e., ionic solids exist only
because the lattice energy far exceeds the total energy needed to form the ions.
General Characteristics of Electrovalent Compounds
Crystalline Nature
Due to strong force of attraction between ions, normally electrovalent compounds form
solid crystals. In their normal state, ionic compounds are solid arrays of ions, and no
separate molecules exist and each ion is surrounded by certain number of oppositely
charged ions and this number is called coordination number.
Melting points and Boiling Points
Large amounts of energy are needed to free the ions from their positions and to
separate them. Thus, we expect ionic compounds to have high melting points and
much higher boiling points. In fact, the interionic attraction is so strong that a
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 11

vaporized ionic compound consists of ion pairs, gaseous ionic molecules, rather than
individual ions.
Hard and Brittle
As a typical ionic compound, a piece of rock salt (NaCl) is hard (does not dent), rigid
(does not bend), and brittle (cracks without deforming). These properties arise from the
strong attractive forces that hold the ions in specific positions. Moving them out of
position requires overcoming these forces, so rock salt does not dent or bend. If
enough force is applied, ions of like charge are brought next to each other, and
repulsions between them crack the sample suddenly.
Electrical Conductivity
Ionic compounds typically do not conduct electricity in the solid state but do conduct
when melted or dissolved. According to the model, the solid consists of fixed ions, but
when it melts or dissolves, the ions can move and carry the charge.
Space Isomerism
Due to non-directional forces ionic compounds do not show space or stereo isomerism
Ionic reactions are fast due to fast recombination of ions.

LEARN THE SKILLS

2. BaSO4 being an electrovalent compound does not pass into solution state in water. Explain.
Sol: The hydration energy of BaSO4 is lesser than the lattice energy and thus, ions are not
separated.

INTEXT QUESTIONS
III. Sodium conducts electricity in solid state while sodium chloride does not, why?

2. Cs2O formation from its element is less exothermic than the formation of ZnO. Why?

COVALENT BOND
The bond that is formed between two atoms by mutual sharing of electron pair which is formed
by donation of one electron each is termed as covalent bond.

The number of electrons contributed by each atom depends upon its requirement for gaining
stability.
An atom becomes stable by attaining the inert gas electron arrangement.

Each atom in a covalent bond “counts” the shared electrons as belonging entirely to itself.
12 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

The bond formed by sharing of one pair of electrons is called a single covalent bond.
Ex: Formation of Cl2

Cl + Cl Cl Cl
8e- 8e-
or Cl-Cl

The bond formed by sharing of two pairs of electrons is called a double covalent bond.

Ex: Formation of CO2

O C O or O C O
- - -
8e 8e 8e
Double bonds in CO2 molecule

Double bonds in CO2 molecule

The bond formed by sharing of three pairs of electrons is called a triple covalent bond.
Ex: Formation of N2

N N or N N
8e- 8e- N molecule
2

Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs

The shared pair of electrons between two covalently bonded atoms is called shared pair or
bonding pair, is represented by a pair of dots or a line:

Bonding pair

H H or H - H

An outer-level electron pair that is not involved in bonding is called a lone pair or unshared pair.
The bonding pair in HF fills the outer level of the H atom and, together with three lone pairs,
fills the outer level of the F atom as well:

Bonding
lone pairs
pair
H F or H F

Formal Charge
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 13
The formal charge of an atom in a polyatomic molecule or ion may be defined as the difference
between the number of valence electrons of that atom in an isolated or free state and the
number of electrons assigned to that atom in the Lewis structure.
Formal charge on an atom = [Total number of valence electrons in the free atom] —
[Total number of non-bonding (lone pair) electrons]—

1
  [Total number of bonding (shared) electrons]
 2
Writing Lewis Dot Structures
Method of drawing Lewis Structures
1) Find n1 = Sum of valence electrons ± charge
2) Find n2 = the number of electrons required to complete the octet or
duplet assuming them to be isolated= 2 × number of
hydrogen atoms + 8 × number of all other atoms
3) Find n3 = number of electrons involved in bonding
= n2 – n1
n3
Number of bond pairs =
2
4) Find n4 = number of unshared electrons
= n1 – n3
n4
Number of lone pairs =
2
5) Identify the central atom and distribute the bond pairs and lone pairs so as to
complete the octet of all atoms.
6) Find the formal charge on every atom.
Formal charge of atom X = [Number of valence electrons on X] –
[Number of bonds formed by it] –
[2 × number of lone pairs on X]

LEARN THE SKILLS

3. Draw the Lewis structure of nitrate ion, NO 3
Sol: n1 = 5 + 3×6 + 1 = 24
n2 = 2×0 + 8×4 = 32
n3 = 8  32 – 24 = number of bonds = 4
n4 = 24 – 8 = 16  number of bonds = 8
Central atom is nitrogen, thus the bond pairs may be distributed as
 14 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

O
+
N
O O

The lone pairs may be distributed as

..
:O :
+
.. N ..
:O O:
..

Finding the formal charges

FC-O = 6 – 1 – 6 = –1
FC=O = 6 – 2 – 4 = 0
FCN = 5 – 4 – 0 = +1
..
:O : -
+ ..
- : .. N
O:
.. +
O

Generally the lowest energy structure is the one with the least formal charges on the atoms

4. Write Lewis structure of each of the following. Also write the Lewis structure and formula of
neutral molecule which has the same geometry and the same arrangement of the bonding
electrons as in each of the following;

A) H3O+, B) O22 , C) CN D) NCS E) CO23

Sol:
Chemical formula and Lewis dot
Lewis dot structure
structure of the neutral molecule

A) H3 O  NH3

B) O22 F2

C) CN N2

D) NCS CO2

xx xx
O x S xO x
x x x
E) CO23 SO3 xx
xx
x
Oxx
x
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 15

5. Consider the hypothetical elements X, Y and Z as

A) To which group in the periodic table these elements belong to?

B) Write the formula for simplest compound of each with H.
C) Write electron dot formula for the ions formed when X, Y react with Na
Sol: A) X is in VIA: Y is in VIIA; Z is in IVA. B) H 2X ; HY; ZH4 ;
2 
X Y
C) and

6. Four elements coded A, B, C and D form a series of compounds e.g. AB, B 2, CB3, DB2, and
DB3. If the atomic number of these elements are not necessarily in the order are 13, 19, 26
and 35, write down extra nuclear electronic structures of these elements. From this
information and the formula of compounds, allocate A, B, C and D with appropriate atomic
number. Discuss the nature of bonding in each of them.
Sol: 19 A : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s1  Valency of A = 1 in AB

35 B : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d10 4s 2 4p 5

 13 C : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p1 ; Valence of C = + 3 in CB3

26 D : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 6 4s 2

Valence of D = + 2 and +3 in DB2 and DB3.

AB ionic, B2 covalent, DB2 and DB3 ionic.]

3. Draw the Lewis structures of the following molecules and ions.

PH 3 , H 2 S, BeF2 , SiCl 4 , HCOOH, H 2 SO 4 , F2 O, C 34 

4. Assign formal charges to the following species.

–
F
|
F–B–F
S |
O F [ N = N = N ]–
O

[ O = N = O ]+

5. Atoms A, B and C occur in the same period and have one, six, seven valence
 16 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

electronsrespectively.
A) Will the bond between B and C be predominantly ionic or covalent?
B) Will the bond between A and B be predominantly ionic or covalent?
C) Write the electronic structure of compounds formed by B and C.
D) Write the electronic structure of compounds formed by A and B.

6. X, Y and Z are three substances.

i) X does not conduct electricity in solid or liquid state.
ii) Y conducts electricity both in fused and solution state.
iii) Z conducts only in solution state.
Answer the following:
A) What type of compounds X, Y and Z are in terms of linkage?
B) Suggest some X, Y and Z type compounds.

COORDINATE COVALENT BOND

It is a bond formed in which both electrons of the shared pair are contributed by one of the
two atoms. It is known as dative bond. This bond is represented by an arrow (  ).The atom
which contributes electron pair is called the ‘donor’ while the atom which accepts is called
‘acceptor’.
F3 B  NH3

Note
Co-ordinate bond after formation is indistinguishable from a covalent bond.
Limitations of Octet Rule
There are three types of exceptions to the octet rule.
III) The incomplete octet of the central atom
In some compounds, the number of electrons surrounding the central atom is less
than eight. This is especially the case with elements having less than four valence
electrons in unbounded condition.
Ex: LiCl, BeH2 and BCl3.
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 17

II) Odd-electron molecules

In molecules with an odd number of electrons like nitric oxide, NO and nitrogen
dioxide, NO2, the octet rule is not satisfied for all the atoms.

III) The expanded octet

Elements of third period and beyond of the periodic table have apart from 3s and 3p
orbitals, 3d orbitals also available for bonding.
In a number of compounds of these elements there are more than eight valence
electrons around the central atom. This is termed as the expanded octet.
Ex: PF5, SF6, H2SO4 and a number of coordination compounds.

F F
O
F F
F
P S H O S O H
F
F F F
O
F F

10 electron around the P 12 electron around the S 12 electron around the S

atom atom atom

Other drawbacks of the octet theory

 It is clear that octet rule is based upon the chemical inertness of noble gases.
However, some noble gases (for example xenon and krypton) also combine with oxygen
and fluorine to form a number of compounds like XeF2, KrF2, XeOF2 etc.,
 This theory does not account for the shape of molecules.
 It doesn’t explain the relative stability of the molecules being totally silent about the
energy of a molecule.
Characteristics of Covalent compounds
Physical state
Under the normal conditions of temperature & pressure these exist as gases or liquids
of low boiling points. This is due to very weak forces of attraction (van der Waal’s
forces). Some exist as soft solids if their molecular masses are high. Ex.  

phosphorus, iodine are soft solids.

Melting and Boiling Points
With the exception of few which have giant 3-D structures such as diamond,
carborundum (SiC), silica (SiO2) others have relatively low melting and boiling points.
Electrical conductivity
18 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

In general covalent substances are bad conductors of electricity. Substances which

have polar character like HCl in solution, can conduct electricity.
Covalent solids having giant structures are bad conductors of electricity since they do
not contain charged particles or free electrons.
Graphite can conduct electricity since electrons can pass along the layers.
Some of the compounds shows conductivity due to self-ionization e.g. Liq.NH 3.
NH3  NH3  NH4  NH2 ; H2O  H2O  H3O  OH

Solubility
In general, covalent substances are insoluble in polar solvent like water but soluble in
non polar solvents like benzene, CCl4, ether etc. This is based on the principle “like
dissolves like.”
Some of the covalent compounds like alcohols amines dissolve in water due to
hydrogen-bonding.
Covalent solids having giant structures are practically insoluble in all solvents.
Molecular Reactions
Covalent substances show molecular reactions. Reaction rates are usually slow as it
involves first breaking of covalent bonds and then establishing of new bonds.
Isomerism
The covalent bond is rigid & directional. On account of this, there is a possibility of
different arrangements of atoms in space. Covalent compounds can thus show
isomerism.

RESONANCE
For a molecule or polyatomic ion with double bonds next to single bonds, we can write more
than one Lewis structure.
For example, Ozone (O3) two Lewis structures can be written.

In structure I, oxygen B has a double bond to oxygen A and a single bond to oxygen C. In
structure II, the single and double bonds are reversed. You can rotate I to get II, so these are
not different types of ozone molecules, but different Lewis structures for the same molecule.
In fact, neither Lewis structure depicts O3 accurately, because the two oxygen-oxygen bonds
in O3 are actually identical in length and energy. The bonds in O 3 (bond length =128 pm) have
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 19
properties between an O-O bond (bond length =148 pm) and an O=O bond (bond length = 121
pm).
The molecule is shown more correctly with two Lewis structures, called resonance structures (or

resonance forms), and a two-headed resonance arrow (  ) between them. Resonance structures
have the same relative placement of atoms but different locations of bonding and lone electron
pairs. It is possible to convert one resonance form to another by moving lone pairs to bonding
positions, and vice versa.

Thus for O3, the two structures shown above constitute the canonical structures or resonance
structures and their hybrid i.e., the III structure represents the structure of O 3 more accurately.
This is also called resonance hybrid.

Valency of some ions

Common Monoatomic Anions

Valence Name Ion

Hydride H-
Fluoride F-
1- Chloride Cl-
Bromide Br-
Iodide I-
Oxide O2-
2-
Sulfide S2-
Nitride N3-
3-
Phosphide P3-
20 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Common Polyatomic Ions

Name Ion

Mercury(I) Hg22+
Ammonium NH4+
Nitrite NO2-
Nitrate NO3-
Sulfite SO32-
Sulfate SO42-
Hydrogen Sulfate
HSO4-
(or bisulfate)
Hydrogen Sulfide HS-
Thiosulfate S2O32-
Hydroxide OH-
Cyanide CN-
Phosphate PO43-
Hydrogen Phosphate HPO42-
Dihydrogen Phosphate H2PO4-
Cyanate OCN-
isocyanate NCO-
Thiocyanate SCN-
isothiocyante NCS-
Carbonate CO32-
Hydrogen Carbonate
HCO3-
(or Bicarbonate)
Hypochlorite
or ClO-
[chlorate(I)
Chlorite
or ClO2-
Chlorate (III)
Chlorate
Or ClO3-
Chlorate (V)
Perchlorate
Or ClO4-
Chlorate (VII)
Acetate C2H3O2-
Permanganate MnO4-
Manganate MnO42-
Dichromate Cr2O72-
 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 21

Name Ion

Chromate CrO42-
Peroxide O22-
Oxalate C2O42-
Iodate IO3-
Silicate SiO42-
Bromate BrO3-
Tartate C4H4O62-
Tetraborate B4O72-

Common Type II Cations

Name Ion
Iron(III) Fe3+
Iron(II) Fe2+
Copper(II) Cu2+
Copper(I) Cu+
Cobalt(III) Co3+
Cobalt(II) Co2+
Tin(IV) Sn4+
Tin(II) Sn2+
Lead(IV) Pb4+
Lead(II) Pb2+
Mercury(II) Hg2+
Mercury(I) Hg22+