ransformer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is about the electrical device. For the media and toy franchise,
see Transformers. For other uses, see Transformer (disambiguation).

Pole-mounted distribution transformer with center-tapped secondary winding used to provide "split-phase" power for residential and light commercial service,

which in North America is typically rated 120/240 V.[1]

A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one
electrical circuit to another, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any one coil of the
transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a
varying electromotive force across any other coils wound around the same core.
Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils without a metallic
(conductive) connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction, discovered
in 1831, describes the induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux
encircled by the coil.
Transformers are most commonly used for increasing low AC voltages at high current (a
step-up transformer) or decreasing high AC voltages at low current (a step-down
transformer) in electric power applications, and for coupling the stages of signal
processing circuits. Transformers can also be used for isolation, where the voltage in
equals the voltage out, with separate coils not electrically bonded to one another.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have
become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current
electric power.  A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and
[2]

electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than

a cubic centimeter in volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect
the power grid.

Principles[edit]
Ideal transformer equations
By Faraday's law of induction:

 . . . (eq. 1)[a][3]

 . . . (eq. 2)

Where   is the instantaneous voltage,   is the number of turns in a winding, dΦ/dt is the derivative of the magnetic
flux Φ through one turn of the winding over time (t), and subscripts P and S denotes primary and secondary.
Combining the ratio of eq. 1 & eq. 2:

Turns ratio   . . . (eq. 3)

Where for a step-down transformer a > 1, for a step-up transformer a < 1, and for an isolation transformer a = 1.
By law of conservation of energy, apparent, real and reactive power are each conserved in the input and output:

 . . . . (eq. 4)

Where   is conserved power and   is current.

Combining eq. 3 & eq. 4 with this endnote [b][4]

 gives the ideal transformer identity:

 . (eq. 5)

Where   is winding self-inductance.

By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity:

 . . . (eq. 6)

 . (eq. 7)

Where   is the load impedance of the secondary circuit &   is the apparent load or driving point impedance of the

primary circuit, the superscript   denoting referred to the primary.

Ideal transformer[edit]
An ideal transformer is a theoretical linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high
core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force (i.e. ipnp - isns = 0).[5][c]

Ideal transformer connected with source VP on primary and load impedance ZL on secondary, where 0 < ZL < ∞.

Ideal transformer and induction law

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding attempts to create a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core, which is also
encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF, voltage) in the
secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction and the secondary current so produced creates a flux equal and opposite to that
produced by the primary winding, in accordance with Lenz's law.
The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and a load connected to the secondary winding,
the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions and the core magnetomotive force cancels to zero.
According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer,
a voltage is induced in each winding proportional to its number of windings. The transformer winding voltage ratio is directly proportional to
the winding turns ratio.[7]
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. 5
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects of real transformers:
(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of [9]

 Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the transformer core, and

 Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer's applied voltage.
(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero resistances and inductances associated with:

 Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings [9]

 Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive
impedance.
(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic
capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop equations are provided [10]

 Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

 Capacitance between adjacent layers;
 Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;
Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and is rarely attempted; the ‘real’ transformer model’s equivalent
circuit does not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e.
the inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a short-circuit inductance when the secondary winding is shorted.

Leakage flux[edit]
Main article: Leakage inductance

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In
practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. [11] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage
inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. [12] Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and
discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage
regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load. [11] Transformers
are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be
introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.[12] Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that
exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps and neon signs or for safely handling loads that
become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.[9]:485
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component
flowing in the windings.[13] A saturable reactor exploits saturation of the core to control alternating current.
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent
impedance [d] and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were the same, the transformers would
share the load power in proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant.
Also, the impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary. [15]

Equivalent circuit[edit]
See also: Steinmetz equivalent circuit

Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can
incorporate an ideal transformer.[16]
Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model:

 Primary winding: RP, XP
 Secondary winding: RS, XS.
In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, RS and XS are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these
impedances by the turns ratio squared, (NP/NS) 2 = a2.
Real transformer equivalent circuit

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model:

Effect of frequency[edit]
The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency. [9] By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more
compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same
impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment
employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight. [17] Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification
systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50–60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with
the limitations of early electric traction motors. Consequently, the transformers used to step-down the high overhead line voltages were much
larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies.

Power transformer over-excitation condition caused by decreased frequency; flux (green), iron core's magnetic characteristics (red) and magnetizing current

(blue).

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a
lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a large transformer at other than its design frequency may require
assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. Transformers may require protective relays to protect
the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.
One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high-speed train service operating across regions with different
electrical standards. The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage
(ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV).
At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops dramatically: a physically small transformer can handle power levels
that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The development of switching power semiconductor devices made switch-mode
power supplies viable, to generate a high frequency, then change the voltage level with a small transformer.
Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in
switching or by lightning.
Energy losses
Energy losses[edit]
Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer
capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent. [18][19]
As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate no-load loss, full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy
current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate at no load, while winding loss increases as load increases. The no-load loss can
be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing energy efficient transformers for lower
loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The
choice of construction represents a trade-off between initial cost and operating cost.[20]
Transformer losses arise from:
Winding joule losses
Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating due to the resistance of the wire. As frequency increases, skin
effect and proximity effect causes the winding's resistance and, hence, losses to increase.
Core losses
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core, caused by motion of
the magnetic domains within the steel. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by

, and,
hysteresis loss is thus given by

where, f is the frequency, η is the hysteresis coefficient and βmax is the maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which
varies from about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron. [20]
Core losses
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core, caused by motion of
the magnetic domains within the steel. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by

, and,
hysteresis loss is thus given by

where, f is the frequency, η is the hysteresis coefficient and βmax is the maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which
varies from about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron. [20]
Eddy current losses
Eddy currents are induced in the conductive metal transformer core by the changing magnetic field, and this current flowing
through the resistance of the iron dissipates energy as heat in the core. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square
of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness. [20] Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a
stack of laminations (thin plates) 
Magnetostriction related transformer hum
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of
the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise known as mains
hum or "transformer hum".[21] This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies and
in high-frequency flyback transformers associated with television CRTs.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next
half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will
give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. [22]
Radiative
There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.
Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission
 In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary
windings. This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying audible transformer hum. [23]

Construction[edit]
Cores[edit]

Core form = core type; shell form = shell type

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when
windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. [24] Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for
distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils. [24] Core form design tends to, as a
general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at
the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power
ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent. [24][25][26] Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-high voltage and higher
MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently
better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage. [26]

Laminated steel cores[edit]

Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo

Interleaved E-I transformer laminations showing air gap and flux paths

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel.[27] The steel has a
permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path
which closely couples the windings.[28] Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive
eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. [29] Later designs
constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its
neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. [30] The transformer universal EMF equation can be used to calculate the core cross-
sectional area for a preferred level of magnetic flux. [9]
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner
laminations reduce losses,[27] but are more laborious and expensive to construct. [31] Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency
transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its
name of 'E-I transformer'.[31] Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type
is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes,
and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap. [31] They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented
parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.
A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual
field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied AC
waveform.[32] Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass.
On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar
storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices. [33]
Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous
(non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light
load.[34]

Solid cores[edit]

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of
kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF
band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common.[31] Some radio-frequency transformers also
have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency
circuits.

Toroidal cores[edit]

Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon
steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.[35] A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the
construction of an E-I core.[9] :485 The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-
sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This
minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic
interference.
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I
types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower
exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and
greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see Classification parameters below).
Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current, compared to
laminated E-I types.
Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses,
physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is
because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a
consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Relatively few toroids are offered with power ratings above
10 kVA, and practically none above 25 kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it
and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings. [36]

Air cores[edit]

A transformer can be produced by placing the windings near each other, an arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. An air-core
transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material. [12] The magnetizing inductance is drastically reduced by the lack of a
magnetic core, resulting in large magnetizing currents and losses if used at low frequencies. Air-core transformers are unsuitable for use in
power distribution,[12] but are frequently employed in radio-frequency applications. [37] Air cores are also used for resonant transformers such as
Tesla coils, where they can achieve reasonably low loss despite the low magnetizing inductance.

Windings[edit]

Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

Cut view through transformer windings. Legend:

White: Air, liquid or other insulating medium

Green spiral: Grain oriented silicon steel

Black: Primary winding

Red: Secondary winding

The electrical conductor used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically
insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small transformers, in which currents are low and the
potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire. Larger power transformers may
be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.[38]
High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the
skin-effect and proximity effect losses.[39] Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power
frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings. [38] Each strand is individually insulated, and the
strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative
positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy
current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture. [38]
The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split
into sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding.
Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage
adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load tap
changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution, on equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for automatic voltage
regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to
allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in
a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.